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18. FISH MEAL
IS.I. Rationale
Historical Background Fish by-products have been used for feeding animals for many centuries ago. As early as 800 AD, herring was utilised as a raw material in Norway. The oil was pressed with wooden boards and stones for human consumption and the remains were used as feed. In the travels of Marco Polo as written in the 14th century, a primitive form of fish meal was already described and fed to animals(60}. In the past, in Great Britain and Japan, fish meal and fish solubles were used as fertiliser and first of all as animal feed because of its high nutritional value(35}. Fish meal of high grade quality is used also for human consumption in countries where there is a lack of protein in malnourished children's diets. Fish meal manufacture is now the largest operation in the world. Around 12% of the world production of fish meal is used in aquaculture feeds(44}. In addition, production of fish meal and fish silage (Chapter 20) is a good way of managing waste from fish processing, thus, protecting the environment.
Sources Most commercial fish meals are produced from a mixture of various fish species such as fish meal from small oily fishes of the herring family, anchovy which is fished off Peru and Chile, menhaden, which is obtained in large amounts off the East coast of the U.S.A. and the Gulf of Mexico and sardines caught in waters off Nordic countries, Japan and Russia. Generally a meal produced from a defined fish species can be declared as pure if more than 50% of the raw material is from only one species(59}. Occasionally meal from the following species may also be available:
Anchovy (false) (Stolephorus commersonii) Anchovy (true) (Engraulidae spp.)
• BreamlRedfish (Sebastes spp.) Cod (Gadus morhua) Conger (Conger conger) Capelin (Mallotus villosus) Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
• Chilean hake (Merluccius geyi) Croaker (Sciaenidae spp.) Haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) Halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus)
• Herring (Clupea harengus) Horse mackerel (Trachurus spp.) Mackerel (Scomber scombrus)
J. W. Hertrampf et al., Handbook on Ingredients for Aquaculture Feeds
© Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000
178 CHAPTER 18
Menhaden (Brevoortia spp.) Pilchard (Sardina pilchardus) Pollack (Pollachius pollachius) Sand eel (Ammodytidae spp.) Shark (order Squaliformes) Tuna (Thunnus spp.)
Commercially produced fish meal are labelled according to: Country of origin (Alaskan, Canadian, Danish, Peruvian, Thailand fish meal) Procedure of manufacture (steam dried, sun-dried, low temperature dried, flame dried, freeze dried) Fish species (e.g. Herring, Menhaden, Pollack, Anchovy) Colour (white or brown fish meal)
The raw material used in Danish fish meals normally consists of small fish not for human consumption such as sand eels (Amnodytes), Norway Pout (Trisopterus esmarki) and sprat (Spratus spratus)l30). Peruvian fish meal comes mostly from anchovy. Type of fish meals produced by some exporting countries are listed in Table 18-01.
Table 18-01: Types of fish meals produced by some fish meal exporting countries(25)
Country Types of meal Drying process
Canada Herring Steam
Chile Anchovy and horse mackerel Flame/steam
Iceland Herring and Capelin All low temperature
Japan Sardine
Norway Herring and Capelin All low temperature
Peru Anchovy
South Africa Pilchard
U.S.A. Menhaden (mostly in the South) Flame/steam
In Great Britain, "white fish meal" is defined as containing not more than 6.0% oil and 4.0% salt. In Norway distinction is made between herring meal and fish meal. The former is only from herring while the latter is from cod and fish offal and is of lower quality(5). Fish meal containing 65 to 70% crude protein is generally called "herring meal" in Denmark while "fish meal" has a lower protein content.
18.2 Manufacture and Processing
The principle in fish meal processing is the separation of the solids from water and oils. The quality of fish meal depends on several factors which are:
Temperature at the time the fish are caught; Temperature at which the fish is stored prior to processing; Length of storage prior to processing;
FISH MEAL 179
• Type or composition of fish catch; • Method of catching the fish.
Fish meal has to be processed as soon as the fish is caught in the ship offshore or at shore. A by-product of fish meal manufacture is fish oil(32) (Chapter 29). There are two principal ways of producing fish meal: Direct drying which is an old process and cooking before dryingl6). With the latter, a higher quality fish meal is obtained(32).
Wet Reduction Process Fish is cooked in a long steam jacketed cylinder or steam is injected into the cooking material. Undercooking and overcooking has to be avoided (Figure 18-01). The pressing stage removes the major portion of the oil and water followed by drying.
