Handbook of Leadership Theory for Adjunct Instructors

Handbook of

Leadership

for Adjunct

Instructors Theory, Practice and Implications for Developing Exemplary Instructors in Colleges and Universities

Herman Jumba Najoli

Handbook of Leadership

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HANDBOOK OF

LEADERSHIP FOR

ADJUNCT INSTRUCTORS

Theory, Practice and Implications for Developing Exemplary Instructors

in Colleges and Universities

By

HERMAN JUMBA NAJOLI


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE HANDBOOK ........................................................................................................... ix

PART ONE

THE ADJUNCT INSTRUCTOR AS LEADER..........................................................................................1

1. TRAIT THEORY.....................................................................................................................................2

1.1 Research on the Theory ......................................................................................................................2

1.2 Implications for Adjunct Instructors ..................................................................................................3

1.3 Retrospective Commentary ................................................................................................................4

2. SKILLS APPROACH ..............................................................................................................................5


2.2 Implications for Adjunct Instructors ..................................................................................................6

2.3 Retrospective Commentary ................................................................................................................7

3. STYLE APPROACH ...............................................................................................................................8


3.2 Implications for Adjunct Instructors ................................................................................................10

3.3 Retrospective Commentary ..............................................................................................................11

PART TWO

ROLE-MAKING BETWEEN ADJUNCT INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS.....................................12

4. LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE ......................................................................................................13

4.1 Research on the Theory ....................................................................................................................13




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5. TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP ............................................................................................16




6. TEAM LEADERSHIP ...........................................................................................................................19




7. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH ......................................................................................................22




8. SERVANT LEADERSHIP ....................................................................................................................25




PART THREE

LEADERSHIP CONTEXT FOR AN ADJUNCT INSTRUCTOR ..........................................................27

9. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP ...........................................................................................................28




10. CONTINGENCY THEORY ...............................................................................................................31

10.1 Research on the Theory ..................................................................................................................31

10.2 Implications for Adjunct Instructors ..............................................................................................31

10.3 Retrospective Commentary ............................................................................................................32


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11. PATH-GOAL THEORY .....................................................................................................................33




12. LEADERSHIP SUBSTITUTES THEORY .........................................................................................35




13. MULTIPLE LINKAGE MODEL ........................................................................................................37




PART FOUR

CORRESPONDING THEORIES ON THE PRACTICE LEADERSHIP ................................................40

14. GROUP CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP .........................................................................................41




15. CROSS-CULTURAL LEADERSHIP .................................................................................................43




16. POWER AND INFLUENCE ...............................................................................................................46





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17. LEADERSHIP ETHICS ......................................................................................................................48




PART FIVE

POPULAR STRATEGIES FOR CONTEMPORARY LEADERSHIP ....................................................51

18. PRINCIPLE-CENTERED LEADERSHIP ..........................................................................................52




19. 360-DEGREE LEADERSHIP .............................................................................................................55




20. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES INVENTORY ......................................................................................57




PART SIX

NEW IDEAS IN LEADERSHIP THEORY ..............................................................................................60

21. PRAGMATIC LEADERSHIP.............................................................................................................61





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22. DISTRIBUTED LEADERSHIP ..........................................................................................................63




23. INDIVIDUALIZED LEADERSHIP ...................................................................................................65




24. MULTIPLE-LEVEL MULTIDIMENSIONAL LEADERSHIP .........................................................67




AFTERWORD: TOWARDS A PERSONAL LEADERSHIP PHILOSOPHY ........................................70

ABOUT THE AUTHOR ...........................................................................................................................71

REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................................................72

NAME INDEX ..........................................................................................................................................75

SUBJECT INDEX .....................................................................................................................................76


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PREFACE TO THE HANDBOOK

he proliferation of adjunct instructors in present day colleges and universities has grown

significantly. Today‟s institutions of higher learning strive to be more relevant towards the

modern market-place, demographics, trends and events. This use of adjunct instructors leads to

many challenges that can only be addressed through a precise understanding of leadership theory and

practice. Leadership, however, has many different meanings. This handbook utilizes a definition that

specifically reflects the work of instructors in the teaching process.

The task of instructing is to respond to the need for knowledge. The demand for teachers is an ever-

present constant because the quest for knowledge is endless. If teaching is the noblest of professions,

classroom instructors are the noblest of leaders. Gardner & Laskin (1995) define leaders as, “persons

who, by word and/or personal example, markedly influence the behaviors, thoughts, and/or feelings of a

significant number of their fellow human beings” (pp. 8-9). Virtually every action that an instructor

engages in affects the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of the students. Instructors directly determine the

motivations and attitudes of their students and have great influence on the learning process. All

instructors, regardless of their tenure or status, exercise some form of leadership. Leadership is defined

as “a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal”

(Northouse, 2007, p. 3). The faculty of an institution of higher learning influence students to achieve the

goal of academic excellence. They exhibit leadership on a daily basis. Not only do instructors exercise

leadership, they are leaders in every sense of the word.

Adjunct instructors bring a wealth of information and expertise to the schools that hire them. Such

expertise includes a variety of experiences as leaders in their fields. Unlike full-time instructors, who

have an office on the campus and immediate authority with students, adjunct instructors face the

challenge of establishing their leadership with their students due to their disengagement from the

campus. An understanding of leadership, however, can resolve this challenge and many of the problems

that arise. The goal of this handbook is to provide that understanding. Adjunct instructors can make a

great difference when they approach their role in the classroom with a leadership perspective.

This handbook presents an overview of recent leadership theories, outlines the implications for

adjunct instructors and provides case studies that illustrate the use of leadership concepts in class. Each

section begins with an elaboration of the theory, outlines specific strategies for applying leadership

concepts in the classroom and concludes with a discussion of practical applications of the theory.

The handbook consists of three parts. Part one provides three leadership theories that focus on the

individual leader, the adjunct instructor. Part two contains five theories that relate to the interaction

between leaders and followers, that is adjunct instructors and students, and the role-making processes

that facilitate that interaction. Part three is a discussion of five leadership theories that address the

context in which an adjunct instructor exercises leadership. Part four highlights several recent studies

that broaden an understanding of leadership theory and how they apply to adjunct instructors. The

overall goal of this handbook is to provide leadership concepts that allow adjunct instructors to develop

themselves as leaders for their institutions.

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PART ONE

THE ADJUNCT INSTRUCTOR AS LEADER

This section addresses three leadership theories that focus on the individual leader, in this case,

the adjunct instructor. The first theory, trait approach, focuses on the personality characteristics

of the leader. The second theory, skills approach, focuses on the leader‟s capabilities. The third

theory, style approach, focuses on the leader‟s behavior.


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CHAPTER ONE

TRAIT THEORY

Trait theory, also known as the Great Man theory, was one of the earliest methodic attempts in

the study of leadership. In trait studies, researchers examined the personal qualities modeled by

direct leaders who exercised great influence in society. Ludden & Capozzoli (2000) state, “The

theories developed from these studies were called „great man‟ theories because they were

focused on trying to identify the innate qualities and characteristics possessed by „great‟ leaders”

(p. 156). The general belief was that certain individuals were born with unique traits which

allowed them to ascend into greatness as leaders.

1.1 Research on the Theory

This theory was popularized by the fact that history was “frequently written from the reference

point of „great men‟” (Borgatta, Bales & Couch, 1954, p. 756). The main findings of this theory

were that societal advancements and change came through great men. Great men, therefore, were

necessary in order to make great groups. The existence of a great man made it easier for a group

to accomplish great things.

Personal factors related to leadership are essential for the effectiveness of an individual as a

leader. Studies also indicated that timing was essential for a leader to excel. For instance, Ogburn

(1926) observed that “the extent of the influence of great men depends not only on their talent

but also on the favorableness of the social conditions” and that “the phenomenon of the great

man … varies a good deal among different cultural activities” (p. 229). It was easier for great

men to develop in fields that allowed their personal traits to be cultivated. These observations

served as the initial challenge that traits were not universal but are dependent on the situation.

Northouse (2007) points out that “Rather than being a quality that individuals possessed,

leadership was reconceptualized as a relationship between people in a social situation” (p. 15).

While modern research has focused on the context in which leaders operate, there has been

renewed interest in how individual traits impact leadership. Researchers agree that there are

certain key traits that leaders possess. Northouse (2007) lists these as intelligence, self-

confidence, determination, integrity and sociability (p. 19). The key to being perceived as a

leader, according to this theory, would be to cultivate these traits.

The trait theory continues to be attractive to leaders and practitioners since it highlights a

leader‟s qualities. If organizations are to be successful, they have to hire individuals with traits

that enhance the organization‟s mission. The effectiveness of a group or team is dependent on the

personality characteristics of the members. Companies will be served best when they seek to

ensure that employees fit their needs. Perhaps the savviest contention for trait theory comes from

an article published in the academy of management executive journal in 1991:


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It is unequivocally clear that leaders are not like other people. Leaders do not have to be

great men or women by being intellectual geniuses or omniscient prophets to succeed, but

they do need to have the „right stuff‟ and this stuff is not equally present in all people. …

it takes a special kind of person to master the challenges of opportunity. (Kirkpatrick &

Locke, 1991, p. 59)

Excellence in leadership requires having the potential to lead. This potential is reflected in the

personal qualities that an individual brings to the organization. However, as it will be revealed

through the other theories in this handbook, having certain traits is essential along with a variety

of combined factors like context and followership.

1.2 Implications for Adjunct Instructors

Trait theory emerged at a time when society was enthralled by the “great men” who ascended

into positions of influence due to their talents and giftedness. Man‟s history, at that time, was

analyzed in the light of the “great men” who graced different generations. This shows that

societies have always been open to the guidance of leaders who could tap into their personal

strengths and use them to affect change in society. Adjunct instructors can find encouragement in

the knowledge that how students respond to them is largely based on how well the instructor can

discover his strengths and utilize them in the classroom. Our strengths are rooted in the traits that

make up who we are. Finding one‟s strengths is essential to leadership and effectiveness at the

workplace. Rath (2007), along with a team of scientists at the Gallup Organization, found from

surveys of more than 10 million people worldwide that “only one-third „strongly agree‟ with the

statement: „At work, I have the opportunity to do what I do best everyday‟” (p. ii).

Trait theory considers the leader to be extremely vital to the leadership process. It takes

leadership to achieve extraordinary things in any society. This is supported by many examples in

society. When an organization is not meeting its potential, more often than not it will change its

leader. When a football team is losing games, it will change its quarterback. Leadership is vital

to the success of any enterprise. Adjunct instructors can achieve tremendous success if they will

step up and deliver leadership in their classrooms. Good classroom management begins with

self-leadership on the part of the instructor. Adjunct instructors should maximize the value they

bring to the class. Their ability to cultivate personal traits that appeal to students is essential in

developing an environment that enhances learning. Adjunct instructors can make a big difference

by learning the traits that allow leaders to be effective and incorporating these traits into their

own approaches to teaching.

Trait theory has been criticized though for focusing too much on the leader and not

considering the followers and the context of leadership. Most adjunct instructors normally come

into the teaching environment with a high level of intelligence, self-confidence and

determination that has been cultivated in their exposure to diverse organizations. These traits

should not be allowed to become a hindrance in the teaching process. History is filled up with

stories of “great men” who allowed their ego to take over and derailed very promising careers

and/or opportunities for influence. The ultimate measure of a leader is his ability to manage self


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(Drucker, 1999, p. 65). Managing self enables leaders to continually develop themselves and

reach their full potential.

1.3 Retrospective Commentary

One of the lessons learned from my very first adjunct instructor assignment was that personal

factors play a great role in determining the learning atmosphere. The course was Global Issues

and my background as an immigrant to the United States turned out to be more appealing to the

students than the course content. They were particularly inspired by the motivation to leave one‟s

own country, learn foreign languages and build a new life in another country. They wanted to

know answers to questions like what drives one to pursue life in another country; how one

adjusts to cultural differences; and how one cultivates the initiative to interact cross-culturally.

Since then, my use of personal traits has become an essential ingredient to cultivating a high

impact classroom.

Do you use your personal traits in establishing your leadership? Do you focus on the

personality characteristics that have brought you success to become even more competent at

what you do? Do you know what your strengths are as a leader? If not, you may need to take

some time to identify those traits. Talk to family, friends and colleagues at work. It just might be

the key to new leadership potential.


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CHAPTER TWO

SKILLS APPROACH

The skills approach emphasizes the leader‟s capabilities or learnable skills, as opposed to traits,

which are largely fixed. As discussed earlier, individual traits, which reflect personality

characteristics, play a huge role in determining what kind of leader a person will be. However,

the skills approach emphasizes a commitment to personal development in order to be effective in

leadership.


Katz (1955) posited that the skills approach “is based not on what good executives are … but

rather on what they do” (p. 33, emphasis by Katz). The ability to learn how to lead plays an

integral role in leadership capacity as opposed to the traits that characterize an individual. This

approach is instrumental because it answers the question of whether leaders are born or made

(one pop culture joke states that all leaders are born, otherwise they won‟t be here).

The question of whether leaders are born or made goes hand-in-hand with the nature-versus-

nature debate. The nature-versus-nature debate is a timeless argument that has endeavored to

address the question of whether our intelligence and personality is inherited from our genes or

whether personal experiences in our daily life. Trait theory suggests that leadership qualities are

innate while the skills approach suggests that individuals can learn how to be good leaders. The

leader, Katz argued, needs technical skills in specific types of work, human skill for relating with

people and conceptual skill for working with ideas (1955, pp. 34-36). These three skills are

learnable. They can be acquired through personal experience. Leaders can be trained on new

competencies that are lacking in their leadership and encouraged to always develop themselves.

This approach was instrumental in inspiring the work of Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs

& Fleishman (2000), who developed a model showing the influence of leader characteristics on

leader performance (p. 23). Career experiences directly impact the leadership outcomes of

problem solving and performance. Environmental influences also play a great role in

determining the competencies that a leader develops and the approach to problem solving.

Overall leadership effectiveness is the sum total of individual attributes possessed by the leader

and competencies that are learned in the process of leadership.

Mumford, et al. (2000) identified the individual attributes as general cognitive ability,

crystallized cognitive ability, motivation and personality. The competencies were identified as

problem-solving skills, social judgment skills and knowledge. This model reveals that even the

most skilled leaders may fail if they do not make use of their learning experiences or if

environmental factors work against them. However, the most important finding is that the

leader‟s skill determines the level of effectiveness.


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The impetus behind the skills approach is attributed to the work of Katz (1995). His article, Skills

of an Effective Administrator, could easily apply to any professional in any field. Adjunct

instructors need technical skills, human skills and conceptual skills. They need to be proficient in

the teaching matter so that they can be effective in teaching. One of the saddest experiences for

any student is to sit through a lecture in which it becomes evident that the instructor is lacking in

knowledge. An instructor also needs to be able to work well with people. People skills are

essential for working with students, other instructors and college administrators. Lastly, an

instructor needs to consistently cultivate new ideas that inspire and drive the learning process.

An instructor should be able to inspire the imagination of students.

An instructor‟s performance depends also on the competencies and capabilities modeled

during teaching. Many times students come to their instructors with various problems and

challenges. Good problem-solving skills are essential in solving student problems. Learning is a

social activity. Proper social judgment skills are essential in having insight and developing

perspective on changing situations. The instructor‟s knowledge is the basis of possessing an

understanding that enables the implementation of these skills. Utilizing these skills becomes the

avenue through which an instructor gains the experience that guarantees future success as a

leader within the instructional arena.

