350 THE JOURNAL O F SCHOOL HEALTH

3.

4.

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7. 8.

9.

10.

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12.

13.

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Gallagher, J. R. Rest and Restriction: Their Conflict with an Adolescent’s Development. Am. J. Public Health, 46: 1424, 1956. Feinstein, A. R., el al. Physical Activity and Rheumatic Heart Disease in Asymptomatic Patients, J.A .MA ,. 180: 1028, 1962. McCrar , W. W., Fleisher, D., and Sohn, W. B. The Course of Acute Nephritis in Children Allowed Early Resumption of Normal Physical Activity, A m . J. Dis. Child., 96: 576, 1958. Wier, J. A., el al . Ambulatory Treatment of Tuberculosis, Am. Res. Resp. Dis . , 84: 17, 1961. Asher, R. A. J. The Dangers of Going t o Bed, Br . Med. J., 2: 967, 1947. Gibson, J. P. How Much Bed Rest is Necessary for Children with Fever?, J. Pediat., 49: 256, 1956. Lurie, P. R. The Adolescent and Athletics: Cardiac Aspects, Pediat. Clin. N. Amer., 7: 173, 1960. Karvonen. M. J. In Work and the Heart. D. 199-210. edited hv Rosenbaurn. F. F. and’Relknap, E. L., New York, 1959,’ Paul E.Hoeber. Valadian, I., Stuart, H. C., and Reed, R . B. Longitudinal Studies of Child Health and Development-Series 11: Patterns of Illness Experience. Pediatrics. 24: 941, 1959. Masland, R. I., Samson, S. B., and Gladwin, T., Mental Subnormality, New York Basic Books, 1959, p. 71. Erdeiyi, G. J. Women in Athletics, Proc. of Second Nat. Conf. on Med. Aspects of Sports, Chicago, The Am. Med. Assoc., 1961, p. 59. Steinhaus. A. H. Toward an Understandine of Health and Phvsieal Education. Dubuque,’Iowa, Wm. C. Brown, 1963, Russell, R. D., and Waldrum, R. D. &dt%ion About Alcohol by High School Athletic Coaches, Res. Quart., 33: 451, 1962.

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HEALTH KNOWLEDGE OF PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS*

JESSIE HELEN HAAQ, Ed.D. The University of Texas, Austin, Texas

Studies by Dzenowagis (2), Irwin (3), and Merrill (4) have revealed that fifth and sixth grade children have many health misconceptions. It is possible that some of these misconceptions are gained from elementary school classroom teachers. Also, these misconceptions held by children cannot be corrected if teachers lack certain health knowledge. It is the purpose of this investigation to disclose, to some extent, the health knowl- edge of prospective elementary school classroom teachers at The IJniver- sity of Texas.

This investigation began in September, 1959, and has continued through January, 1963. During this interval of time, 535 women students, of junior and senior levels, participated in this investigation. The instru- ment, used t,o disclose the health knowledge of these prospective teachers, was administered during the first class meeting of the professional scliool health education course, “Health Education in the Elementary School.” This is the only health education course required of prospective elemen- tary education teachers. The degree program for elementary education at The University of Texas has undergone several changes since the beginning of this investigation. However, these prospective teachers arc

*Presented a t the Research Section, Southern District, American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, February 25, 1963.

THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH 351

required to have 60 semester hours in the academic foundations including the natural and social sciences in addition to a composite academic special- ization of IS semcster hours.

This investigation will be divided into three phases: (1) summary of some of the academic background of the prospective elementary educa- tion teacher; (2) description and validity of the instrument used in the investigation; and (3) findings and conclusions of the investigation.

Academic Background o j Prospective Teachers In September, 1959, The University of Texas administered a scholastic

aptitude test consisting of verbal and mathematics sections, an English composition test, and other tests to all entering freshmen. Since that date, the College Entrance Examination Board Scholastic Aptitude Test lias replaced The University of Texas scholastic aptitude test. An English composition test and other tests supplement the CEEB, given to all en- t,ering freshmen. In comparing the prospective elementary education teacher with prospective teachers for the secondary school level as of September, 1959, the scholastic aptitude test of The University of Texas is based upon equivalent scores of the CEEB scholastic aptitude test:

SAT SAT SAT Verbal Quantitative Total

Elementary Education X 438 422 860 Secondary Education x 443 427 870

Other pertinent information as to the prospective elementary educa- tion teacher relates to high school preparation and scholastic achievement a t The University of Texas. The majority of these students were in the top quartile of their high school graduating class. Of the possible median number of 34 total high school credits, these students had a median num- ber of 26 high school credits in the “solids.” The “solids” represent mathematics, natural sciences, foreign languages, etc. During their first semester a t The University of Texas, non-Education courses, their grade point average was 2.05. Their total hours of course work in the fresh- man year was 27. Their grade point average a t the end of the second semester was 2.13.