Whole fish
~ Waler ~ Unload_ Water
~ Raw storage
I Cooker
I Press ~Press IiqUO'r
I Dryer Stage 1_ Steam
I Solubles ~ Dryer Stage 2_ Steam
I Antioxidanl_ Fish meal
~ Warehouse
I Grinding_Bagging
L ~ Shipping_ Storage
Figure 18-01. Flow diagram in the processing offish meal(50).
In the direct drying process, very hot air of up to 500°C is passed over the material as it is tumbled rapidly in a drum. Direct drying is a quick method but the nutrients of the finished product can be easily heat damaged.
There is less damage to the nutrients if the fish meal is processed by indirect steam drying which is also termed "indirect fired" "steam dried" or "low temperature" fish meal process. Hereby a steam jacket or steam heated discs are used(35). Compared to steam-drying, air-drying reduces the protein content by 10.5% and the fat level by 0.6%(39).
Returning the fish solubles (see Chapter 21) to the press cake prior to drying gives fish meal known as "whole meal".
180 CHAPTER 18
Heat Transfer Process The heat transfer method (HTM) was developed in the USA. Oil is added to a slurry of the raw material which acts as a heat transfer medium. In another process, the oil is removed by solvent extraction rather than by pressing and centrifuging the liquid material(32).
Artisanal Process In developing countries fish meal is produced by artisanal methods such as cooking, draining, sun-drying and mechanically grinding the fish. The quality of "cooked" fish meal is higher than that of "raw-salted" fish meal(34). Small-scale processing under local conditions does not produce a quality compared to industrial fish meals(ll).
18.3 Chemical, Physiological and Other Properties
Chemical Properties Fish meal is a high quality protein feedstuff. The chemical composition, particularly the protein content varies widely and depends on fish species used for fish meal manufacture (Tables 18-02), season, and the latitude where the fish are caught. Fish meal is also an excellent source of essential amino acids (Table 18-03).
Table 18-02: Chemical composition of fish meal (% in dry matter)
Meal from ... I Dry Crude Crude Matter protein fat
1. Fish meal from defined s!)ecies(51. 59)
Anchovy (true) 92.0 70.7 5.3 Anchovy (false) 93.0 78.0 9.0 Bream 93.0 63.2 10.3 Capelin 91.1 72.6 9.3 Chilean hake 81.6 83.3 2.4 Cod 89.7 68.6 3.8 Crokaer 94.0 63.1 10.9 Haddock 93.4 65.9 4.7 Halibut 53.2 13.1 Herring 90.0 74.4 9.0 Horse Mackerel 95.4 70.9 13.7 Mackerel 92.0 66.4 10.3 Menhaden 92.6 66.6 11.1 Pilchard 91.8 66.5 7.6 Pollack 94.8 65.5 17.7 Sandeel 91.0 72.6 8.3 Sardine 93.0 65.2 5.0 Shark 92.0 72.3 17.9 Tuna 64.0 10.1
2. Fish meal from unspecified fish(9. /6.20.23.35.37.40.4/.5/.56)
White fish meal 91.5 65.8 8.5 Brown fish meal 91.3 69.0 6.0 Fish waste meal 90.0 49.2 9.0
lFor scientific names of fish species see Chapter 18.1
Ash
16.9 12.5 25.2 10.6 14.3 26.0 20.2 26.5 32.8 15.0
21.1 20.9 20.4 14.1 10.6 19.8
23.6
19.5 14.8 34.4
Crude fibre
4.7
0.9
1.0
1,4
N-free extract
7.1 0.5 1.3 2.8
1.6 4.9 2.9 0.9 1.6
2.2 1.4 5.5 2.7 8.5 9.0
2.3
4.8 10.2 7.4
Tab
le 1
8-03
: E
ssen
tial
am
ino
acid
pro
file
of
fish
mea
l (g
fl6
g N
)(59)
Arg
i-H
isti
-Is
o-L
enci
ne
Lys
ine
Met
hi-
Phe
nyl-
Thr
eo-
Try
p-V
alin
e
Leu
cine
ni
ne
dine
le
ncin
e on
ine
alan
ine
nine
to
pyan
1. D
efin
ed f
ish
s!!e
cies
(59)
Anc
hovy
(tr
ue)
5.9
2.5
4.7
7.7
8.0
2.9
4.2
4.4
1.2
5.4
Anc
hovy
(fa
lse)
5.
1 3.
4 5.
2 8.
0 9.
5 3.
7 4.
5 4.
7 1.