An instructor‟s personal attributes add tremendous value to the learning process. One

primary attribute is an instructor‟s intelligence. Adjunct instructors bring high-level thinking to

their work and are very perceptive. Over time, they can develop these abilities even further and

learn new skills which enhance their leadership potential. Instructors are motivated with a desire

to see students excel in their academic work. They therefore bring a high level of commitment to

their teaching and enthusiasm for the subject that inspires students. In addition to this, a healthy

personality can be particularly powerful in making a great learning environment.


The last day of teaching is always an exciting opportunity for reviewing what was learned and

setting goals for further development. My commitment has always been to improve content

delivery with every course. A few months ago my desire to make the last day an enriching

experience for my students prompted me to invite the global Vice President of a major company,

Starbucks, to come and speak to them. It was an opportunity for them to experience an external

leader close by and learn skills that could be very beneficial to a broader base. It was a moment

that they have continued to cherish. The best thing is that it afforded us the opportunity to

improve our skills as leaders.

How are you doing when it comes to improving your skills as a leader? If the success of your

group required you to make personal changes, how would you react? Are you open to becoming

a better person? Are you cultivating new skills that will enable you to carry out your

responsibilities better?


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CHAPTER THREE

STYLE APPROACH

The style approach concentrates on leader behaviors in different contexts. In this approach,

leadership is conceptualized on the basis of what leaders do and how they act toward

subordinates in various environments. This differentiates this approach from trait theory, which

focuses on the leader‟s personality characteristics, and skills approach, which focuses on the

leader‟s capabilities. The main behaviors that are explored are what leaders do to help group

members achieve their goals. This includes what they do to motivate, manage and maximize

follower skills in specific situations.


Early studies in this approach were conducted in the late 1940s. In his study of leader behavior,

Hemphill (1949) utilized group members as the source of information and found out that “It is

the interaction of the leader, who possesses a given set of attributes, and the group, whose

efficient functioning demands that particular combination of attributes, that results in successful

leadership” (p. 225). The widely accepted belief at that time had been that leaders are „born‟, not

made.

In a study conducted at Ohio State University in the early 1950s, Christner & Hemhill (1955)

discovered that, “Perceived consideration on the part of the crews‟ leader is associated with more

rapid development of mutual confidence and willingness to go into combat. Initiation of structure

behavior is also related to a more rapid development of friendship and confidence” (p. 87). These

findings, from leader behavior of B-29 commanders and changes in crew members‟ attitudes

toward the crew, indicated that leaders need to integrate consideration behaviors and initiating

structure behaviors in their leadership style.

Northouse (2007) identifies initiating structure behaviors as “organizing work, giving

structure to the work context, defining role responsibilities and scheduling work activities” while

consideration behaviors include “relationship behaviors” like “building camaraderie, respect,

trust and liking” (pp. 70-71). In 1945, the Bureau of Business Research at Ohio State University

conducted extended conversations and discussions which led to the publishing of a Leader

Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) that was used widely to cultivate leadership skills

(Bowers & Seashore, 1966, p. 240). The LBDQ consisted of 150 descriptive statements that

addressed nine dimensions of leadership.

Additional studies in style approach were conducted at the University of Michigan Survey

Research Center. Two types of leader behaviors were identified as essential in enhancing the

performance of a group: employee orientation and product orientation (Bowers & Seashore,

1966, p. 242). These studies revealed that leaders embrace their role as human relations experts,


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value the intrinsic importance of employees and focus on production and technical aspects of

employee responsibilities.

Following the findings in the University of Michigan and Ohio State studies, Blake &

Mouton (1964) developed a model known as the managerial grid (now renamed the leadership

grid) in which leaders were viewed as helping organizations reach their purpose through concern

for people and concern for production (Northouse, 2007, p. 72). Concern for people includes

everything leaders do to attend to employee needs while concern for production involves

achieving organizational tasks. The Leadership (Managerial) Grid is depicted in a model that has

two intersecting axes: a horizontal axis for concern for results and a vertical axis for concern for

people. The axes have a 9-point scale in which a score of 1 represents minimum score and a

score of 9 that represents maximum concern.

The following five basic cluster styles are revealed when scores from each of the axes are

plotted.

Authority-Compliance (9, 1) – This is a leader who is high in results and has a low concern

for people. Such a leader relies heavily on task and job requirements to do his job.

Country Club Management (1, 9) – This is a leader with high concern for interpersonal

relationships and low concern for task accomplishment. His focus is on making people feel good.

Impoverished Management (1, 1) – This is a leader who is unconcerned with both task and

relationship behaviors. Such a leader will only do what is necessary to keep his job.

Middle-of-the-Road Management (5, 5) – This is a compromising leader who has a medium

concern for both and tries to find a balance in production and concern for people.

Team Management (9, 9) – This leader is high in both concern for people and production.

This allows for great participation, synergy and teamwork in the organization.

The managerial grid theory recommends team management. In summing up his thoughts on

the style approach, Northouse (2007) states that the style approach, “is not a refined theory that

provides a neatly organized set of prescriptions for effective leadership behavior” rather it

“provides a framework for assessing leadership in a broad way, as behavior with a task and

relationship dimension” (p. 76).


Part of the overall leadership approach of a leader is the style that one employs. Adjunct

instructors can employ positive task behaviors to guide their students toward academic

excellence. They can also employ relationship behaviors that make students excited about their

work and willing to work with the rest of the group. Instructors should have a clear

understanding that each of their actions has an impact on students at either the task level or at the

relationship level.


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Adjunct instructors must discover their own leadership style on the grid. This will enable

them to have a productive balance that allows them and their students to perform highly in class.

The classroom environment, particularly when teaching adult students, seems to prefer team

management. Students do not want an instructor who is paternalistic or opportunistic. They want

a leader who will is open-minded, enjoys work and stimulates them to participate in class.

Leadership is a complex process. Adjunct instructors can make it easier for themselves when

they develop a clear understanding of their own leadership style and how it impacts those around

them. This could also help in breaking down long class sessions into various segments, each

requiring a different style of leadership that brings about desired results. No one style can enable

the leader and the group to achieve the level of excellence required of them.


The first day of instruction is usually an opportunity to set the tempo for the rest of the term and

style theory is essential in doing this. My first task is usually to introduce myself and get to know

my students. Students normally take a substantial chunk of the time to introduce themselves, talk

about their personal goals for the course and some even talk about their favorite non-academic

activities. As a leader, my goal is to make sure that I cultivate relationships. This is usually

followed by handing out the syllabus and discussing any pertinent information. Engaging in this

task behavior enables the students to develop a clear picture of expectations for the course.

How important is your leadership style to you? How important is it to your followers? Do

you place any value to altering your style so as to achieve high performance with your groups? If

you do not, then you need to take some time to assess your leadership style.


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PART TWO

ROLE-MAKING BETWEEN

ADJUNCT INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS

This section expands on the previous section by examining five theories that relate to the

interaction between leaders and followers, that is adjunct instructors and students, and the role-

making processes that facilitate that interaction. In a leadership study aimed at establishing

criteria for judging leaders, Stogdill & Shartle (1948) determined that “Leadership resides in

individuals, but only by virtue of their interaction with other persons. Leadership must, therefore,

be studied as a relationship between persons, and as an aspect of organizational activities,

structures, and goals” (p. 286). The theories in this section analyze the relationships between

leaders and followers and the implications for adjunct instructors.


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CHAPTER FOUR

LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE

Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory centers on the interactions between a leader and

followers. Some followers develop very close relationships with the leader while others do not.

These relationships are largely based on the different role responsibilities of each person.


Ludden & Capozzoli (2000) state, “Within organizations, employees become part of either the

in-group or the out-group, depending on how well they work with the leader and how well the

leader works with them” (p. 163). The central concept of this theory is the dyadic relationship

that develops between a leader and subordinates. A dyadic relationship is an influence process

between two parties. Between leaders and followers, LMX highlights the need for

communication and demonstrates the link between relationships and organizational outcomes.

Dienesch & Liden (1986) state, “the theoretical base of LMX theory is the concept of a

„developed‟ or „negotiated‟ role” (p. 618). The underlying premise is that great leaders develop

distinct relationships with followers or members of the organization. The quality of each

relationship is governed by the level of influence exerted by the leader and the level of priority

that the leader gives towards the relationship. The relationship between leader and follower may

be classified as either high-exchange or low-exchange. Yukl (2002) suggests that a low-

exchange relationship has a very low level of mutual influence while a high-exchange

relationship has a high degree of personal harmony between leader and follower coupled with a

sense of dependability between the two (p. 116). Initial studies characterized this relationship as

a vertical dyad linkage (VDL). Researchers found two general types of linkages: those that had

the leader‟s trust and were assigned prime role responsibilities, which were called the in-group

and those that were based on defined roles, which were called the out-group (Northouse, 2007, p.

152). Membership in any group was based on how well the follower interacted and worked with

the leader. The in-group required a willingness in the subordinates to go beyond their normal

roles and led to more confidence from the leader.

Different scholars of leadership have explained the development of relationships between

leader and member in the LMX theory in a variety of different ways. Graen & Scandura (1987)

developed an extended version of the LMX theory in which they describe the process as a “life-

cycle model” with three possible stages (In Yukl, 2002, p. 117). The first stage is the testing

phase in which both parties assess each other‟s motives for the relationship. The second stage is

the development phase during which the relationship is nurtured and refined, with subordinate

behavior is reinforced as the exchange cycle is repeated over and over again. The third stage is

the maturity phase. At this stage the relationship between the leader and the member has

surpassed a high level of mutual dependence, trust and support. There is a high sense of mutual


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commitment and compatibility to each other (Yukl, 2002, p. 116). This life-cycle model seems to

be supported by Dienesch and Liden (1986) who state,

Leader-member exchanges may: (a) develop in a number of different ways; (b) differ in

character based on which dimension(s) (i.e., affect, loyalty, and contribution) is prominent;

and (c) lead to different outcomes depending on the nature of the developmental process and

the resulting characteristics of the relationship. (p. 631)

How a leader reacts to a subordinate depends on whether the subordinate is in the in-group or the

out-group of the exchange relationship. Green & Mitchell (1979) state that attributions made by

leaders “will have clear implications for the type of exchange which would develop between a

leader and member” (p. 435). Leaders have certain demands, which they expect followers to

meet and they continually ascribe value to the follower based on whether the follower meets

these demands. These could include demands for loyalty, trust, competence, dependability,

commitment, dedication, compatibility, support and respect.

Green & Mitchell (1979) described this attribution process as a two-stage process. The first

stage is that in which the leader tries to determine causes of poor performance. The second stage

is the process that the leader goes through to select a sound response to correct the problem.

Many factors go into play as causes of poor performance. These can generally be classified into

two categories. They could be internal problems unique to the subordinate or external problems

beyond the subordinate‟s control. An example of an internal problem is lack of effort while

external problems include inadequacy of resources and insufficiency of information. The leader‟s

response to the subordinate is dependent on the type of attribution that he makes, whether it is

internal or external. The ultimate end of the response is to empower the follower so that he or she

can be more effective (Green & Mitchell, 1979).


The LMX theory can be insightful in aiding an adjunct instructor to develop leaders in the

classroom. Adjunct instructors do not have offices on campus, so it is essential for them to

develop communication channels through which information can be funneled to the entire group.

Most institutions have class coordinators who serve as contact points for adjunct instructors.

These coordinators can be viewed as an “in-group” and utilized as partners in the development of

the entire group. The instructor should also take time to create an environment in which the

entire class would have access to the instructor when they need additional assistance.

In a large classroom, adjunct instructors can accomplish a lot more when they work with key

students in the class. Students frequently consult each other and it helps to have some

knowledgeable students who can aid those who may be struggling in the class. By equipping

those who are advanced with strategies for success, the adjunct instructor creates an environment

in which instruction trickles down to the entire class. Those who are ready to step up and

embrace more responsibilities become role models for the entire class.


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The essence of LMX theory is that leaders should create a special relationship with all group

members. Both the in-group and the out-group deserve special attention as they contribute to the

overall success of the entire group. Adjunct instructors can make efforts to build trust and

encourage the entire class to appreciate each other‟s contribution. Creating high-quality

relationships with the entire class is a mark of skillful teaching and will go a long way in

ensuring success on a broader basis. A good instructor understands that leaders do not play

favorites but they wisely work through other people to achieve organizational goals.


The development of my skills as an instructor has been boosted tremendously by my current

employer, a university in the Midwest, which utilizes what they call “project teams” in the adult

classes. The learning activities in each class are coordinated by a class representative who serves

as a contact person between the instructor and the students. This school is at a great advantage

because each class representative understands the value of their service and of the students that

are served. This makes the learning process more like a nuts-and-bolts operation since the

instructor carries out specific actions that empower the class representative, who in turn passes

along information to the rest of the class.

Are you well connected to your teams and your key people? Are you accessible to those who

need your guidance and leadership? Can members of your group, be they inner circle members

or outer circle members, get to you? If not, it is time to start building those connections. When

you cultivate your key people, you will find it easier to accomplish your goals.


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CHAPTER FIVE

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

A more recent theory is transformational leadership which, along with transactional leadership,

has been celebrated widely due to suitability for today‟s society and workplaces.


According to Northouse (2007) “transactional leadership refers to … the exchanges that occur

between leaders and their followers” whereas “transformational leadership is the process

whereby a person engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation

and morality in both the leader and the follower” (p. 176). This creation of a connection that

raises the level of follower motivation may also be referred to as charisma.

Researchers have identified four factors that lead to transformational leadership: Charisma,

or idealized influence, is the first and it defines the moral example that leaders have on followers.

The second factor is inspirational motivation, which represents the high expectations that leaders

communicate to followers. The third factor is intellectual stimulation, which defines the

stimulating challenge that leaders pose to their followers. The fourth factor is individualized

consideration and this represents the level of support that leaders offer to followers. (Northouse,

2007, pp. 181-184).

Yukl (2002) says, “transforming leadership involves not only the moral elevation of

individual followers but also collective efforts to accomplish social reforms. In the process, both

the leader and the followers will be changed. They will begin to consider not only what is good

for themselves, but also what will benefit larger collectivities such as their organization,

community and nation” (p. 403). From this statement, it is evident that transformation is a

process. Yukl (2002) provides “tentative guidelines” (p. 263) for transformational leaders which

he bases on theories and research findings from other studies.

Transformational leadership is more effective than transactional leadership. According to

Northouse (2007), researchers have found that “transactional leadership results in expected

outcomes … [while] transformational leadership results in performance that goes well beyond

what is expected” (p. 184). Transactional leadership factors include contingent reward and

management-by-exception. Contingent reward is “an exchange process between leaders and

followers in which effort by followers is exchanged for specific rewards” while management-by-

exception is “leadership that includes corrective criticism, negative feedback and negative

reinforcement” (Northouse, 2007, p. 185). Overall, both of these approaches have been found to

connect leaders and followers more than previous approaches.


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Transformational leaders are visionaries. They bring about changes by painting a big picture of

possibilities for those around them. Adjunct instructors can make a big difference by

encouraging students to cultivate a solid vision of possibilities. By demonstrating individualized

consideration for a student, an instructor can find out what motivates the student and develop

strategies for inspiring that particular student. Instructors also have the special position of

intellectually stimulating learners so that they can think beyond the present.

Transactional factors play a crucial role in the learning process. The teaching profession has

an in-built contingent reward of grades for effort. By clearly outlining the rubrics to be used in

grading, the adjunct instructor communicates to students the payoffs that will be earned for

specific actions. This becomes a motivator for the student since guidelines are provided on what

is being measured in any learning experience. The adjunct instructor should always clearly

outline what must be done in class in order for students to earn high grades.

Adjunct instructors should also use management-by-exception to monitor student progress

and provide constructive feedback that will allow for rapid development of better learning skills.