The instrument used to reveal the health knowledge of these prospec- tive teachers, added further information. Of the 535 students, 82.4 per rent indicated that they did not have a regularly scheduled health educa- tion course in the 11th or 12th grade of high school which met first periods earh week for one semester. The natural and social sciences, a t the freshman level, are required courses for prospective elementary educa- tion teachers. However, many of these students, a t the advanced levels, had either transferred from other colleges or had deficiencies in these nonadvanced courses. Thus, there is some explanation for the following data :

54.1% had six semester hours of freshman biology 44.870 had t h e e semester hours of freshman psychology 62.6% had three semester hours of freshman sociology 5.GTo had six semester hours of sophomore zoology

352 THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH

Instrument Used in the Investigation In the first stages of preparation of the instrument, a list of 295 state-

ments were compiled. These statements were health misconceptions derived from previous studies, published books and articles, contributions from physicians and teachers, and advertising media found in newspapers and magazines and given on radio and television. A jury of 29 medical specialists received the refined list of 295 statements. The jury and the results of preliminary “trial runs” resulted in 130 health statements-all misconceptions. These 130 statements were administered to 1044 fresh- men prospective elementary school classroom teachers in 17 state colleges of New England. The results revealed the instrument had a reliability coefficient of .89. The 130 health statements of the instrument exceeded the nominal five per cent value of chi square. (1)

Findin.gs and Conclusions This investigation used to reveal, to some extent, the health knowl-

edge of 535 prospective elementary school classroom teachers, September 1959 through January 1963, indicated :

1. Of the 130 health statements, all misconceptions, the mean num- ber accepted was 47.6. The range of these misconceptiom was from 33 to 62.

2. Of the 130 health statements, 35.4 per cent of these statements were incorrectly answered by 50 per cent of these prospective teachers. The range of incorrectly answered statements by 50 per cent of these teachers was from 46.9 to 21.5 per cent.

3. Of the 130 health statements, 31.8 per cent of these statements were correctly answered by 75 per cent of these prospective teachers. The range of correctly answered statements by 75 per cent of these teach- ers was from 47.6 to 16.1 per cent.

Of the 535 prospective teachers, 75 per cent accepted the following statements as correct:

4.

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b.

d. e.

f.

g* h.

C.

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J.

k.

1.

Mouthwash is healthful because it helps kill germs in the mouth and throat. Main purpose of a dentifrice is to kill bacteria. Arch supports should be used by all people with flat feet. Daily bowel movement is always necessary for good health. Wearing bathing hats or ear plugs while swimming will insure protection for the ears. Use of lanolin restores natural oils lost as a result of washing the hair. It is a bad health habit to drink water while you exercise. Application of butter is an effective treatment for burns. It is necessary for optimum health to keep the windows open in the bedroom at night. Best thing to do when your muscles are stiff is to work the stiffness out by taking further vigorous exercise. Regular exercise increases a person’s resistance to infectious disease. Good way to treat frostbite is to rub the frostbitten part with mow. _~._ .. .

m. Pain in the lower back is generally a sign of kidney disease.

THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH 353

These conclusions can be had from the findings of this investigation. When a valid instrument of 130 health statements is administered to 535 prospective elementary school classroom teachers, junior and senior levels :

1. 36.6 per cent of the 130 health statements were accepted even though all of the Statements were health misconceptions.

2. 35.4 per cent of the statements were incorrectly answered by 50 per cent of the teachers and only 31.8 per cent of the statements were correctly answered by 75 per cent of the teachers.

3. 13 health misconceptions were accepted by 75 per cent of the teachers.

4. high school academic backgrounds in the “solids,” CEEB Scho- lastic Aptitude Test scores, grade point averages at the end of the fresh- man year, and natural and social sciences in the freshman year have little or no relationship to the health knowledge of these prospective teachers.

omission of a high school health education course, meeting five periods per week for one semester, may have some relationship to the acceptance of health misconceptions by prospective teachers.

REFERENCES 1. Borozne, Joseph. “A Determination of the Prevalence of Certain Harmful

Health Misconceptions Among Freshman Pros ective EFmentary School Teach- ers Attending State Teachers Colleges in New kngland. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Boston University 1957.

2. Dzenowagis Joseph and Leslie hwin. “Prevalence of Certain Harmful Health and Safety hisconceptions Among Fifth and Sixth Grade Children.” Research

3. f‘win, 2: eslie, Charles hlerrill and Wesle Staton. “Concepts of Healthful LiviEg of Functional Value in the General Jducation of Elementary School Pu-

4. P errill, Charles. “A Determination of Conce ts of Healthful Livin Which are of Functional Value in Contributing to the Jeneral Education of Slementary School Pupils.”

5.

uarterl , 25: 150 (May, 1954).

. Research Quarterly, 24: 423 (December, 1953).

Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Boston University, 1949.

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A PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION FOR MOTIVATION

HOWARD S. SLUSHER, Ph.D. College of Physical Education, Recreation and Health,

University of MaryEand, College Park, Maryland

In our present era writers have expressed great concern relative to the conflicts between individualism and collectivism, between authenticity and conformity, and between freedom and tyranny. For the health educator this dilemma is of vital interest. Through study of these con- flicts new insights might be achieved in relation to bakic motivations which might serve as a foundation for human action or behavior. For purpose of analysis the problem can be stated in simple terms. What is the relation of the individual to the community?

In attempting to solve the dilemma that exists between the individual and the community, scholars usually have divided themselves into one of

OF COMMUNITY HEALTH EDUCATION