2 5.
8
Bre
am
6.4
2.3
3.7
5.7
6.6
3.0
4.0
4.1
1.0
4.5
Cap
elin
5.
4 2.
0 4.
2 7.
2 6.
9 2.
9 3.
5 4.
1 4.
6
Cod
6.
6 2.
0 4.
8 8.
1 7.
2 3.
0 3.
8 5.
2 1.
0 5.
3 '"
rl
Had
dock
5.
3 1.
7 5.
1 7.
4 .2
2.
6 3.
2 4.
2 0.
9 V
; :r:
Her
ring
6.
6 2.
4 4.
7 7.
5 7.
7 2.
8 3.
9 4.
2 l.
l 5.
8 3::
tT
l H
orse
Mac
kere
l 6.
6 2.
7 4.
3 7.
1 8.
0 2.
4 3.
4 4.
0 0.
7 4.
9 >
t""
'
Men
hade
n 6.
1 2.
5 4.
3 7.
0 7.
7 2.
8 3.
9 4.
0 l.
l 5.
1
Pil
char
d 5.
7 2.
9 4.
1 7.
4 7.
4 2.
7 3.
8 4.
3 1.
2 5.
6
Pol
lack
9.
0 3.
0 5.
1 8.
4 11
.9
2.4
4.1
4.9
0.9
5.8
Sha
rk
6.6
2.2
5.6
8.5
7.1
2.5
4.3
4.7
1.4
5.5
Tun
a 6.
5 3.
3 4.
5 7.
2 7.
2 2.
7 4.
1 4.
3 1.
0 5.
3
2. U
ns!!
ecif
ied
fish,
lo.
16.
20.2
9. ]
7. ]
8.4
2)
Whi
te f
ish
mea
l 5.
3 1.
8 3.
5 6.
4 6.
3 2.
4 2.
1 2.
2 0.
8 2.
6
Bro
wn
fish
mea
l 4.
6 2.
0 3.
0 5.
5 6.
2 1.
6 3.
2 3.
1 2.
3 3.
2
......
00
182 CHAPTER 18
The fat content of fish meal is species specific (Table 18-02). Normally, fish meal is de-oiled. Nevertheless, fish meal from oily fish species may contain up to 9.0% oi}05). The residual oil in fish meal is rich in PUFA, predominantly of the n-3 family (Table 18-04).
Fish meal has a high ash content and is particularly high when made mainly from fish frames (Tables 18-02). Generally, the higher the ash content, the higher the calcium, phosphorus and magnesium content which are predominantly from the fish bones (Table 18-05). Fish meal is a source of selenium which is of good availability(l5).
Fish meal is rich in water soluble vitamins but the content of fat soluble vitamins is insignificant (Table 18-06).
Table 18-04: Important fatty acids in lipids of fish meal (%)(15)
Fatty acid
Tetradecanoic
Hexadecanoic
Octadecanoic
Hexadecenoic
Octadecenoic
Eicodecenoic
Docosacenoic
Eicosapentaenoic
Docosahexaenoic
Total n-6-PUFA
Total n-3-PUFA
14:0
16:0
18:0
16:1
18:1
20:1
22:1
20:5n-3
22:6n-3
White fish meal
3.2
11.0
1.7
6.8
16.9
9.7
9.1
12.0
19.2
304
35.5
South American fish meal
6.3
19.9
4.8
7.3
11.4
3.0
1.8
14.6
1704
4.1
34.3
Table 18-05: Macro and micro mineral contents of some typical fish meals (/5)
Mineral White fish South American meal fish meal
Calcium % 8.00 4.00
Phosporus (total) % 4.80 2.60
Phosphorus (available) % 4.80 2.60
Potassium % 0.90 0.70
Chlorine % 2.00 1.82
Magnesium % 0.15 0.25
Sodium % 1.30 0.87
Iron mg/kg 300 246
Copper mg/kg 7.0 11.0
Manganese mg/kg 10.0 2.0
Zinc mg/kg 100 III
Selenium mg/kg 1.50 lAO
Herring-type fish meal
4.9
14.8
2.1
5.8
1404
10.9
11.9
10.1
1504
3.5
27.1
Herring type fish meal
2.0
1.90
1.90
1.20
1.03
0.11
0.70
150
5.0
10.0
120
2.20
FISH MEAL 183
Table 18-06: Vitamin content of some typical fish meals (per 1,000 g)l15)
Vitamin White fish South American Herring-type
meal fish meal fish meal
Vitamin A IU 3.9 8.9
VitaminE mg 9.8 3.4 4.0
Vitamin K3 mg 2.4
Vitamin B, mg 1.8 1.9 0.7
Vitamin B2 mg 6.5 6.60 7.3
VitaminB6 mg 3.3 3.5 3.7
Vitamin B'2 meg 70 180 250
Biotin mcg 80 260 420
Folic acid meg 500 160 500
Nicotinic acid mg 50 95 126
Pantothenic acid mg 15.0 9.3 30.6
Choline mg 4,400 4,400 4,400
Physiological Properties The energy content of fish meal depends on the protein and oil content. The data on the digestible energy found in aquatic and terrestrial animals do not differ much from each other when quality of the fish meal is considered (Table 18-07).