Most students want to excel in their work. Mistakes should be carefully pointed out so that

students have a clear understanding of what changes they need to make in order to attain

excellence. Instructors should talk with their students about their performance rather than just

pass graded papers back to them without discussing the performance. This kind of intervention

enables transformation to take place in the classroom.


About one week before the start of every course my students usually receive a course prospectus,

mailed directly from and by me, to their home addresses. The prospectus normally includes a

welcome letter, textbook information, the syllabus, assignment summaries, rubrics for every

assignment, an outline of the grading process for every class and a commitment contract that

details my objective of making the course the greatest experience of their lives. My students have

always appreciated this and many have commented that the prospectus goes a long way in

shaping their commitment and excitement about the course. It is always amazing to see how

students step up and become deeply involved in the learning process. Many have said that their

lives have been changed forever.

Do you offer a vision to the people around you? How are you a change agent for those who

follow you and look to you for guidance? Reflect on leadership roles that you have had in the

past. What would you do differently if you knew that you could truly change the lives of those

around you?


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CHAPTER SIX

TEAM LEADERSHIP

The idea of having project teams, task forces or work units in organizational groups has become

a key area of leadership theory and research. Since the goal of leadership is to accomplish

common goals for a group, organizations have seen it wise to compound their results by using

team leadership.


The team leadership model, “provides a mental road map to help the leader (or any team member

who is providing leadership) diagnose team problems and take appropriate action to correct these

problems” (Hill, 2007, p. 209). The idea behind this theory is that the leader must have a mental

model of the situations confronting a team and the contingencies that govern the context of the

entire group. The leader‟s behavior should be adequate for the situation at hand in order to

resolve the organization‟s problems. The leader‟s specific duty is team-based problem solving

through monitoring and intervening when necessary.

Decision making is a vital component of this model. Zacarro et al. (2000) point out that

“shared mental models of expected team and member actions serve as key mechanisms by which

leaders structure and regulate team performance” (p. 460). In developing this model, the leader

considers the environmental context and the organization‟s constraints and resources. Team

leaders understand that group members each have unique needs, so they develop the necessary

skills for addressing the different needs of the group.

McGrath, Arrow & Berdahl (2000) conducted a study of past and present groups and

concluded that “small groups will continue to be the context of much of human social

experience” (p. 103). Today‟s leaders, therefore, have a special responsibility of learning how to

function in a manner that empowers their group members and leads them to effectiveness in

achieving common goals. Zacarro et al. (2000) have suggested that team leaders influence

organizational effectiveness based on four processes: team cognitive processes, team

motivational processes, team affective processes and team coordination processes.

Having shared mental models enables team members to understand task requirements and

strategies. This is facilitated through the team cognitive processes. Leaders play a great role

through the team motivational processes by ensuring that group cohesion is consistent and

members are efficient in performing their roles. Through the team affective processes, leaders

moderate the team members‟ emotional states in order to allow for group development. The team

coordination processes allow the team to work well together and accomplish organizational goals

(Zacarro et al. 2000 pp. 458-476).


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Leaders play a critical role in improving team performance. The daily challenge of a leader is

determining what decisions to make for proper functioning of the group. Hill (2007) lists the

decisions leaders need to make in improving team performance as: first, “whether it is most

appropriate to continue to observe the team or intervene…, second,… the general task or

relational function of the intervention…[and] whether to intervene at the internal level (within

the team itself) or at the external level (in the team‟s environment” (pp. 210-211). Leaders

should be careful in implementing any of these decisions because their overall goal should be to

cultivate team spirit that leads to effectiveness.


The overall success of any group depends very much on the contributions that every member of

the group brings to the table. The team leadership model provides guidelines that adjunct

instructors can utilize in making their classes effective. The adjunct instructor plays a critical role

in bringing the vision for effectiveness into fruition. The instructor should conduct themselves in

a way that communicates that the students‟ needs are the prime focus of the learning process.

When any problems arise, it is this attitude and approach that enables solutions to be attained.

Adjunct instructors have the responsibility of deciding which problems need to be acted on

and how soon they should be acted on. Some of the mistakes that students make are not urgent

and will be resolved as the entire group self-corrects itself. Adjunct instructors need to have a

clear idea of when intervention is required and when it is not. Team process should be allowed to

develop in a manner that brings about growth for every member and enables appropriate reaction

from the leader.

The adjunct instructor‟s goals in the team building process should be to consistently improve

the student‟s task performance and team relationships. Some of the strategies that can be used for

improving task performance include goal setting that focuses on the entire course; developing

structure that enables students to be better organized; facilitating decision making regarding

assignments and activities and maintaining a commitment to excellence in the classroom.

Strategies for team relationships include developing better interpersonal skills, resolving conflict

between students, encouraging adequate socializing within the group, advocating for less

communicative students and exercising fairness in the classroom.


One of the very first things my students do in the first class is to develop a series of Widely

Inspiring Goals for Success (W.I.G.S.). We usually brand these as our “class motto” for the

entire course. Students normally do a good job of buying into the WIGS and embracing them as

a measure for excellence in the course. Having this predetermined set of goals enables me to

have a clear idea of when to intervene and how to improve the group‟s performance. This

practice of developing WIGS has been helpful in limiting the problems that occur during the

course of the term. On the very last day of class we always checked off each of these widely

inspiring goals to ensure that we achieved our objectives.


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How are you doing when it comes to team leadership? Are you cultivating a unified

commitment from those on your team? Do you have clear, elevating goals that inspire everyone

to give their very best? What are you doing to improve the competence of your team members?

Have you cultivated a collaborative climate that assures everyone that their voice is being heard?

What standards of excellence do you embrace as a team? How do you recognize those who excel

on the team?


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CHAPTER SEVEN

PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

The psychodynamic approach is compatible to a variety of leadership models or theories but is

based on the leader‟s personality. The term personality simply means “a consistent pattern of

ways of thinking, feeling, and acting with regard to the environment, including other people”

(Northouse, 2007, p. 237). Human personality is developed through childhood and adolescent

experiences. These experiences become crucial in determining a leader‟s style. A key

observation in this approach is personality rarely changes, thus making it possible to predict

leader attributes and style.


In his argument against the idea that leadership is reserved for a select few, Zaleznik (1977)

points out that early development patterns play a great role in latter development of leadership

capabilities (p. 133). Leaders are formed by their life experiences. A more recent proponent of

the psychodynamic approach, Maccoby (2004) has argued that the productive narcissist can be a

visionary leader but organizations should also be cautious about the dangers such leaders pose.

Maccoby defines narcissists as “gifted and creative strategists who see the big picture and

find meaning in the risky challenge of changing the world and leaving behind a legacy” (2004, p.

94). Such leaders sometimes find it very hard to work through their issues and could easily self-

destruct. Organizations should have safeguards that limit the possibility of disaster when such

self-destruction takes place (Maccoby, 2004, p. 94). In his book, The Productive Narcissist: The

Promise and Peril of Visionary Leadership, Maccoby (2003) identifies key strengths and

weaknesses of the productive narcissist.

What the psychodynamic approach reveals is that personality plays a great role in leadership.

If leadership is going to be effective, followers must know their own personality and understand

how to work with the leader‟s personality (Maccoby, 2003). According to Jung (1993), “human

behavior is predictable and understandable” and thus people can be classified depending on their

personalities. Jung‟s research became the basis for four personality types: extraversion versus

introversion, sensing versus intuitive, thinking versus feeling and judging versus perceiving.

Northouse (2007) defines the four personality types:

Extraversion versus introversion: whether a person prefers to derive energy externally or

internally. Sensing versus intuitive: whether a person prefers to gather information in a

precise or insightful way. Thinking versus feeling: whether a person prefers to make

decisions rationally or subjectively. Judging versus perceiving: whether a person prefers to

live in an organized or spontaneous way. (p. 247)


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These fourpersonalities provide 16 combinations of personality. The 16 types are essential in

leadership studies because they affect how a leader relates to the people working in the

organization (Northouse 2007). Many organizations use an assessment that has come to be

popularly referred to as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) to raise an awareness of

worker or leader personality. Key applications of knowing one‟s personality include the ability to

work with other employees and selection of work preferences (Northouse, 2007, p. 254-255)


Adjunct instructors are better served when they know their own personality types and the impact

that their personality has on students. A good leader recognizes that the effectiveness of group

processes depends on the chemistry cultivated by team members. That chemistry begins with the

leader. It is important for adjunct instructors to understand the transactional element of this

process.

Every student brings a different personality to class. It is the instructor‟s responsibility to be

aware of these personalities and help guide them to better work with each other. An

understanding of personalities can help the instructor in selecting teams for various assignments.

This will ensure that students get along with each other and do not serve as obstacles to the

collaboration process. It has been said that people rarely go along if they do not get along. An

awareness of personalities is the first step in ensuring that your teams will get along.

Adjunct instructors can learn to embrace the diverse personalities that are represented in the

classroom. Different students bring different skill sets to the group. While some may do very

well at motivating the rest to pursue a big picture, others may be very good at being conscious of

the details that lead to the success of projects. Knowing personalities can be helpful in

determining what role a group member can play in a team project. This ensures the efficiency of

the entire team and enables team members to work from their strengths.


In one of my courses, Global Issues, students are tasked with creating a team presentation that

discusses the challenges and rewards of doing business in a foreign country. A few semesters

back, one of my project team leaders came to me with a problem. A team member was not

contributing to the project and he wanted her removed from the team. “Missy (not her real name)

seems unwilling to participate in the project”, he said. “She was supposed to present a list of peer

reviewed articles two weeks ago, she turned it in today. Last week she missed our team meeting

and she has indicated that she does not want to speak during the project presentation”. My

discussion with her revealed that she had perceived an overbearing personality in the team leader

and other members and it reminded her of experiences with her dad. A discussion on personality

types was helpful in encouraging her to build skills for working with different people.

Are you paying attention to the personalities around you? Do you ensure that your teams

have personalities that can work with each other? If not, you need to assess your team building

approach and take the time to be aware of personalities represented in your teams.


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CHAPTER EIGHT

SERVANT LEADERSHIP

This approach was developed by Robert Greenleaf, who wrote Servant Leadership in 1977,

emphasizing that service to followers is the primary responsibility of leaders.


As outlined in the silver anniversary edition of the book, Greenleaf (2002) argued that

“leadership was bestowed to the person who was by nature a servant” (p. 21). This handbook

considers this approach to be a “role-making perspective” since it defines what a leader‟s role to

followers is. Greenleaf developed the idea of servant as leader from reading Herman Hesse‟s

Journey to the East (Greenleaf, 2002, p. 21). In his essay, Servant as Leader, Greenleaf discusses

the story:

The central figure in the story is Leo, who accompanies the party as the servant who does the

menial chores, but who also sustains the men with his spirit and his song. He is a person with

extraordinary presence. All goes well until Leo disappears. Then the group falls into disarray

and the journey is abandoned. They cannot make it without the servant Leo. The narrator,

one of the party, after some years of wandering finds Leo and is taken into the Order that had

sponsored the journey. There he discovers that Leo, whom he had known first as servant, was

in fact the titular head of the Order, its guiding spirit, a great and noble leader. (2002, p. 21)

An emerging leader understands that serving the needs of followers, by empathizing with them

and sharing in their lives, is essential so the followers will be encouraged to take up their own

responsibilities. A servant leader is better than most at knowing what the challenge of the day is

and pointing others in a direction that will resolve that challenge.

The servant leader recognizes the value that each follower brings to the organization and

endeavors to demonstrate acceptance and empathy to every person. Greenleaf (2002), quoting

Machiavelli, argues that a critical element of servant-leadership is foresight:

Thus it happens in matters of state; for knowing afar off (which it is only given a prudent

man to do) the evils that are brewing, they are easily cured. But when, for want of such

knowledge, they are allowed to grow so that everyone can recognize them, there is no longer

any remedy to be found. (p. 38)

Servant leaders possess intuitive insight and faith that allows them to influence the values of an

organization. Greenleaf calls this the “structural dynamic of leadership”, saying that “the failure

(or refusal) of a leader to foresee may be viewed as an ethical failure” (2002, p. 39). While it is

controversial to influence the underlying beliefs of individual followers (Yukl, 2002, p. 407), it is

essential for leaders, in their role as change agents for the organization, to help their people


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reinvent themselves and ensure their future survival. There should be a shared value system in

the entire organization so that a leader does not misuse power. Leadership influence should not

lead to indoctrination and manipulation but service to society.


Adjunct instructors should develop a mission statement that reflects the idea of service for their

specific work with students. One mission that fits in very well with leadership is one that

Greenleaf (2002) offers in his essay, Servant Leadership in Education: “to prepare students to

serve and be served by the present society” (p. 203). Committing to equip students to serve is

essential as it focuses an instructor‟s energy on the stated mission. A mission like this one

reflects the instructor as a mentor who is truly interested in the student‟s future rather than a

detached instructor with a short-term goal of helping a student pass examinations.

Adjunct instructors can ensure that they are encouraging students to approach their education

as a life-changing experience rather than a product. Today‟s society sadly has many students

who view education as a commodity. Some go to schools with the singular objective of earning a

degree. Higher education institutions are not diploma factories. Adjunct instructors can help

students understand the value of education and the life-changing impact of commitment to one‟s

education. Education is the pathway to service in society.

Servant leaders do not exercise authority and dominion over their followers but rather they

serve those who follow them with humility and empathy. Adjunct instructors will be better

served when they themselves serve their students. This requires an authentic approach to

teaching that inspires trust and confidence in the students. It requires modeling character and

integrity to the students, valuing them as worthy of the very best that an instructor could offer.

Serving students is the primary task of an adjunct instructor.


Not long ago one of my students turned in a paper in which she had quoted from an online article

at length. She had included the website from which she had quoted most of her material in the

references page. A visit to this site revealed that more than 75% of her paper was word-for-word

direct copying and pasting from that article. School policy required any instructor who

discovered plagiarism to report the matter to the dean rather than confront the student. This was

done. The student had a productive meeting with the dean and came out acknowledging her

wrong. She was distressed by the failing grade she had earned in the course but it was really

worth it a few months later when her “gratitude email‟ arrived in my inbox. This, to me, was an

essential piece of my leadership to this student: preparing her to serve as a person of integrity in

the present society.

Do you serve the people in your group? Are you modeling character, integrity, authenticity

and credibility as a leader? Is your focus what you will get out of being a leader or is it what you

give as a leader? What are your motives for being a leader? Are you equipping those around you

to be leaders in society?


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PART THREE

LEADERSHIP CONTEXT OF AN ADJUNCT INSTRUCTOR

Part three is a discussion of five leadership theories that address the context in which leaders

exercise leadership. This section examines the impact of relational settings to a leader‟s

effectiveness, analyzes situations of leadership and the implications for adjunct instructors.


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CHAPTER NINE

SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Leaders do not work in isolation from the contexts and environments of their groups or

organizations. The circumstances that leaders encounter determine the style of leadership that

will be employed. According to Ludden & Capozzoli (2000) the situational approach demands

that leaders should adopt their style to suit different situations (p. 162). This allows leaders to be

effective since they are able to determine the most appropriate actions based on subordinate

competence and commitment.


The main approach of situational leadership, the Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership

Theory (SLT) was developed in 1969 based on a 3-D management style theory created by W. J.

Reddin in 1967 (Northouse, 2008, p. 91). The theory focuses on the impact of different situations

on leadership and consists of a directive dimension for guiding followers to accomplish tasks and

a supportive dimension for relationship-building when needed.

In a revision of the approach, Blanchard et al. (1985) developed an ideal presentation of this

theory, called the Situational Leadership II (SLII) model.The SLII model is a combination of

four different types of leadership styles (S1, S2, S3 and S4) and four different types of

development levels of subordinates (D1, D2, D3 and D4).

The first style, S1, is a high directive-low supportive style and is utilized with

employees who are at level D1, low in competence and high in commitment

.

The second style, S2, is a high directive-high supportive style and is utilized with

employees who are at level D2, low in competence and low in commitment.

The third style, S3, is a high supportive-low directive style and is utilized with

employees who are at level D3, moderate to high competence but may lack

commitment.

The last style, S4, is a low supportive-low directive- style and is utilized with

employees who are at level D4, high in competence and high in commitment

(Northouse, 2007. pp. 93-95).

There are two key ideas from this model: first, there is a one-to-one connection between a

subordinates‟ development level and the leader‟s style; and second, leadership style should be

flexible since subordinates move at different rates across the development continuum.


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Adjunct instructors should modify their leadership styles when in different situations and when

dealing with different students. There is no “one-style-fits-all” approach to developing students.

One of the mistakes that instructors can easily make is that of rigidly following one style of

leadership and expecting students to adapt to it. Instructors must cultivate a set of different

directive and supportive behaviors for different situations. This will help the students feel

confident about the instructor‟s leadership.

Adjunct instructors need to realize too that students are at different development levels.

Students have different skills and competencies and these should be factored in when making

leadership decisions. Students who are at a higher developmental level may need minimal

guidance compared to those who are at lower levels. The effective adjunct instructor is one who

assesses a student‟s competence and commitment accurately before determining how to lead that

student. This goes a long way in ensuring high levels of motivation in the classroom.

Adjunct instructors should be flexible in their approach to leadership. Flexibility means

recognizing the uniqueness of different situations. Every task will have specific requirements

that distinguish it from other tasks. Adjunct instructors need to periodically evaluate their

leadership approaches to ensure that they are relevant to situations and are addressing the unique

aspects of differences in students.


A key challenge in instructing is the task of teaching students at different levels. A couple of

months ago my challenge was to teach an associate‟s degree class and a bachelor‟s degree class

at the same time. These were both adult classes yet were opposites of each other. My associate‟s

degree students were relatively younger, the oldest being in her late twenties, while my

bachelor‟s degree students were much older, the oldest being in his late fifties. The students at

the associate‟s level were so conscious of their grades. After receiving their grades they would

peruse their work like Sherlock Holmes on a quest to solve a case. They questioned almost every

point lost. My bachelor level students on the other hand were very different. These students

would receive their papers and most of them would immediately put them away, saying that they

normally review their grades from home. As a leader it was important to appreciate the

differences and allow each group to exercise their unique styles.

How do you handle different situations in your leadership of groups? Do you always

approach the same situation in the same manner for all your groups? Do you appreciate

differences in styles? How creative are you handling differences amongst your groups?


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CHAPTER TEN

CONTINGENCY THEORY

Contingency theory is based on the premise that effective leadership “depends on how well the

leader‟s style fits the context” (Northouse, 2007, p. 113). This theory focuses on the styles that

leader‟s model at different times and varying situations that leaders encounter (also called

situational variables). There are three situational variables which determine a leader‟s preferred

style. These are leader-member relations, task structure and position power. A leader‟s

effectiveness depends on whether his or her style is a good match for the situation.


The earliest thinker in contingency theory was Fred Fiedler. In the early 1960s, Fiedler

developed a trait measure that he called the “least preferred coworker (LPC) score”. According

to Yukl (2002), “the LPC score is determined by asking a leader to think of all past and present

coworkers, select the one with whom the leader could work least well, and rate this person on a

set of bipolar adjective scales” (p. 209). Fiedler analyzed hundreds of these scores and used

them to describe leaders as either relationship motivated or task motivated (Northouse, 2007, p.

114). High scoring leaders are relationship motivated while low scoring leaders are task

motivated. Task motivated leaders focus on achieving organizational objectives while

relationship motivated leaders focus on building interpersonal relationships.

Leadership effectiveness is determined by how well the leader‟s style matches the situation.

Fiedler calls this “situational favorability” and defines it as “the extent to which the situation

gives a leader control over subordinates” (Yukl, 2002, p. 209). Contingency theory assumes

three aspects of the situation that answer the following questions:

1. Leader-member relations: Is the atmosphere good or bad?

2. Task structure: Are the tasks highly structured or vague and unclear?

3. Position power: What level of authority does the leader have over subordinates?

Contingency theory proposes that task motivated leaders are effective whether they have

situational favorability or not. Relationship motivated leaders are effective in moderately

favorable situations. The leader‟s challenge, according to this model, is to determine the

situational variables, determine a preferred style and select a match that will enable effectiveness

in leadership. Success depends on how well a leader is matched to the situation.


Adjunct instructors are guardians of the learning process. As advocates of learning, it is essential

for them to find out their leadership style. The Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale can aid

adjunct instructors in discovering their style. Knowing whether one is task motivated or


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relational motivated can help in determining the learning activities to include in the curriculum.

Sometimes instructors use methodologies that are ill-suited for their style. Knowing one‟s

leadership style can help eradicate this problem.

Contingency theory advocates three factors for describing situations: leader-member

relations, task structure and position power. Adjunct instructors should ensure an atmosphere in

which instructor-student relations are devoid of friction. Conflict hinders learning. It is

particularly important for an adjunct instructor to ensure that there is a clear plan for the lesson.

Proper structure brings about effectiveness in group processes. Adjunct instructors should also

understand how to use their position to empower students to be successful.

Adjunct instructors can use this theory to help students understand the need for rotating

leadership in their teams as they work on completing different assignments. Adult students

exhibit differences in terms of their interests, skills and judgment for various tasks. It is unfair to

have one student serve as a leader for all projects that are assigned during the entire year. Great

groups are secure enough to encourage all group members to serve as leaders at different times.


The LPC questionnaire has consistently given me high LPC scores, indicating a strong

relationship motivated style of leadership. My preferred work settings are characterized by good

leader-member relations, highly defined structures and strong leader position power. This comes

in handy with my students because there is a high degree of certainty about the learning process

and classroom activities. This style is also effective because things are neither completely under

my control nor out of my control. Since the variables of the situation match my style, students

have a high degree of confidence in me, they complete their tasks as required and appreciate my

authority to reward or punish their performance in class.

What‟s your leadership style? Do you know what kind of work settings you would most be

effective in? How do your coworkers or followers see you? Are you task motivated or

relationship motivated? If you do not know your leadership style and the situations that would be

most favorable to you, take some time and complete the LPC questionnaire. A good resource for

this is Fred Fiedler and Martin Chemers‟ book, Improving Leadership Effectiveness: The Leader

Match Concept, published in 1984 by John Wiley & Sons Inc.


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CHAPTER ELEVEN

PATH-GOAL THEORY Path-goal theory looks at employee motivation and how the leader‟s style impacts it. The

leader‟s responsibility is to create conditions in which subordinates can perform at their absolute

best so as to attain designated group goals. Path-goal theory explains “how leaders can help

subordinates along the path to their goals by selecting specific behaviors that are best suited to

subordinates‟ needs and to the situation in which subordinates are working” (Northouse, 2007,

p.128).


The theory was initially developed in the early 1970s but was refined by House & Mitchell

(1974) who identified four behaviors that leaders need so as to motivate subordinates:

1. Supportive Leadership. This consists of making the environment pleasant.

2. Directive Leadership. This involves giving guidance and coordinating job tasks.

3. Participative Leadership. This involves shared decision making and collaboration

4. Achievement-Oriented Leadership. This involves setting challenging goals.

According to the model, the leader influences subordinate behavior by embracing the

behaviors that align with the situation. As stated by Northouse (2007), “the impact of leadership

is contingent on the characteristics of both subordinates and their task” (p. 131). Subordinate

characteristics include the need to belong, the level of preferred structure, the need to control

their work and their personal perceptions of the level of tasks to be completed.

The theory predicts that: subordinates who want to belong require supportive leadership;

those who want structure require directive leadership; those who want control require

participative leadership and those who perceive their abilities to be well developed require

achievement-oriented leadership. Task characteristics consist of the design of the task, the

organizational structure and the nature of a subordinate‟s work group. Some task characteristics

may require minimal leadership while others may call for more involvement from leaders.

One specific objective of path-goal theory is to eliminate obstacles for subordinates.

Subordinates are motivated when leadership helps them to eliminate any obstacles that make

their work difficult. Leadership within an organization enhances employees‟ job satisfaction

when they focus on making it easier for employees to complete their tasks. Path-goal theory

allows leaders to define the company goals and outline the paths that employees should take in

pursuing those goals.


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Path-goal theory has significant implications for adjunct instructors, whose role is to motivate

students to do well academically. Adjunct instructors not only assign challenging work to

students but they also communicate to the students that they are capable of performing well in

the course. Adjunct instructors communicate to students that if they do what‟s required, they will

pass the course. This keeps the students motivated.

Adjunct instructors serve as coaches for their students. The basic idea behind coaching is to

define goals, clarify the path to be taken towards attaining those goals, remove any obstacles and

provide support. Adjunct instructors can assist students in defining and clarifying their goals for

a course and in some instances, their career goals. They can help with removing obstacles to

academic success and supporting students as they endeavor to attain these goals.

The leader behaviors identified in path-goal theory, either directive, supportive, participative

or achievement-oriented behavior can be modeled in a classroom by adjunct instructors. Students

need direction as they seek to excel academically. They need support as they engage in the

process of learning. Students appreciate inclusiveness in the learning process. Above all, they

want to be inspired in their quest for academic achievement. These are all behaviors that adjunct

instructors should embody in their teaching.


Adult students are usually very busy and require effective strategies for managing their work.

My experiences with adult students have led me to develop an acronym that has been very

beneficial to my students. It‟s an acronym of the word PLAN and it‟s intended to be a tool for

setting goals. Here‟s what it stand for:

Predetermine your entire workload

List goals and strategies that will lead you to achieve excellence

Articulate the critical path for realizing your goals

Nurture a passion for working at your plan daily

My students have enjoyed using this acronym as they find it to be a pragmatic way of staying

focused on what matters most. A popular motivational quote states that if you fail to plan you

plan to fail.

How do you motivate your group? Do you have any strategies that you share with your

followers for attaining success at their tasks? What can you do to improve the level of motivation

in those whom you lead? Are there any obstacles you can remove for your followers to achieve

group goals? How can you support them in their work?


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CHAPTER TWELVE

LEADERSHIP SUBSTITUTES THEORY

Leadership may sometimes be constrained by situational variables that either eliminate or reduce

the need for leaders to intervene. According to Schriesheim (1997), the idea of “leadership

substitutes” was coined by leadership scholar, Steve Kerr in the 1970s as he recognized that

“`certain situational determinants‟ have the potential for `… rendering the leader incapable of

influencing subordinate satisfaction very much for either better or worse`”. These situational

determinants make it difficult for leaders to exercise positive influence on a situation.


Two broad situational variables have been identified by this theory: substitutes and neutralizers.

Substitutes “make leader behavior unnecessary and redundant” while neutralizers “prevent a

leader from acting in a specified way” (Yukl, 2002, p. 217). Substitutes include factors that

ensure that subordinates are highly motivated and know what they need to do. Neutralizers are

factors that eliminate the impact of a leader‟s actions.

The leadership substitutes theory addresses three key aspects of leadership: subordinate

characteristics, task characteristics and organization characteristics. Well developed subordinates

require little direction since their extensive training makes leadership unnecessary. Simple

repetitive tasks may act as substitutes for leadership since they can be easily mastered by

subordinates. When an organization‟s staff is dispersed widely, leadership may be neutralized by

the distance between locations. The theory provides a unique perspective on leadership and has

wide appeal for continued research.


Adjunct instructors can make sure that students have a clear understanding of what they need to

do whenever they have an out-of-class learning trip, in-class project or homework assignment.

Such clarity on the part of students becomes a substitute that eliminates the necessity of the

instructor‟s leadership at the moment of carrying out the task.

Adult students are different in terms of their expectations from the learning process. Two

particular groups: those who go to back to school for the love of learning and those who go back

with the goal of fulfilling a long-held desire, rarely put serious premium on the grades they earn

in class. Such an attitude becomes a neutralizer that nullifies the instructor‟s desire to reward

high performance.

The twin issues of power and influence in leadership can sometimes be thorny issues for

leaders and their group members. Adjunct instructors can use the leadership substitutes theory to

de-emphasize the importance of their influence and power. By empowering students in the


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management of their own learning processes, students not only become self-directed learners but

they also develop their own leadership skills.


International business classes have become very popular in the past couple of years. A topic that

has not been properly covered in most textbooks is that of culture and its impact on international

businesses. In my classes, students are introduced to this topic through role plays of cross-

cultural scenario reviews. An effective way of doing this is by ensuring that students have a

clear understanding of the activity and allowing them to develop self-managed teams through

which they can present their role plays. It is usually very satisfying to see students assume

responsibility for the cross-cultural scenario reviews. Cross-cultural scenario reviews are not

only great teaching tools but they also serve as an effective means of motivating students to

model self-leadership and self-management.

How intentional are you in de-emphasizing your own leadership? Do you consistently try to

eliminate yourself from the situation so that your group members can develop their own

leadership skills? Do you hang onto power and authority? The indispensable leader is that person

who is not overly concerned about personal power, authority and influence. Become an

indispensable leader.


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CHAPTER THIRTEEN

MULTIPLE LINKAGE MODEL

The multiple-linkage model demonstrates “the interacting effects of managerial behavior and

situational variables on the intervening variables that determine the performance of a work unit”

(Yukl, 2002, p. 220).


The model is a conceptual leadership framework that consists of more than three components:

managerial behavior, intervening variables and situational influences. Each of these components

has an associative relationship to the others thus forming a connective system that works to

ensure organizational effectiveness. The model provides a detailed analysis of what brings about

optimum organizational performance and leadership effectiveness. The model identifies six

intervening variables. In order to understand how managerial behavior influences a work unit, it

is helpful to consider the following intervening variables.

a. Task commitment – Yukl (2002) defines this as “the extent to which unit members strive to

attain a high level of performance and show a high degree of personal commitment to unit task

objectives” (p. 220). This is indicated in their results and productivity at work, the diligence

demonstrated, dedication and determination shown through their work ethic.

b. Ability and role clarity – This is the degree of knowledge and skill that members have of their

job requirements. When workers know what to do and are equipped to do it, there is increased

efficiency. They should be able to work with little or no supervision. This starts with good

training and coaching.

c. Organization of the work – This has been defined as “the extent to which effective

performance strategies are used to attain unit task objectives and work is organized to ensure

efficient utilization of personnel, equipment and facilities” (Yukl, 2002, p.220). Well-organized

work units produce at optimum levels. Coordination of tasks enables proper organization and

enhances effectiveness.

d. Cooperation and mutual trust – Group members ought to trust each other, share information

and ideas, help each other and identify with the work unit. Work units require an environment of

high empowerment. Every member must take ownership of his job and take full responsibility

for the success of his or her particular workstation, project or task requirement.

e. Resources and Support – The work unit needs sufficient budgeted funds, knowledge,

equipment, tools, supplies, personnel and facilities, including assistance from other units in order

to perform their task.

f. External Coordination – This represents “the extent to which activities of the work unit are

synchronized with the interdependent activities in other parts of the organization and other

organizations” (Yukl, 2002, p.221). Networking between departments and organizations is

important in achieving company objectives.


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Leader behavior is also determined by situational influences. Situational influences are variables

in the model that primarily constrain leader behavior. They also influence the intervening

variables and determine their relative importance in bringing about organizational effectiveness.

Situational influences include:

(1) Characteristics of the followers – do they know what they are expected to do; are they

motivated enough; how do they respond to challenges; are they supportive?

(2) Nature of work performed – what are the requirements of the task; is it compatible to the

followers; is it frequently affected by changes in policies, plans and procedures; is it mundane,

boring and repetitious?