Table 18-07: Metabolisable and digestible energy content of fish meals in aquatic and terrestrial animals
Chinook salmon
Herring meal
- HerringlCapelin meal'
Anchovy meal
Menhaden meal
Channel catfish
- Fish meal2
~ - Herring-type meal
Poullly
- Fish meal2
Metabolisable energy
kcal/kg MJ/kg
3,460 14.5
'organic matter; 2from unspecified matter
Digestible energy Reference
kcaVlcg MJ/kg
4,876 20.4 (24)
4,661 19.5 (24)
4,827 20.2 (24)
4,063 17.0 (24)
3,906 16.3 (36)
4,804 20.1 (/5)
3,650 15.3 (16)
184 CHAPTER 18
The protein digestibility of fish meal is highest for grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus) and chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) and lowest for milkfish (Chanos chanos) and yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) (Table 18-08). Other digestibility data are rare.
Table 18-08: Apparent digestibility (%) of fish meals in various aquatic species(7.13. 19.21.24.26.31.38.49)
Protein Fat Fibre Dry matter Energy
Salmonids (general) 81.8 89.2 88.2 91.7
Atlantic salmon
(Salmo salar) 88.5
Chinook salmon
(Oncorhynchus tschawyscha) 89.9 86.7 89.2
Rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdneri) 86.0
(Common carp)
(Cyprinus carpio) 86.4
Grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella) 90.8 90.0 100.0 68.1 83.4
Channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus) 85.5 84.5
Tilapia
(Oreochromis spp.) 87.5
Milkfish
(Chanos chanos) 61.5
Sea bass
(Dicentrachus labrax) 88.3
Yellowtail
(Seriola quinqueradiata) 62.0
Tiger prawn
(Penaeus monodon) 66.4
The bioavailability of minerals in fish meal varies among species. Phosphorus bioavailability appears to be correlated with the presence of gastric juice in the stomach and is low in stomachless fish like the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and high in fish with stomach such as rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)(56).
Zinc and manganese availability is related to the fish meal's content of ca1ciumphosphate as found in rainbow trout(4.46).
The bioavailability of magnesium in white fish meal is very low. Utilisation of magnesium might be distorted by an undefined substance in white fish meal. Supplementation of the diet, therefore, has to be considered(46). Selenium in fish meal has low availability (47.5%)14).
FISH MEAL 185
Other Favourable Properties High quality fish meals are a good source of phospholipids. Unspecified fish meals may contain 2.47% phospholipids(28). Tuna meal has a phospholipid content of only 0.5(59). Fish meal has chemo-attractant properties most probably due to its high content of glutamic acid. Glutamic acid, although a non-essential amino acid is abundant in fish meal ranging from 11.8 to 14.9 gl16 g N and may be one of the reasons why fish meal can serve as a chemo-attractant.
The pelletising ability of fish meal according to CPM is rated "medium" for both pelletising ability and abrasiveness(27).
Unfavourable Properties Fish meal produced from improperly handled raw fish may contain histamine (B-imidazolylethylamine) (CsH9N3) which is a N-containing heterocyclic biogen amine, produced by microbial decarboxylation of the amino acid histidine. The toxin can be produced in just three to four hours when fish is kept at a room temperature of 18° to 22°C. The normal histamine level of fish is less than 1.0 mg% but histamine levels as high as 430 mg% were found in yellowtail(33). The toxin can cause allergic reactions, lowers the blood pressure by dilating the blood vessels and stimulates gastric secretion (enteritis). Histamine is heat stable but the enzyme histaminase, found in the digestive system, is capable of inactivating histamine(33. 53. 58).