(3) Type of organization – what kind of environment does it promote; what kind of structure

does it have; what are the shared values and beliefs of its members?

(4) Nature of the external environment – what are the concerns of customers and clients, what

are competitors doing, what trends are taking place in the market, what societal developments are

taking place?

The situational influences directly impact the intervening variables thus determining the

effectiveness of the work unit. According to Yukl (2002), leader actions “correct any

deficiencies in the intervening variables” so as to improve group performance (p. 224). Optimum

effectiveness can only be attained when leaders are able to recognize those opportunities in order

to correct deficiencies. Over the long-term, leaders can improve group performance by making

the situation more favorable to the intervening variables.


A basic premise of the multiple-linkage model is that anything a leader does to correct

deficiencies in the intervening variables improves the overall effectiveness of the entire group

(Yukl, 2002, p. 224). Based on this premise, adjunct instructors have a variety of actions they

could engage in so as to elevate their leadership:

a) If students are not excited about a group task, the instructor should express

confidence in them, consult with them and delegate portions of the task wisely.

Effective behavior should be rewarded and key leaders within the groups should be

recognized.

b) If students are confused about what or how to do their work, an effective adjunct

instructor will coach them properly, provide clear direction and help overcome any

deficiencies that could be a hindrance to proper understanding of the task.

c) If a team of students is disorganized or uses weak performance strategies, the

adjunct instructor should work at identifying any coordinating problems, help the


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team develop strategic objectives, eliminate unnecessary activities and provide

clearer direction.

d) If there is little cooperation and teamwork amongst a group, the adjunct instructor

should help to reduce conflict, emphasize common interests and increase group

incentives.

e) If students lack resources to do their work, the adjunct instructor can find

alternative sources of supplies; upgrade present equipment or find another way to

cope with the lack.


Adjunct instructors and the students they lead have to deal with a variety of intervening variables

in the course of the learning process. One recent variable that my class had to deal with was

outdated technology. The course was Organizational Management and Leadership. This was an

associate‟s class that had, up to that point, relied on the instructor‟s lectures and presentations

which were all stored on a personal laptop. During the third week of the course, the students

were instructed to make a PowerPoint presentation and share it in class. On this particular day,

we borrowed the school‟s overheard projector and processing unit. It was a shock to me when we

discovered that the school‟s system ran on old software and could not read the material on the

student‟s portable USB flash drives. In the end, what worked was my suggestion that they resave

their work in an older format on the school‟s system and use the old software to open the files. It

took a little while to do all this but the students were delighted that they could present their work.

Do you take the time to correct deficiencies for your group members? What behaviors do you

engage in when your team struggles in completing their work? Can your team trust that you will

modify any difficulties to make the situation more favorable? If your group or team does not

detect a willingness to make the situation more favorable for them, they will be unlikely to count

on you when it really counts.


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PART FOUR

CORRESPONDING THEORIES ON

THE PRACTICE OF LEADERSHIP

Part four highlights major issues that broaden an understanding of leadership theory. This section

of the handbook is multifaceted, exploring critical organizational factors and how they apply to

leaders.


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CHAPTER FOURTEEN

GROUP CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP

Every organization faces the need to continually reinvent itself so that it can remain relevant to a

changing world. Leaders often find themselves responsible for bringing about such change.

Change in any organization or group, even one as small as a classroom, requires an

understanding of the group culture and a willingness to engage it.


Schein (1992) defines the culture of group as

A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of

external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be

considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to

perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems. (p. 12)

Shared assumptions can further be classified as underlying beliefs or espoused values.

Underlying beliefs are learned responses to problems of external survival and internal

integration. Espoused values are widely known assumptions which may not be consistent with

underlying beliefs.

Groups attain high performance when they are able to resolve problems of external

adaptation as well as internal integration. This resolution of group problems leads to cultural

change and is much easier when the group has a shared history that bonds the individual

members to one another. Leadership plays a crucial role in motivating group members to develop

bonds with each other. The group‟s response to cultural change efforts by the leader depends on

the developmental stage of the group.

Founders of organizations have tremendous leverage in bringing about change. For many

organizations, culture evolves slowly over many years and it is easier to guide its development

than to change the culture when the organization becomes well established. As an organization

matures, different subcultures will develop that could easily hinder the accomplishment of group

goals. Leaders shape the group‟s culture in many ways. Schein (1992) has identified five key

ways that leaders change group culture:

1. Attention: Leaders bring attention to what needs to be changed within the group.

2. Reaction to crisis: Leader‟s actions and decisions communicate concern to the group.

3. Role modeling: The leader‟s example communicates expectations to group members.

4. Allocation of rewards: Giving rewards lets group members know what is valued.

5. Selection and dismissal criteria: Members know what it takes to be in the group.


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There are also a variety of ways in which leaders reinforce group culture. These work

particularly well when consistent with the means for changing culture which include:

1. Design of systems and procedures: These can be used to emphasize specific criteria.

2. Design of organization structure: This can be used to reflect underlying beliefs.

3. Design of facilities: These can be used to reflect basic group values.

4. Stories, legends and myths: These reflect a clear message of a group‟s values.

5. Formal statements: Written statements describe an organization‟s beliefs.


Most schools usually have an organizational statement that outlines the school‟s beliefs and

values. All new employees, including adjunct instructors, are normally encouraged to familiarize

themselves with the values of the school. This is particularly important when introducing new

staff to the organization. The orientation process is normally a key avenue in which this kind of

training takes place.

Beyond knowing the school‟s values and beliefs, adjunct instructors have the opportunity for

putting in place a set of values that will drive learning in their particular classrooms. An effective

way of doing this is through the use of symbols, slogans and rituals within the classroom

environment. Care should be taken, however, in ensuring that any in-class values, symbols,

slogan or rituals are in alignment with the college‟s espoused values.

Adjunct instructors should ensure that any statements they make in class reflect their belief in

the values and beliefs enshrined in the college‟s mission statement. An instructor increases

credibility with students when they understand that the instructor respects the college‟s cultural

assumptions. Decision making in the classroom should be guided by the school‟s values.


One of my favorite movie series is Pirates of the Caribbean. While watching the first installment

of the series, The Curse of the Black Pearl, an idea came to mind about eye-patches. The details

of the idea are not relevant for this commentary and handbook but it allowed me to develop an

acronym of values that my students, in every class, have heard on the first day of class. The

acronym is I-PATCH. My goal in every class is to see my students model Inquisitiveness,

Patience, Attentiveness, Teachableness, Circumspection and Humility. In other words, to see

each of them wear an I-PATCH.

Do you have a set of values that you encourage your group members to embrace? Do you

live by the values you profess? What creative ways can you develop for sharing your values?


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CHAPTER FIFTEEN

CROSS-CULTURAL LEADERSHIP

All individuals are influenced by their cultures. Ferraro (2006) defines culture as “everything that

people have, think and do as members of their society” (p. 19). Leadership is affected by culture

since leaders have certain goals that drive their organizations. They also possess ideas for

influencing followers and furthermore, they behave in certain specific ways in order to

accomplish their purposes.

Given the rapid rate of globalization, any philosophy of leadership that is embraced by a

leader or group should be multicultural in nature, with an appreciation of the fact that we live in

a world that is increasingly integrated. Leaders today must understand that accurate theory

demands a multicultural approach that is open to other cultures and embraces diversity. The bulk

of current leadership research has been done in western countries and few nonwestern countries

are yet to contribute to the body of knowledge (Yukl, 2002, p. 413).

Current leadership research should be rooted in ability to be generalized across cultures,

sensitivity to others, modesty, compassion, social support through collaboration with others and

community values as opposed to individualistic tendencies.


Modern leaders are finding themselves in situations where they influence and interact with

people from other cultures. Organizations are recognizing the need to learn about important

leadership concepts from other cultures. Yukl (2002) states that validating “taxonomies of

leadership behavior in different cultures can reveal new aspects of behavior that are relevant for

effective leadership” (p. 414). Various situational variables that have not been explored in

current leadership theories could add immense knowledge to the field of leadership studies.

Aspects like religion, language and ethnicity have the potential for adding new insights that

studies in nonwestern societies cannot possibly achieve.

Despite the diverse cultures represented all over the world, all people learn their culture

through interacting with their environment. In similar manner, a leader‟s role and style is shaped

through the context of the culture that he or she represents. Global leaders face the challenge of

developing appropriate leadership styles for different cultures. Ferraro (2006) provides a

framework for understanding value differences found in various parts of the world (pp. 103-123).

These dimensions are instructive for leaders as they reflect on how society is organized across

cultural lines.

1. The Individual-Collective Dimension. This dimension asks the question: “Should people

pursue their individual activities and agendas rather than contributing to the success and well

being of the larger group, such as family, neighborhood, clan, team or company?” (Ferraro,


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2006, p. 103). Studies of different countries have shown that most European and Western

countries tend to place a high value on individualism while most countries in the Far-East,

Middle-East, South America and Africa place high value on the larger group.

2. The Equality-Hierarchy Dimension. According to Ferraro (2006) this dimension raises the

following question: “How should people with different levels of power, prestige and status

interact with one another, equally or unequally?” (p. 107). Western nations like Canada, Sweden,

Australia and the United States tend to stress the need for equality in society whereas countries

like Malaysia, Philippines and Panama expect that people will maintain their status and power

hierarchies will be respected. Two classic examples of hierarchical societies are India, which has

a caste system of society and Japan, which has significant levels of protocol right from the

emperor all the way to the peasant farmer.

3. The Tough-Tender Dimension. This dimension asks the question, “Do people … define

success in terms of high-status, material acquisitions and well-rewarded jobs? Or do they define

success in terms of less tangible rewards, such as … time with family … relationships, or ...

personal growth?” (Ferraro, 2006, p. 110). Tough societies tend to prefer achievement,

assertiveness, power, competition and material possessions whereas tender societies prefer

nurturing, social relationships and cooperation. Societies associated with toughness include

Austria, Italy, Japan and Mexico. Tender societies include most Scandinavian countries and the

Netherlands.

4. The Uncertainty-Avoidance Dimension. This dimension was originally identified by Dutch

professor, Geert Hofstede in 1980 and refers to “the lack of tolerance for ambiguity and the need

for formal rules and high-level organizational structure” (Ferraro, 2006, p. 114). Societies with

high uncertainty avoidance – such as Greece, Portugal and Japan – have fewer unstructured,

ambiguous and unpredictable situations as reflected in strict laws, security measures, absolute

truths and rejection of unorthodox ideas. Societies with low uncertainty-avoidance – such as

Singapore, Denmark, Hong Kong and the United States – are more tolerant of opinions, have

fewer rules, simpler organizational structures and relativistic beliefs.

5. The Time Dimension. The time dimension simply refers to how cultures value a “precise

reckoning of time”, whether they use “sequential or synchronized time” and whether the “culture

is past-, present- or future- oriented” (Ferraro, 2006, p. 117). Cultures that value precise time,

like Switzerland, endeavor to be very efficient and punctual. In the Middle East, Africa and

South America, people are more relaxed in their approach and view time as plentiful. In

sequentially oriented societies, people value order and straight-line thinking. In synchronically

oriented societies, people conduct activities in parallel and easily juggle many different things. In

past oriented societies, people are motivated by their histories, origins, older leaders and cultural

history. In present oriented societies motivation comes from immediate impact and current

events. In future oriented societies, people are motivated by planning and progress in the future.


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Modern teaching, by its very nature, is a cross-cultural experience. National and global migration

patterns have meant that society is now more diversified and integrated than ever before. Adjunct

instructors encounter students from diverse cultures every day. The college environment, for the

most part, has become a microcosm of the wider society. Many different cultures and sub-

cultures are represented in the average classroom. Adjunct instructors can be champions of cross-

cultural understanding by adapting their leadership style to various cultures represented in the

classroom.

One of the biggest challenges to cross-cultural leadership is the problem of ethnocentrism.

All human beings tend to give priority to their own ethnic, racial or cultural group‟s beliefs,

attitudes and values (Northouse, 2007, p. 303). Adjunct instructors should strive to eliminate

ethnocentrism from their classrooms. As leaders, instructors have a particularly important role in

modeling real world values to students. Effective leadership requires that instructors know how

to handle ethnocentric attitudes while remaining grounded in common cultural values that

appreciate all people.

Adjunct instructors can ensure that prejudice does not fester in the classroom. Students today

interact with other students from diverse cultures and subcultures. It becomes a problem when

fixed beliefs or attitudes are formed about other cultures or ethnicities. Instructors can play a

great role in ensuring that prejudice does not affect the learning process. In teaching adult

students negative prejudice‟s like racism, ageism, sexism, etc should not be tolerated.


The issue of culture is usually the first issue that my classes discuss. As an immigrant to the

United States of America with an easily distinguishable accent, my goal has always been to

ensure that my students are comfortable with my presence as a communicator and leader in the

classroom. The very first class normally begins with an activity that encourages them to

appreciate differences in culture. One of my adult students expressed it well one day when he

told me, “Forty years ago you would not have been teaching me and I‟m really delighted that

today you can”. That was a heart-warming thing for him to say. That statement reflects how

society has changed and the need for greater interaction across cultural barriers.

Do you appreciate the value of other cultures? Do you go out of your way to build bridges

and interact with other cultures? What leadership philosophies are you implementing that reflect

your understanding of cross-cultural differences?


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CHAPTER SIXTEEN

POWER AND INFLUENCE

The definition of leadership used in this handbook is Northouse‟s (2007) concept of leadership as

the process of influencing a group to pursue a goal. Influence is impossible without power.

Power is the mechanism through which influence is exercised. It enables one individual to affect

the attitudes, beliefs and courses of action of another person. The level of power and influence

that one man has over another depends on many different variables. A leader‟s ability to navigate

these variables is the main determinant of the level of influence that leader wields.


Between 1957 and 1958, two professors in the field of psychology, Bertram H. Raven of the

University of California and John R. P. French Jr. of University of Michigan exchanged

manuscripts on the ideas of social power and influence. After many revisions of their work, the

two professors defined five bases of social power in small groups: reward power, coercive

power, legitimate power, referent power, and expert power. French & Raven (1958) define each

of these powers:

Reward power, based on the perception by the individual P, that the agent, O can mediate

rewards for him; coercive power based on P‟s perception that O has the ability to mediate

punishments for him; legitimate power based on the perception by P that O has a legitimate

right to prescribe behavior for him; referent power, based on P‟s identification with O; and

expert power based on P‟s perception that O has some special knowledge or expertness. (p.

83)

The five bases of social power work in different ways to enhance a leader‟s capacity for

influence. These important bases of power can further be divided into two for applicability to

organizations: position power and personal power. Both of these have significant relevance to a

leader‟s influence with position power being particular to an office or rank and personal power

stemming from a leader‟s likeability or knowledge (Northouse, 2007). Legitimate power, reward

power and coercive power are all elements of position power while referent and expert power are

deemed to be elements of personal power. Leaders should use these elements of power wisely.


Adjunct instructors have expert power in their fields and this enables them to influence students

positively. Students appreciate having an instructor who is knowledgeable in the field and who

has a solid grasp of the course content. The quality of the instructor‟s teaching is directly

proportional to the level of knowledge that the instructor has in the field. Adjunct instructors who

are continual learners themselves have staying power for succeeding as leaders.


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Adjunct instructors can work hard to develop positive reputation with the students. This is

essential if the instructor wants to develop referent power. Having referent power is helpful in

small group settings because leadership is by permission. Followers will not embrace a leader

unless that leader earns their respect. Only then will it be possible to exercise influence as a

leader that is well liked by the group.

An adjunct instructor has legitimate power due to the formal authority that is vested in the

position. This allows the instructor to set the parameters of acceptable behavior within the

classroom and during group activities for the course. The acknowledgement of this power also

enables an understanding of the nature of relationship between the adjunct instructor and

students. Students will normally pay attention to how instructors use this power.

Reward and coercive power are also evident in the classroom environment. Adjunct

instructors have the capacity to reward high performance and positive behaviors in class. They

can also derive ways of penalizing negative behaviors and performance that does not meet the set

standards. Leaders should ensure that when they use any of these powers, they are doing so in

the best interests of the student. A leader‟s primary role should be to serve students.


A fellow adjunct instructor recently invited me out for lunch. As we munched on our burgers and

fries, she told me that she was having a problem with one of her students. This student, an older

guy in his early fifties, was having some problems with accepting the authority and feedback of

the much younger instructor, who was in her late twenties. According to the instructor, the

student engaged in mannerisms that clearly showed his contempt for her: smirking when she

spoke, never really looking at her, shoving his graded papers without looking at them, being

dismissive of other students and a variety of other disrespectful behaviors. As we discussed this,

we realized that there could be many issues involved, one being a possible lack of regard of the

instructor‟s leadership. My advice to her was to go back and have a chat with him. She was to

clearly communicate her understanding of the fact that, as a leader, the student also has people in

authority under him, whom he expects to be compliant to his leadership. She was then to urge

him to be a model adult student since it would benefit his learning and serve to inspire the

younger students. A few weeks later, we met again and she told me that the relationship with this

student was much better.

How do you use your expertise to reflect the power vested in your position? What are you

doing to legitimately cultivate your power without alienating those whom you are leading? Do

you recognize the importance of building relationships as you cultivate your leadership skills?

Are you using your influence to make a difference with your group members?


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CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

LEADERSHIP ETHICS

Most leadership writers and thinkers have included the ideas of influence and having an impact

in other people‟s lives in their definitions of leadership. The power and authority vested in

leaders can easily become abusive if ethical considerations are not practiced. Modern researchers

have lamented the unethical practices of business and political leaders (Kouzes & Posner, 1993;

Ciulla, 1998).


The word ethics originates from Greek language and is formed from the word ethos, which

stands for the “conduct”, “customs” or “character” of a person or society. Ethical theory explores

the innate character of individuals, why they behave the way they do, the principles that govern

them and how they make decisions on right or wrong. In leadership it covers a wide range of

practices, from how leaders make decisions, the judgments they make to how they treat followers

and run their organizations.

Leaders have positional power and this can be used in many ways to affect the ethical climate

of an organization. The primary means through which leaders shape the organization‟s climate is

through the relationships that they develop with followers. These relationships become a means

through which the leader can build community, respect others, serve others, show justice, and

manifest honesty. These five practices have been identified as the principles of ethical leadership

(Northouse, 2007, p. 350).

Many of today‟s scholars and practitioners have demanded that these principles be evidenced

by political, community, non-profit and religious leaders. Two of these are Ronald Heifetz and

James McGregor Burns. A third scholar is Robert Greenleaf, who developed the idea of servant

leadership that was discussed at length earlier in this handbook. This chapter considers the works

of Heifetz (1994) and Burns (1978).

Ronald Heifetz wrote Leadership Without Answers in 1994, emphasizing that leaders should

help followers to confront conflict and effect changes from conflict. He defines leadership as a

dyadic and collective process in which leaders use authority to address changes in the wider

environments and cultures that followers or workers live in. The need for shared leadership is

emphasized since change cannot be accomplished by one single “great man”. Leaders should

build teams that solve problems, utilize effective decision mechanism and confront conflicts so

as to bring about group progress. Yukl (2002) summarizes Heifetz‟s ideas by saying that they

“seem especially relevant for evaluating political candidates who deny or oversimplify problems,

promise unrealistic solutions and pander to short-term individual interests rather than collective

needs” (p. 404).


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James Burns wrote Leadership in 1978, in which he outlined the theory of transformational

leadership. Burns (1978) defined the role of leadership as a mutual relationship in which “leaders

and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality” (p. 20). He posits

that followers should be elevated from their „everyday selves‟ to their „better selves‟ through

consistently focusing on higher values and ideals like liberty, justice, humanitarianism and

equality (Yukl, 2002). The goal of leadership should be moral elevation of individual followers

and collective realization of societal reforms. Burns‟ theory, however, has been criticized on the

grounds that no one individual or society can claim to have higher moral ground than others.


Nothing is more important for anyone working in the “noblest profession” than their inner

character and integrity (and I do mean it: teaching is the noblest profession!). Adjunct instructors

can focus on ensuring that every act of theirs reflects values that are appropriate for the students.

Instructors should understand that their virtuousness and the principles that they live by,

communicates a lot more about who they are than anything they would say in class.

Adjunct instructors can apply the principles of ethical leadership: respect, service, justice,

honesty and community in managing their students. The educational environment should be a

place where the unconditional worth and valuable individual differences of people are

appreciated. Adjunct instructors should place the welfare of their students above everything else.

Students should be treated fairly and encouraged to live by the Golden Rule. Adjunct instructors

have a responsibility to represent reality to their students. Instructors should also help learning

groups recognize the joys of working together and the importance of caring for each other.

Adjunct instructors are wonderfully positioned to ensure equality, meet the individual needs

of their students and reward individual effort. These are ethical aspects of leadership that allow

leaders to apply positive values and beliefs in class. Engaging in these positive leader behaviors

is essential for effective leadership. It is also essential for adjunct instructors to engage in a

process of periodic self-examination that assures their consistency in applying ethical leadership.


Once in a while my classes fall on national holidays. In my particular situation, school policy

requires that these classes be made up because the content is usually carefully developed to cover

five weeks of workshops. On one occasion my students were not thrilled that we were going to

make-up a class. My task was to communicate to them how it was ethical for the group to do the

right thing. This understanding was helpful in ensuring that we covered the material. We reached

an agreement that enabled us to schedule a make-up day. The best thing about the whole

experience was that ethical leadership was modeled.

Do you model respect to those whom you lead and others in your circle? Are you committed

to being honest and faithful in your relationships? Are you generous with those around you?

How are you building community with those that you interact with? You can become an ethical

leader if you apply these concepts in your leadership of groups.


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PART FIVE

POPULAR STRATEGIES FOR

CONTEMPORARY LEADERSHIP

Part five is a discussion of popular strategies that address contemporary leadership in today‟s

environment. This section examines principle-centered leadership, 360-degree leadership, and

the leadership practices inventory. As with other theories and approaches, the implications for

adjunct instructors are analyzed.


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CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

PRINCIPLE-CENTERED LEADERSHIP

The concept of principle-centered leadership was developed by Stephen Covey and detailed in

his book, Principle-Centered Leadership. In developing this approach, Covey (1990) argues that

people, organizations and society are grappling with “real-life challenges… problems that

common approaches can‟t solve” (pp. 13-17). Covey laments the many embarrassing private and

public failures of many ineffective lives; unethical practices in business and government;

rampant cheating in schools, sports and entertainment; the dysfunction in many families; lack of

substance in our leaders and the quick-fix, short-term thinking of most of society.

The frustration seems to stem from the fact that after many years of trying many different

approaches for solving society‟s problems, we are still seeing many signs of ineffective lives all

around us. Covey states that the solution to these problems is principle-centered leadership, “a

new paradigm – that we center our lives and our leadership of organizations and people on

certain „true-north‟ principles” (1990, p. 18). In becoming a principle-centered leader, a leader

lives a life that is guided by natural laws that do not shift; principles that serve as compasses for

one‟s life and maps for one‟s purpose. The leader also embraces positive values that lead to

authenticity and liberate the individual from old perceptions or paradigms.


Principles form the center that grounds leaders in life. Covey argues that “whatever lies at the

center of our lives becomes the primary source of our life-support system” (1990, p. 21). This

life support system is composed of four fundamental dimensions: security, guidance, wisdom

and power. Leaders must live with a high degree of intrinsic self-worth, a spiritual conscience

that provides guidance, an accurate and complete life-compass that produces wisdom and a life

of vision and discipline that unleashes a powerful life.

According to Covey, these four factors “create the great force of a noble personality, a

balanced character and a beautifully integrated individual” (1990, p. 23). In this sense, principle-

centered leadership reflects similar positions as ethical leadership, transformational leadership

and servant leadership. There are four levels of leadership in principle-centered leadership, each

with a master principle that guides that level.

Level 1 is personal leadership which is one‟s relationship with self. The guiding

principle at this level is trustworthiness

Level 2 is interpersonal leadership and this level represents one‟s relationships and

interactions with others. The guiding principle at this level is trust. Trust is the

emotional bank between two people.


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Level 3 is managerial leadership, which is one‟s responsibility to get a job done with

others. At this level, the guiding principle is empowerment.

Level 4 leadership is organizational leadership, which is one‟s need to organize

people through recruitment, training, team-building, problem solving and rewarding

them. The guiding principle at this level is the alignment to one‟s root problems.

According to Covey, the key to any success is working “developmentally at all four levels from

the inside out on the basis of the four master principles” (1990, p. 156). The key to effectiveness

in leadership is to embody all-round leadership that models these four levels.


Adjunct instructors can develop a set of true north principles that will guide them in leading their

students. Any social situation will sometimes encounter difficult questions. It is easier to solve

such questions when one has a set of guiding principles for use as a frame of reference. True

north principles will enable instructors to be consistent and credible leaders.

The four dimensions of security, guidance, wisdom and power can be applied by adjunct

instructors in establishing themselves as effective principled leaders. It helps when an adjunct

instructor has a high sense of self-worth. Adjunct instructors can ensure that they receive

guidance from mature faculty who are knowledgeable about the profession. An instructor is a

reservoir of wisdom for the student community. Adjunct instructors should ensure that they are

using their power to make positive things happen for the students.

Adjunct instructors can begin viewing their own leadership based on the four levels and four

principles of principle-centered leadership. At the personal level, adjunct instructors should

develop trustworthiness by living credible lives. At the interpersonal level, adjunct instructors

should build trust in one-on-one relationships with students, staff and other employees on the

campus. At the managerial level, adjunct instructors should empower everyone around them to

do their jobs effectively. Finally, at the organizational level, adjunct instructors should ensure

alignment to the school‟s mission and to their own personal core principles.


One of my students once came to me with a personal problem that was weighing heavily on his

mind. He worked at a family-run business and was frustrated because he had been there for six

years and not experienced any meaningful advancement in terms of career development. He was

not a member of the family but during his six years there, he had seen one family member after

another shift between departments and some even promoted to higher positions. He wanted to

know whether it would be better to depart from the company or stay.

At the time of his visit with me, he did not have any offers for new positions and was afraid

he might not get new offers since employment within his area had taken a downturn. My counsel

to him was that he needed to take some time to develop some core principles that would always


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serve as the “compass” or “road-map” for decision-making. Beginning with his innermost

values, we developed a set of four principles that he adapted as his core values. He ended up

using these principles in making his decision and was excited about his decision the last time we

met.

Do you live your life by principles that are unshakeable? What are your core values? If you

were to be faced by tough decisions, do you have a set of principles or system of values that you

can rely on for making the correct decision? You can become a principle-centered leader.


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CHAPTER NINETEEN

360-DEGREE LEADERSHIP

The idea of becoming a 360-Degree leader has been popularized in the business and non-profit

marketplace by speaker and author John Maxwell. In his widely popular book, The 360° Leader,

Maxwell describes a 360-Degree leader as someone who leads from the middle of an

organization.


Maxwell posits that 360-Degree leaders learn to develop their influence from anywhere in the

organization. They learn to lead up, lead across and lead down (Maxwell, 2005, p, 2). A 360-

Degree leader may not be at the very top of an organization and may not be at the bottom either.

One can still make a difference to the organization regardless of position or status. Leadership

influence depends on the skill sets that individuals bring to their position. The 360-Degree

Leader, according to Maxwell (2005), is by definition, non-positional. “They lead through

influence, not position, power or leverage” (p. 211). All leaders can develop skills that will

enable them to lead in all directions and have wide influence in the organization.

Learning to Lead Up. For the 360-Degree leader, leading up is simply leading those above

you in the organizational hierarchy: your leader(s), superior(s) or supervisor(s). Maxwell (2005)

states that “leading up is the 360-Degree leader‟s greatest challenge” because “most leaders want

to lead, not be led” (p. 81). He clarifies that the way to lead up is to influence those above you by

adding value to them. This begins with self-management. Leading up also requires a

commitment to lightening the leader‟s load. This might involve being willing to do what other‟s

won‟t do; investing in relational chemistry with your leader; being prepared every time you take

your leader‟s time; knowing when to push and when to back off; becoming a go-to player and

investing in personal growth and development.

Learning to Lead Across. Leading across is leading one‟s colleagues or people that are at the

same level with you in your organization. Maxwell (2005) states, “To succeed as a 360-Degree

Leader who leads peer-to-peer, you have to work at giving your colleagues reasons to respect

and follow you” (p. 159). The first principle for leading across is “The Leadership Loop”

(Maxwell, 2005, pp. 161-168). The leadership loop consists of caring for people, learning about

them, appreciating who they are, contributing to their growth, affirming them, influencing them

positively and winning with them. Other skills for leading across include not competing with

fellow leaders, being a friend, avoiding office politics, expanding one‟s circle of acquaintances,

appreciating other people‟s good ideas and not pretending that one is perfect.

Learning to Lead Down. Leading down is leading one‟s subordinates. At the heart of 360-

Degree leadership with followers is the desire to add value to them. It‟s not about getting people

to do what you want. It‟s about helping them to discover their potential. The skills for leading


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down include walking slowly through the halls, seeing everyone as a “10”, developing each team

member as a person, placing people in their strength-zones, modeling desired behaviors,

transferring your vision and rewarding followers for results.


One promotion that adjunct faculty are not guaranteed, unless they make radical changes in their

careers, is ascendancy to the top of the colleges that hire them. However, if they practice 360-

Degree Leadership, they have the capability of influencing top leadership in the colleges.

Adjunct instructors can become effective go-to players for college leadership since they have a

much closer association with the outside world than full-time faculty.

Adjunct instructors are usually in and out of the campus at the blink of an eye. If they are to

become 360-Degree leaders, they will be better served by understanding and practicing the

Leadership Loop. They need to demonstrate that they are interested in their colleagues. They can

show their appreciating in many different ways, for example, remembering a birthday or sharing

resources. Adjunct instructors can practice winning with their colleagues by passing along

information that can be helpful to others within the organization.

As leaders of students within the classrooms, adjunct instructors have unlimited opportunities

for service and influence. Leading down, being the traditionally common paradigm of leadership,

offers many different strategies for bringing about change. Adjunct instructors should continually

develop their students, transfer a vision for life to them, model for them effective leadership and

reward them for excellent performance in school.


During one of my business classes, our department head and a fellow adjunct instructor

wandered into my classroom as they made their walks around the campus. They came in at the

beginning of the workshop as we were reviewing the previous week‟s lesson. My department

head started raving about my reviews for past courses and how they have been stellar while my

colleague chatted up the students about the value of my presence in the faculty room. My natural

response would have been to keep quiet and let them sing my praises. However, my desire to be

a 360-Degree Leader wouldn‟t let me. Their visit became an opportunity for me to sing my

student‟s praises, mentioning each of them by name and stating specific contributions they had

each added to the entire class.

Do you practice 360-Degree Leadership? What are you doing to lead up? How have you lead

across? What skills are you using in leading down? You can make a great difference through

360-Degree Leadership.


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CHAPTER TWENTY

LEADERSHIP PRACTICES INVENTORY

The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) is a 360-degree leadership assessment tool that was

developed by Kouzes & Posner (1995) from research conducted between 1983 and 1987.