18.4 Feeding Value
In feeding cultured aquatic animals two types of fish meal are used: White fish meal and brown fish meal. White fish meal is of higher nutritional value than brown fish meal. About 2/3 of protein in aquatic diets come from fish meal(32) and its fish feeding value has caused its extensive use in aquaculture diets. Of the total fish meal used in aquaculture feeds, 93.2% was consumed by carnivorous species(51). Fish meal is also used as the sole source of protein in the determination of protein requirements of various aquatic species.
Fishes Fish meal is the major protein source of fish diets. Its replacement by less expensive components were the target of many experiments. The differences in the feeding value of meal of defined fish species were also tested (see Chapter 18.1).
For salmonids such as chinook salmon and rainbow trout insignificant differences were found when various meals of defined fish species were tested (Table 18_09)(3.12,22). Insignificant differences in performances also were found when different meals of defined fish species were fed to turbot (Scopthalmus maximus)(l4), red sea bream (Pagrus major) and the Japanese eel (Aguillajaponica)(41).
Intensive culture of channel catfish (lctalurus punctatus) requires diets with a high level of fish meal (Menhaden). Replacement of all fish meal by soybean meal on isonitrogenous basis resulted in poor fish development for juvenile blue catfish (lctalurus furcatus). A minimum of 13.0% fish meal in a diet containing 34.0% crude protein has been established{2}.
186 CHAPTER 18
Table 18-09: Response of rainbow trout (Salrno gairdneri) fingerlings on feeding diets with tilapia or herring meal (feeding period: 12 weeks(22)
Herring meal % 26.7
TIlapiameal % 30.6
Crude protein % 42.1 40.1
Crude fat % 7.4 9.6
Gross energy kcal/kg 4,680 4,560
MJ/kg 19.6 19.1
Initial weight g 23.0 23.0
Mean weight gain g 36.0 39.0
Daily weight gain g 0.429 0.464
Carcass composition (in dry matter):
- Dry matter % 22.6 21.5
- Protein % 67.1 69.0
- Lipid % 19.5 17,9
- Ash % 10.7 11.5
- Energy kcal/kg 5,460 5,440
MJ/kg 22.8 22.8
The rather frugal tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) responded better to a diet containing fish meal than blood meal(55). Replacing all fish meal by soybean meal in a diet (24% crude protein) for male tilapia significantly reduced performances. Adding of methionine to the soybean diet was ineffective(48).
Mudfish (Clarias anguillaris) fingerlings performed best when fish meal was the only protein source instead of a mixture of fish meal, blood meal and ground nut cake(l7). White fish meal is a better protein source than herring meal in diets for the European eel (Anguilla anguilla)l29J• The growth of milkfish fry is improved substantially, when 30% of dietary protein from maize gluten meal is replaced with white fish meal(Table 18-10)(47).
Table 18-10: Growth response of milkfish (Chanos chanos) fry fed white fish meal and/or maize gluten meal(47)
Maize gluten meal
White fish meal
Weight gain
Survival
Feed conversion
Crustaceans
%
%
%
%
1:
52.3
312
14.2
4.9
45.4
8.3
862
56.0
1.8
38.1
17.0
1,275
63.0
1.5
Shrimp need fish meal in their diets. In post-larvae (2.0 to 3.0 g) tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) the highest survival rate was attained with fish meal as the sole protein source, but tlIe best growth rate was obtained witlI the combination of fish meal and shrimp head
FISH MEAL 187
meal (1:1)143). Brown fish meal based diets can sustain good growth and high survival of the larval kuruma prawn (Penaeus japonicus) and is comparable to live food(54).
Molluscs The phagostimulatory properties of dietary white fish meal has been tested in gastropod molluscs. White fish meal can be the major protein source in artificial diets for abalone (Haliotis spp.)l8).
It seems that it is the most desirable protein source for abalone(l8). The amino acid profile and the lipids of fish meal are easily digestible at abalone's body temperature. The high concentration of PUFAs are also of value to abalone! 18).
18.5 Recommended Inclusion Rate
The cost of fish meal limits its application level in diets for cultured aquatic animals. The mean and optimal inclusion rates of fish meal are as follows(51. 52):
Carnivores 50.0% Omnivoreslherbivores 25.0% Penaeid shrimps 25.0% Other crustaceans 20.0%
18.6 Legal Aspects
According to EU-Regulation 92/87 of 26 October 1992, fish meal has the No. 10.01 and is defined as "a product processed from fishes or parts of them of which the oil has been partly extracted and the fish solubles may be added to the product". Products with more than 75% crude protein may be declared as "high protein fish meal". Quality requirements of fish meals according to German feedstuff legislation are in Table 18-11.