In their study, Kouzes & Posner (1995) triangulated qualitative and quantitative studies,

conducted in-depth interviews of more than 300 respondents and received written case studies of

the Personal-Best Leadership Experience Questionnaire from more than 2500 individuals (p.

341-342). This led to the development of The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership and the

Ten Commitments of Leadership. These five fundamental practices of leadership are:

Model the Way - Leaders set an example for their followers by how they conduct

themselves. Exemplary leaders model the behaviors that they would like to see in the

organization. They embody principles that reflect the group‟s mission and demonstrate

their commitment to the organization‟s goals.

Inspire a Shared Vision - Leaders are future oriented. They motivate followers to

embrace a big picture of possibilities and opportunities. Leaders communicate hope and

optimism to those around them by inspiring them to envision a better future for the group.

Challenge the Process - Leadership is about enabling groups to accomplish specific tasks

and responsibilities. In doing this, leaders endeavor to find new and better ways of

accomplishing the organization‟s objectives. The leaders goal is to find better ways of

realizing the group‟s vision.

Enable Others to Act - Leaders empower others to accomplish the group‟s vision. They

realize the importance of working with others and make great efforts to build teams that

will pursue common objectives. Leaders encourage followers to collaborate and work

together in furthering group effectiveness.

Encourage the Heart - Leaders encourage their followers by recognizing their

achievements. They celebrate the accomplishments of group members and reward them

for their contributions towards realizing the group‟s mission. Leaders encourage their

employees both individually and corporately.

Within these five practices of leadership are behaviors that leaders engage in that Kouzes &

Posner (1995) called the ten commitments of leadership.


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Adjunct instructors can be innovative in their approach to teaching. Many times the content

that is delivered in class may be outdated. Adjunct instructors should consistently update their

notes, keep up with advances in the field and learn from past experiences. By challenging the

process, they can ensure that students are receiving the latest and most relevant information.

Students want inspiration for the future and for their present studies. Adjunct instructors can

uplift students by inspiring them to embrace life-changing career possibilities. Instructors can

also help students with their work and encourage them to develop a passion for their studies. By

sharing knowledge with students, adjunct instructors can empower them to excel. The act of

empowering students in their pursuit of academic excellence is essential for their continued

personal development.

Nothing makes a greater impact on an individual than the example of a worthy role model.

Adjunct instructors can model the way for their students. This begins with embracing the values

of scholarship and academic excellence. An effective adjunct instructor will make the

commitment of helping students achieve consistent wins that promote progress.


Perhaps my favorite practice from the Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership is challenging the

process. Venturing out, whether it‟s leaving my country to come to the United States or leaving a

nice job to start a new organization, has always appealed to me. My students have come to

appreciate my frequent venturing out from “prepared material” to talk about current events that

have immediate relevance to their jobs vis-à-vis the course content. Talking about current events

is sometimes like stepping out into the unknown. However, in my classes, we have found that

some of our best learning takes place when we venture out in this manner.

What practices do you engage in that make you an exemplary leader? How long has it been

since you challenged the process? Do you inspire a shared vision? What do you do to enable

others to act? How do you model the way? Do you encourage the heart? What commitments

have you made that guide you in doing extraordinary things for your organization?


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PART SIX

NEW IDEAS IN LEADERSHIP THEORY

Part six is a discussion of new research areas in leadership. This section examines the ideas of

pragmatic leadership, distributed leadership, individualized leadership and multiple-level

leadership. As with other theories and approaches, the implications for adjunct instructors are

analyzed.


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CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE

PRAGMATIC LEADERSHIP

The idea of pragmatic leadership comes from a study initiated by the management consulting

firm, Booz Allen Hamilton, and the Center for Effective Organizations at the University of

Southern California in 2001. The study was led by Bruce Pasternack, Vice President of Booz

Allen and James O‟Toole, research professor in the Center for Effective Organizations.


Pasternack & O‟Toole (2002) found that the leaders whose companies were doing well in

handling the economic downturn practiced pragmatic management in which their focus was on

the bottom-line. Pasternack & O‟Toole called this “yellow-light leadership”, distinguishing this

approach from “green-light leadership” which is appropriate for periods of economic growth and

“red-light leadership” which is applied when companies are tumbling. Yellow-light leadership is

appropriate for times of uncertainty (Pasternack & O‟Toole, 2002).

The late nineties were a time of declining economic growth for many companies. Leaders

were trying to find a working model of leadership that would bring their organizations out of

decline. This model was developed as an answer to that search. Each season of the leadership

requires a unique approach. Pasternak & O‟Toole (2002) argue,

Until recently, most academics and practitioners found the green-light/red-light formulation

compelling. First, it conforms to an archetypal (albeit politically incorrect) belief that the

person found at the top of any group has leadership running in his veins (genetically, leaders

are alpha males). Second, it follows the conventional wisdom that leadership style is

contingent on circumstances (in good times, leaders employ green-light behavior and, in bad

times, red). Third, by framing the world in terms of either/or, it simplifies the decisions

leaders must make (apply steady pressure to the organizational accelerator when the light is

green; slam on the brakes when it is red). (p. 4)

Pragmatic leadership requires leaders to make judgment calls when the light is yellow. Decision

making should be driven by leadership insight. Gary (2002, p. 4) states that there are two key

insights to ultimate pragmatism: (a) getting the right people in the right positions, and (b)

acknowledging the facts and creating a climate where the truth can be heard. Leaders need to be

practical in their approach to the challenges of leadership. Research indicates that pragmatic

leadership seems to work best in transforming systems rather than people. Mumford & Van

Doorn (2001), in a paper title The Leadership of Pragmatism, argue,

The core characteristics of pragmatic leadership include … the exercise of influence through

elite social relationships, appeals to existing shared values, effective communication of the


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merits of a plan, persuasion and negotiation through demonstration projects, and

entrepreneurial ability to tap both technical and social opportunities for innovation. (p. 302)

Pragmatic leaders understand how to work through others in order to accomplish group

objectives. They have unique skills which allow them to find the very best in people and inspire

them to do what they need to do. Mumford & Van Doorn (2001) argue that pragmatic leadership,

“by stressing the analysis and manipulation of complex social causes in the pursuit of practical

solutions, may represent not just the leadership of the past but the leadership of the future” (p.

305). With additional research, pragmatic leadership could be a key theory in leadership studies.


Adjunct instructors can be pragmatic in their approach to teaching. Class activities should be

designed such that they reflect applicability to current social contexts. Historical content may be

essential in developing an understanding of the foundations of thought in any discipline but there

should always be a discussion of how it applies to contemporary society. Adjunct instructors can

focus on equipping students for today‟s and tomorrow‟s world rather than yesterday‟s world.

Knowledge should be timely, relevant and impactful.

The adjunct instructor‟s role is not to get the student to identify with him or her. Adjunct

instructors have a very practical role: to equip students for success in life and empower them

with practical skills for solving life‟s problems. The guiding passion for every adjunct instructor

should be to help students find that light within that will blaze their pathways in life.

Practical leadership focuses on problems and the rapid dissemination of new ideas and new

forms of organization. No one is more suited to equip students with that ability to focus on

problems and develop new ideas than adjunct instructors. Adjunct instructors have one foot in

the academic world and the other in the marketplace of ideas. They are well positioned to be able

to rapidly disseminate new forms of organization to students.


In one of my International Business courses, we focus on the concept of culture shock and its

impact on negotiation. For one particular class, my teaching strategy involved a simulation of

negotiation processes in a different country. We had half the class act as citizens of a foreign

country with completely no knowledge of English while the other half acted as Americans eager

to do business with them. It was a truly enjoyable learning experience for my students. Some of

them tried to use ideas from the game of charades to communicate with the “locals” but it didn‟t

bear fruit. At the end of the day, a practical concept was communicated to the students and they

each got an idea of how to navigate cross-cultural bridges in international business.

How practical do you make thing for your group members? Are you known as someone who will

take the complex and make it simple? Or do you prefer the abstract to the practical? If so, you

are missing out on opportunities to make a tremendous difference.


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CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO

DISTRIBUTED LEADERSHIP The idea of distributed leadership is included in this manual because in the process of doing

research for this work, the author discovered this idea was developed specifically for the

teaching field.


Jennifer Goldstein of Baruch College in the City University of New York wrote the article

Making Sense of Distributed Leadership: The Case of Peer Assistance and Review in 2003. In

her work, Goldstein explores the shifting leadership responsibility for teacher evaluation.

Goldstein (2003) states,

Peer Assistance and Review (PAR) formally involves teachers in the summative evaluation

of other teachers-although the boundaries of the involvement are often vague. Since teacher

evaluation has traditionally been the domain of school principals, involving teachers in

teacher evaluation raises questions about how those faced with the new role make sense of it

and enact it. (p. 397)

While Goldstein‟s work is targeted for teachers and principals in public secondary education, the

idea of distributed leadership is worth exploring as a leadership theory. Today‟s businesses,

political structures, churches and non-profit organizations are exploring concepts like team

leadership, reducing executive power, etc. All these point to the need to distribute leadership.

Leadership is influence. Too much influence in the command of one individual can be

harmful to the wider group. The past few decades have seen the collapse of leading corporations

as their CEOs abused power and served their own interests while claiming to serve shareholders

and other stakeholders in their organizations. The example of these massive losses should be an

indication of the need to redistribute leadership so that responsibility, influence and power are

shared equally within the organization.

Most groups are established on a hierarchical basis. Organizations develop charts that

indicate clear levels of responsibility from the top management to subordinates. While this is

useful for assigning responsibility, it may be necessary for today‟s organizations to establish

their charts on an equality basis that allows for distribution of leadership. Flattening hierarchies

provides teams with a sense of trust in each other, an open working environment and shared

vision for the accomplishment of organizational objectives. Based on data identified from a study

of Rosemont Unified School District, Goldstein (2003) suggested two models for conceiving

distributed leadership: the first one is dividing tasks between actors and the second is sharing

tasks among actors (p. 414). This approach to leadership entails having a collective approach to

handling organizational challenges.


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Adjunct instructors should distribute leadership within the classroom. Group activities should be

characterized by the involvement of all the students. Distributed leadership allows for maximum

learning by all the students. It also ensures that no one student becomes overwhelmed by the

leadership responsibilities required of the group. The collective act of sharing a task by students

will cultivate a spirit of teamwork and community that can greatly enhance learning.

Distributing leadership amongst students may also act as a neutralizer that eliminates the

need for intense leadership from the instructor. This is particularly important for large classes. It

will also encourage students to direct their own learning. Adults learn best when they can take

charge of the learning process and become self-directed learners. Distributing leadership

amongst students cultivates a sense of empowerment within the group.

Students come to class at different levels of academic ability. It becomes a challenge for fast

learning students when they are paired with slower students for group work. In such cases, the

adjunct instructor can encourage task sharing as opposed to task division. Task sharing is, in

essence, distributing group work in a way that ensures that the burden for completion is equally

assigned to students. By implementing distributed leadership in this manner, the instructor blunts

the possibility of conflict between students.


My international business and globalization classes are perhaps the most enriching experiences

for some of my students. These classes normally have a culture component and there have been

many different strategies for enriching this component. In one particular class, students were

required to present a talk on how to do business in any foreign country. For that particular day,

they were instructed to bring foods representative of the country of their choice. One group had

chosen to represent China, the second group chose Mexico and the third group chose India. It

would have been impossible to have one individual bring in meals representative of each

country. We utilized distributed leadership. Each team brought in their particular foods and each

team member brought in specific foods.

Do you distribute tasks among your group members? What factors do you keep in mind

when assigning tasks to group members? How involved are you in the process of delegating

tasks to followers? Do you encourage group members to share tasks?


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CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE

INDIVIDUALIZED LEADERSHIP

The leader‟s role is to ensure that followers accomplish group goals. This will not happen in

environments where followers do not sense concern about their individual needs from the leader.


The case for individualized leadership was initiated by Dansereau & Yammarino (1998). The

central tenets of individualized leadership were developed through an exchange of letters that

took place between Dr. Michael Mumford and Professors Fred Dansereau and Francis

Yammarino. This exchange of letters was published in a paper titled, Followers, Motivations and

Levels of Analysis: The Case of Individualized Leadership. In the paper, Mumford et al. (2000)

state, “The theory of individualized leadership holds that leaders influence particular

subordinates by reinforcing their sense of self-worth” (p. 313). According to Mumford et al.

(2000) there are three basic premises to the theory of individualized leadership:

(1). Leadership involves a dyadic, perceptual interaction where the leader seeks satisfying

performance from a particular individual subordinate while a subordinate seeks a leader who

builds feelings of self-worth; (2) an individual subordinate will be motivated to perform to

the extent the subordinate believes the leader‟s actions contribute to their sense of self-worth

and (3) a leader builds feelings of self-worth in a subordinate by attending to his or her

individual needs, displaying confidence in the individual‟s ability and integrity, and

providing support for his or her actions. (p. 314)

The theory of individualized leadership is yet to be fully researched but the basic idea is that

humans are motivated by their sense of self-worth, particularly at the dyadic level. People want

social approval. They will engage in those actions that enhance their self-worth. Effective leaders

make an effort to promote the self-worth of followers. People give their very best to a cause,

movement or organization when their own individual needs have been met.


Adjunct instructors should ensure that they are building up the self-worth of their students.

Students with a high sense of self-worth will be disciplined and will give their very best in class

because they tend to be optimistic about their lives. The most successful students are usually

those who have a positive attitude about the learning process. Positive attitude contributes a great

deal to learning aptitude. It enables the learner to approach academic work with an expectation of

success.

Adjunct instructors can individualize their engagement in the instructional process. Each

student is different. There is no one-size-fits-all approach to teaching. Excellent adjunct


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instructors recognize the uniqueness of individual students and utilize the student‟s strengths to

guide that student towards academic excellence. Similarly, there is no one-size-fits-all approach

to leadership. Great adjunct instructors apply the most efficient leadership approach for a

particular time. Flexibility of style on the instructor‟s part adds tremendous value to the process.

As the retrospective commentary in this chapter illustrates, adjunct instructors must sensitize

themselves to the individual student needs represented in the classroom. Students, particularly

adult students, experience various challenges in their personal lives. These challenges impact

their academic work. The wise instructor is intuitive enough to recognize when a student needs

individual attention and to point them in the right direction for help. That is the essence of

teaching – equipping students with real life skills for handling tough challenges in their personal,

professional and community lives.


Instructors sometimes cannot avoid having to help with tough challenges that students go

through. On the very day this chapter was written, one of my students came to me in tears saying

that a friend had been shot the previous night. It was evident that she was distraught and had

experienced a heavy loss. My instruction to her was that she needed to go to the counselor‟s

office and express the situation. She came back with the counselor, who stated that they had

reached a consensus that it would not be a good day for her to stay in class. The individualized

leadership provided in this case boosted the student‟s self-worth.

Are you motivating your group members at an individual level? Are you sensitized to the

needs represented in your group? Do you have an adequate knowledge of how to address

different situations or where to send group members in the event that you may not have an

answer? Reflect on past situations where you may not have exercised individualized leadership.

What can you do differently if such situations arose again?


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CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR

MULTIPLE-LEVEL MULTIDIMENSIONAL LEADERSHIP

Modern researchers in leadership continue to engage in efforts to develop a grand theory of

leadership. In early 2001, James MacGregor Burns invited a group of thinkers in leadership to

join him in the formation of a working group whose task would be to develop a general theory of

leadership (Goethals & Sorenson, 2006). This goal was not attained, largely due to the

fragmented nature of leadership studies, and the search for a general theory continues (Burns,

2006, p. 239). In light of this challenge, Dansereau, Kennedy and Yammarino (2001) argue that

describing this proverbial elephant called leadership, “a multiple level phenomenon”, requires a

multiple perspectives approach because leadership exists at “four different levels of analysis:

person, dyad, group and collective” (p. 149). Each of these levels allows us to develop the “big

picture” of leadership.


The key to understanding leadership is to recognize how each of these levels interact to provide a

concise overall view of leadership.

At the person level of analysis, every leader has a unique approach. The leader develops a

style that enables the use of specific personal skills in guiding a group.

At the dyad level, every leader works on relationships differently but recognizes the

importance of those relationships in the influence process. The tactics that a leader uses

are essential in determining the quality of that leader‟s effectiveness.

With regard to groups, leaders have direct reports who respond differently to interactions

with that leader. This level depends very much on the approach that a leader utilizes.

At the collective level, leaders understand that their followership consists of hierarchies

and the key to success is to ensure group effectiveness. Leaders understand the value of

the organization as a whole. (Dansereau et al., 2001).

According to Dansereau et al. (2001) the different dimensions of leadership play a crucial role in

our understanding of leadership. These dimensions can be grouped into “fundamental human

processes, leadership core processes, leadership outcomes, other multilevel outcomes and

substitutes for leadership” (Dansereau et al., 2001, p. 153).

Fundamental human processes include the leader‟s affect and cognition, interpersonal

attraction, group norms, organizational culture, and methods of communication. Leadership core

processes include personal charisma, dyadic exchanges, group dynamics and managerial roles.

Leadership outcomes include team building, delegation, leader-member exchanges, and linkages

between in-groups and out-groups. Additional multilevel outcomes include concepts like

performance, satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover. Lastly, substitutes for leadership include


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individual knowledge and skills, informal relationships, group cohesiveness, and collective

variables (Dansereau et al., 2001, pp. 153-161).

The twenty-four theories, approaches, and concepts of leadership discussed here, along with

others that may not have been identified in this handbook, interact jointly to create a “leadership

mosaic” (Dansereau et al. 2001, p. 153) of perspectives. This interaction has been recognized by

other researchers. Yukl (2002) laments “the prevailing pattern of segmentation in research on

leadership over the past 50 years” but praises the fact that “different lines of research are

gradually converging” (pp. 428-429). There are many facets and angles to leadership which

should be viewed from a bird‟s eye view rather than a single perspective. In developing

leadership theory, researchers need to take off the blinders and embrace the interrelationships

between a “larger network of interacting variables” (Yukl, 2002, p. 429).


The overall instructional process should be viewed as a leadership experience. If leadership is

influence, no one influences the thoughts, attitudes and actions of another more than an

instructor. Leadership may also be viewed as the process of guiding a group to achieve common

goals. The instructor‟s role is to use the relationship developed with groups of students in

guiding those students to understand a subject better and implement the classroom concepts in

real life.

Adjunct instructors should master how to relate with students as individual persons, within

interpersonal dyads, as members of learning groups and as a collective body of learners. These

four levels of interaction can be used to develop teaching techniques that appeal at all four levels.

Learning is enriched when the instructor makes use of a variety of techniques and tools that

capture the student‟s imagination in diverse ways.

There is a need for adjunct instructors to demonstrate a commitment to developing the

leadership capacities of students. After all, these students will proceed to become leaders in their

various fields. An awareness of the fundamental human processes that make classroom learning

efficient is also essential for an adjunct instructor. Modeling critical core leadership processes

will enable an instructor to provide that example that brings about group effectiveness. Multi-

level multidimensional leadership makes this possible.


One of the primary areas of concern for many students is the grade earned in each assignment

since it ultimately affects their cumulative grade point average. In one of my workshops, a

majority of my students were worried that they would not be able to maintain their grade point

averages. (For some reason I have a reputation for harsh grading). After explaining to them that

they are guaranteed higher point values and excellent grades if they apply feedback from their

graded papers, I assured them that I would work with each of them individually to root out any

problems in their work. I also encouraged them to develop dyadic relationships with their

colleagues and share their papers before submitting them so that they could edit each other‟s


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work. At the group level, I asked them to have frequent sessions in which they could discuss the

requirements in class and how to meet them. By helping them at a variety of levels, I was able to

encourage them to give their very best in class.

Are you inspiring your followers to be effective in their work? Have you taken the time to

analyze what levels of influence you have with your groups? You can apply multi-level

multidimensional leadership with your followers.


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AFTERWORD

TOWARDS A PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY OF LEADERSHIP

The goal of this handbook is to meet leadership needs within the arena of adjunct instructing. As

you may have recognized, leadership theories are in abundance and new theories continue to be

developed. The most important thing is to know that you are a leader. The way to do this is to

develop a personal philosophy of leadership. Adjunct instructors are hired for their effectiveness

in connecting the market-place to the student‟s experiences. If adjunct instructors are to be

valued as leaders, they must demonstrate effectiveness in this capacity. This process is aided by

the challenge of developing a sound personal philosophy of leadership.

This writer‟s philosophy of leadership is based on a definition of leadership that borrows

heavily from the preceding leadership theories and approaches. The writer defines a leader as

one who is aware of the traits that inspire others and uses those traits to help groups achieve

common goals. Leadership, on the other hand, is the possession of a mental model that allows an

individual to manage oneself, adapt to different contexts, and solve problems using virtuous

people skills that influence followers thus stimulating them intellectually towards attaining

predetermined group goals. These two definitions distinguish between leaders and leadership,

and possess within them seven key domains of organizational leadership.

The obligation to inspire others to achieve group goals is rooted in a heart for service. The

secure leader is a servant first. Northouse (2007) argues, “The way a person emerges as a leader

is by first becoming a servant” (p. 349). It is through serving their followers that leaders sustain

commitment in the organization. Having a servant heart is the pathway to personal authenticity

in leadership. George, Sims, McLean & Mayer (2007) say, “Authentic leaders demonstrate a

passion for their purpose, practice their values consistently, and lead with their hearts as well as

their heads. They establish long-term, meaningful relationships and have the self-discipline to get

results. They know who they are” (p. 130). Leaders who make a real difference know who they

are. They understand that trust is the foundation of leadership.

The author‟s leadership philosophy integrates the domain of organizational theory and

research as shown in the definitions of a leader and leadership. The need to manage oneself and

stimulate followers intellectually is included in this philosophy of leadership. Organizational

learning takes place through the feedback process of management and training. Leadership aims

at developing oneself so that one can be more effective in bringing about change in the lives of

others. The author‟s philosophy addresses this domain of change. Leaders work with followers to

bring about change. Adapting to different contexts means being flexible enough so that the

leadership style utilized can bring about the desired results. The domain of innovation and

entrepreneurship is reflected in the leader‟s role as a problem solver. Adaptability across

different contexts addresses globalization, ethics and governance. In a changing world,

adaptability is essential for great leadership that makes a difference.


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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Herman Jumba Najoli is a doctoral student in the Organizational Leadership Program at Indiana

Wesleyan University in Marion, IN. His research interests include authenticity, transformational

leadership, worldview and leadership, African leadership styles, multicultural leadership,

research methodology, global leadership, international business leadership, leadership

development, organizational leadership, stewardship, intercultural management, organizational

learning processes, organizational change, and servant leadership.

Mr. Najoli currently serves as senior principal of First Class Leadership (FCL), a consulting

firm specializing in the design and delivery of leadership development and education programs.

Herman serves as an adjunct instructor at two college campuses in the Greater Cincinnati area

(Ohio, Indiana and Northern Kentucky). Herman can be reached online through his website at

www.firstclassleadership.com.


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Pasternack, B. A. & O‟Toole, J. (2002). Yellow light leadership: How the world‟s best

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NAME INDEX

Arrow, H., 19

Bales, R. F., 2

Berdahl, J. L., 19

Blake, R. R., 9,

Blanchard K. H., 28, 29

Borgatta, E.F., 2

Bowers, D. G., 8

Burns, J. M., 48, 49, 67

Capozzoli, T., 2, 13, 28

Chemers, Martin, 32

Christner, C. A., 8

Couch, A. S., 2

Covey, S. R., 52, 53

Dansereau, F., 65, 67, 68

Dienesch, 13, 14

Drucker, P., 4

Ferraro, G. P., 43, 44

Fleishman, E. A., 5, 6

French, J. R. P., 46

Fiedler, Fred, 31, 32

Gardner, H., ix

Gary, L., 61

George, B., 70

Goldstein, J., 63

Green, S. G., 14

Greenleaf, R. 25, 26, 48

Harding, F. D., 5

Hemphill, J. K., 8

Hesse, Herman, 25

Hill, S. E. K., 19, 20

Hofstede, Geert, 44

Jacobs, T. O., 5, 6

Jung, C. G., 22

Katz, R. L., 5, 6

Kennedy, C. J., 67

Kerr, Steve, 35

Kirkpatrick, S. A., 3

Kouzes, J. M., 48, 57, 58

Laskin, E., ix

Leo, 25

Liden, R. C., 13, 14

Locke, E. A., 3,

Ludden, L. L., 2, 13, 28

Maccoby, M. , 22, 23

Machiavelli, 25

Maxwell, J. M., 55,

Mayer, D., 70

McGrath, J. E., 19

McLean, A. N., 70

Mitchell, T. R., 14

Mouton, J. S., 9

Mumford, M. D., 5, 6, 61, 62, 65

Northouse, P. G., ix, 2, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16, 22, 23,

28, 31, 33, 45, 48, 49, 70

O‟Toole, J., 61,

Ogburn, W. F., 2

Pasternack, B., 61

Posner, B. Z., 57, 58

Rath, T., 3

Raven, B. H. , 46

Reddin, W. J., 28

Schriesheim, C., 35

Seashore, S. E., 8

Shartle, C. L., 12

Sims, P., 70

Stogdill, R. M., 12,

Van Doorn, J. R., 61, 62

Yammarino, F. J., 65, 67

Yukl, G., 13, 14, 25, 31, 35, 37, 38, 43, 48, 49,

Zaccaro, S. J., 5, 6, 20

Zaleznik, A., 22


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SUBJECT INDEX

attitude, ix, 8, 20, 35, 45, 46, 65, 68

attribution, 14,

authority, ix, 9, 10, 26, 31, 32, 36, 47, 48

behavior, ix, 1, 8, 10, 11, 13, 19, 22, 29, 30,

33-35, 37-39, 43, 46, 47, 50, 56, 57, 61

beliefs, 25, 38, 41, 42, 44-46, 50,

Booz Allen Hamilton, 61

Bureau of Business Research, 8

Center for Effective Organizations, 61

classroom management, 3

career experiences, 5, 6

character, 14, 26, 48, 49, 52

charisma, 16, 23, 67

conceptual skill, 5, 6

context, 2, 3, 8, 19, 28, 31, 43, 62, 70

contingency theory, 31, 32

contingent reward, 16, 17

commitments of leadership, 57-59

culture, 36, 41-45, 48, 62, 64, 67

cross-cultural leadership, 43-45

determination, 2, 3, 37

development levels, 28, 30

direct leaders, 2

distributed leadership, 63, 64

dominion, 26

education, 26, 63, 71

effectiveness, 2, 3, 5, 19, 20, 23, 27, 29, 31,

32, 37, 38, 53, 57, 67, 68, 70

environmental influences, 5, 6

ethical leadership, 48-52

ethnocentrism, 45

expertise, ix, 47

extraversion, 22

flexibility, 30, 66

followership, 3, 67

Gallup, 3

giftedness, 3

globalization, 43, 64, 70

great man, 2, 48

green-light leadership, 61

group, ix, 2, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13-15, 19-21, 23-

26, 28, 30, 32-36, 37-39, 41-48, 50,

57, 61-70

human skill, 5, 6

idealized influence, 16

individual attributes, 5

individualized consideration, 16, 17

individualized leadership, 65, 66

inspirational motivation, 16

intellectual stimulation, 16

introversion, 22

influence, ix, 2, 3, 5, 13, 16, 19, 25, 26, 33,

35-38, 43, 46-48, 55, 56, 61, 63, 65,

67-70

integrity, 2, 26, 49, 65

intelligence, 2, 3, 5, 6

interpersonal leadership, 52

intervening variables, 37-39

leader

qualities of, 2, 5

performance, 6, 9

Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire

(LBDQ), 8,

leader-member exchange (LMX) theory, 13,

14, 31, 32, 67

leaders

born or made, 2, 5, 8

leadership:

as a process, ix, 3, 5, 10, 12, 13, 14-16,

19-21, 23, 32, 34, 46, 57-59, 67, 68

as a relationship, 2, 8, 9-15, 21, 28, 31,

32, 37, 48, 49, 52, 67, 68, 70

definition, ix, 46, 48, 55, 70


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70

ethics, 48, 70

grid, 9, 10

the challenge of, ix, 2, 3, 6, 20, 25, 30,

31, 43, 45, 52, 55, 57, 61, 63, 67, 70

style, 8-11, 22, 28-33, 43, , 45, 61, 66,

67, 70

leadership loop, 55, 56

Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI), 57

leadership substitutes theory, 35

Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC), 31

life-cycle model, 13, 14

management

of self, 36, 55

of the classroom, 3

organizational, 10, 28, 61, 63, 70

management-by-exception, 16, 17

managerial grid, 9, 10

managerial leadership, 10, 28, 61, 63, 70

mission statement, 26, 42

morality, 16, 49

motivation, ix, 4, 5, 6, 16, 19, 20, 30, 33, 34,

44, 49, 65

multiple level leadership, 67

multiple linkage theory, 37

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 23

neutralizers, 35

Ohio State University, 8, 9

organizational leadership, 53, 70

path-goal theory, 33, 34

personal development, 5, 59

Personal-Best Leadership Experience, 57

personal leadership, 52,

personal traits, 2-4

personality, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 22-24, 52

power, 26, 31, 32, 35, 36, 44, 46-48, 52, 53,

55, 63

practices of exemplary leadership, 57-59

pragmatic leadership, 61, 62

prejudice, 45

principle-centered leadership, 52-54

problem-solving, 5, 6

productive narcissist, 22, 23

psychodynamic approach, 22

qualities, 2, 3, 5

recruitment, 53

red-light leadership, 61

relationship, 2, 8, 10-14, 21, 28, 31, 32, 37,

44, 47-50, 52, 61, 67, 68, 70

relationship motivated, 31, 32

reputation, 47, 68

responsibility, 19, 20, 23, 25, 33, 36, 37, 49,

53, 63

self-confidence, 2, 3

self-examination, 50

self-leadership, 3, 36

self-worth, 5253, 65, 66

servant leadership, 25, 26, 48, 52

shared leadership, 48

situation, 2, 6, 8, 19, 27-33, 35-39, 43, 44,

50, 53, 66,

situational leadership theory, 28

situational variables, 31, 35, 37, 43

skills, 5-7, 8, 15, 17, 19, 21, 24, 30, 32, 36,

47, 55, 56, 62, 66, 67, 68, 70

skills approach, 5-7

sociability, 19,

style, 8-11, 22, 28-33, 43, , 45, 61, 66, 67,

70

style approach, 8, 10

strengths, 3, 4

substitutes, 35, 67

Survey Research Center, 8

talent, 2

task motivated, 31, 32

team leadership, 19-21, 63

team performance, 19, 20

technical skills, 5, 6

training, 35, 37, 42, 53, 70


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71

trait theory, 2, 3, 5, 8

transactional leadership, 16

transformational leadership, 16, 17, 49, 52

University of California, 46

University of Michigan, 8, 9, 46

vertical dyad linkage (VDL), 13

values, 17, 25, 38, 41-43, 45, 49, 50, 52, 54,

58, 59, 61, 68, 70

visionary, 22, 23

wisdom, 52, 53, 61

yellow-light leadership, 61

Documents

Handbook of Leadership Theory for Adjunct Instructors