In the U.S.A. fish meal (AAFCO No. 51.14) is defined as "the clean, dried ground tissue of undecomposed whole fish or fish cuttings, either or both with or without extraction of part of the oil". It must contain not more than 1 0.0% moisture. If it contains more than 3.0% salt (NaCl), the amount of salt must be labelled. In no case must the salt content exceed 7.0%(1). The requirement for fish residue meal (AAFCO No. 51.24), which is the residue from the manufacture of glue from non-oily fish, is the same as for fish meaJll).
Undesirable substances may reduce the value of a fish meal. The German feedstuff law permits undesired substances in fish meal only at the following levels(57):
Aflatoxin B, max. 0.05 mg/kg Arsenic max. 10.00 mg/kg Cadmium max. 2.00 mg/kg Fluorine max. 500.00 mg/kg Mercury max. 0.50 mg/kg
188 CHAPTER 18
Table 18-11: Quality requirements (%) of fish meals according to German feedstuff legislation(57)
Fish meal standard type
55 60 64
Moisture max. 12.0 12.0 12.0
Crude protein min. 55.0 60.0 64.0
Digestible protein' min. 88.0 88.0 88.0
Crude fat max. 12.0 12.0 12.0
Ash max. 2.2 2.2 2.2
Sodium-chloride max. 5.0 4.0 4.0
Calcium-chloride max. 2.7 2.5 2.0
1. Coml1ulsoo: declaration on labels
Crude protein + + + Crude fat + + + Sodium-chloride + + +
2. Voluntllo: declaration on ll!!lels
Moisture + + + Calcium-carbonate + + + Phosphorus + + +
'Pepsin-hydrochloric test
18.7 References
1. AAFCO (1995): Official publication 1995. Ass. of American Feed Control Officials (publisher), Sacramento,
USA. p.548.
2. Andrews, J. w.; Page, J. W. (1974): Growth factors in the fish meal component of catfish diets. J. Nutr.,
104., 1091-1096.
3. Anonymous (1980): Fish meal: wide range ofraw fish and a high quality are the keynotes. World Fishing,
29., 13-15.
4. Bell and Cowey. (1989): Digestibility and bioavailability of dietary selenium from fish meal, selenite,
selenomethionine and selenocystine in atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture, 81., 61-68.
5. Baelum, J. (1962): EI pescado y los productors pesgueros en la alimentacion de las aves. In: Heen,E. and
Kruezer, B. (eds.): Fish in Nutrition. FAO. Rome.
6. Bredon, R.M.; Marshall, B. (1954): Small-scale fish meal production under tropical conditions. The East
African Agric. J., Oct.. 98-101.
7. Brown, P.B.; Strange, R.J.; Robbins, K.R. (1985): Protein digestibility coefficients for yearling channel
catfish fed high protein feedstuffs. Prog. Fish. Cult., 47., 94-97.
8. Care/oot, T.H. (1982): Gastropod nutrition. Proc. 2nd International Conf. on Aquaculture Nutrition:
FISH MEAL 189
Biochemical and Physiological Approaches to Shellfish Nutrition. 27-29 Oct. 1981. Louisiana State
Univ., Baton Rouge Louisiana. 321-337.
9. Cho, e.Y.; Cowey, e.; Watanabe, T. (1985): Finfish nutrition in Asia: Methodological approaches to
research and development. IDRC, 233e. Ottawa/Canada.
10. Chou, R. (1985): Performance of various fish meal diets in young sea bass (Lates calcarifer Bloch).
In: Cho, e.Y.; Cowey, e.B.; Watanabe, T. (eds.): Finfish Nutrition in Asia: Methodological approaches to
research and development. IDRC 233, Ottawa, Canada.
11. Coulibaly, M.; Diambra, 0.; Bangare, K. (1989): Chemical and nutritional characteristics of fish meal
related to processing techniques. Proc. FAD Expert Consultation on Fish Technology in Agrica Abidjan,
Cote D' Ivoire, 25 to 28 April 1988. FAD Comm. From Inland Fisheries of Latin America, Rome, Italy,
1989. No. 400 pp. 199-202.
12. Crawford, D.L.; Law, D.K.; McKee, T.B.; Westgate, l. W (1994): Nutritional characteristics of Oregon
pellet rations containing meals of different fish species. Prog. Fish. Cult., 36., 3-7.
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