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This article was downloaded by: [University of Birmingham] On: 04 October 2014, At: 13:48 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Childhood Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uced20 Helping Children See Relationships Published online: 12 Sep 2013. To cite this article: (1948) Helping Children See Relationships …, Childhood Education, 25:3, 114-125, DOI: 10.1080/00094056.1948.10726104 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00094056.1948.10726104 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/ page/terms-and-conditions

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This article was downloaded by: [University of Birmingham]On: 04 October 2014, At: 13:48Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Childhood EducationPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uced20

Helping Children See Relationships…Published online: 12 Sep 2013.

To cite this article: (1948) Helping Children See Relationships …, Childhood Education, 25:3,114-125, DOI: 10.1080/00094056.1948.10726104

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00094056.1948.10726104

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information(the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor& Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warrantieswhatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of theContent. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions andviews of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. Theaccuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independentlyverified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liablefor any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages,and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly inconnection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

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Helping

Children

SeePhotograph by Mrs. J. B. Toothaker, New Rochelle, New York, public schools

Relationships ...

· . . in developing number concepts· . . in developing science concepts· . . in developing social concepts

114 CHILDHOOD EDUCAnON

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· . . in developing number conceptsBy JAMES H. GRIGGS

If we accept the concept that continuity coincides with the stream ofthe indit,idU4l's experience, what kinds of quantitative and qualitativeexperiences should schools pr01Jide the children? James Griggs answersthis question by comparing present concepts of continuity,. suggestingcertain f!ri~ples to be followed in helping individuals build better con­tinuity for themselves, and pointing out the opportunities for experiencesthrough which meanings can be refined. Mr. Griggs is director of teachereducation, Western Michigan College 0/ Education, Kalamazoo, Michigan.

Two CONCEPTS OF CONTINUITY IN

the educational process are nowoperating in the schools of America.The first concept holds that continuityresides in the subject matter itself andtakes the form of "scope and sequence"in the traditional curriculum. Thesecond concept holds that continuityresides within the individual-that hebuilds his own continuity.

With respect to mathematics taughtunder the first concept this sequence isfound in the logic of arithmetic as un­folded by aU the generations of mathe­maticians in our culture. Continuitytakes the form of a series of processesimplicit in the very nature of thenumbers involved. Thus:

addition of two numbers whose sum is lessthan ten is followed by addition of two numberswhose sum is slightly greater than ten,

division of fractions is preceded by multiplica­tion of similar fractions,

borrowing in subtraction is introduced afterthe pupil has become acquainted with exampleswhere no borrowing is necessary.

Over a period of centuries, there­fore, the arithmetic taught in elemen­tary schools has been analyzed, sub­divided, and refined into a series ofprocesses, together with accompanyingpictures, illustrations, and word prob­lems following a line of sequence from

NOVEMBER 1'48

the easy to the difficult, from the com­ponent part to the whole process, andfrom the more concrete to the moreabstract number concepts. Under thisscheme of continuity the student hasbeen asked, urged, led, and sometimesforced to fit his own experiences intothe subject matter of arithmetic, oftenwith results detrimental to his emo­tional stability and sense of security.'

The second concept takes the posi­tion that real continuity resides in theliving of the individual, that it coin­cides with his "stream of experience." 2

The principle of continuity of experi­ence, says Dewey, "means that everyexperience both takes up somethingfrom those which have gone before andmodifies in some way the quality ofthose which come after."

Under this concept the normal flowof experience is not from simple math­ematical process to more difficultmathematical process because neithermathematical process may arise out ofthe real life problems of the individualat any given time. Rather, the normal

1 For a masterly exposition of this point of view andits implications, see Chapter 1 in Intuactirm: The Demo­cratic Process by L. Thomas Hopkins. (Boston: D. C.Heath and Campany, 1941).

2 See Experience and Education by John Dewey. NewYork: The Macmillan Company, 1938. Pp, 23ff.

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flow of experience is from one experi­ence to thinking about that experience,to evaluating certain qualities and out­comes of that experience, to makingchoices and plans for another experi­ence, and so on to the new experience.:ror example:

A group of children meeting with each otherand the teacher in a new room for the firsttime analyze the surrounding environment.They feel a need for curtains and other mate­rials to decorate the room. Planning sessionsbring forth various proposals which are con­sidered and rejected or adopted as feasible bythe group.

Let us say that plans are made to earnmoney by group activities to buy the curtains.In order to plan intelligently it becomes neces­sary to investigate the price of curtain mate­rials, the measurements which will be necessary,the total cost of the project, the possibilities ofhelp from parents, and so on.

Each step of the project requires the intel­ligent use of arithmetic in its solution. Someof the problems are too difficult for the childrento solve on the basis of their present knowledgeof arithmetical processes. The vital purpose ofthe children carries them right into the study

..of the processes long}nough and deeply enoughfor them to solve their real problems. When thechildren know sufficiently about computingprices, measurements, and other mathematicalconcepts to meet their needs, the study of theprocesses gives way to putting the knowledgeinto action.

The continuity in the activity justdescribed lies in the human beings in­volved, not in the subject matter ofarithmetic. The bare fact of the situ­ation, so often passed over by subjectmatter specialists, is that no arithmeticyet invented has the power to take upsomething from one experience andcarry it over to modify a new experi­ence. This carry-over must be done bythe individual himself, never by thesubject matter. The arithmetic mustbe accepted by the individual and builtinto his own continuity as he meets

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new situations involving numbers. Anyother concept of continuity appearsto be artificial and futile in that it ig­nores or at least devalues the criticalthinking and intelligent behavior ofthe individual in meeting his real prob­lems of living.

How to Help IndividualsBuild Better Continuity

The quality of continuity which anindividual builds for himself dependsupon the degree of intelligent discrim­ination between facts, choices, values,outcomes, and possible courses of actionwhich he can bring to bear on aproblem. Learning takes place in aperson in accordance with improvingthis kind of discrimination.

The teacher's problem at every levelof maturity is to aid each childin choosing values, purposes, andcourses of action which will lead inturn to better experiences in the future.Thus in practice the principle of con­tinuity in education is never automatic,never left -- to chance. Always presentwith immature minds must be a sym­pathetic, intelligent observer and guide.This in essence represents the correctrole of the teacher in the modernschool.

Several important principles mustbe kept in mind by those who wouldhelp others build better continuity forthemselves." They may be stated brief­ly as follows:

One must start with and work from the expe­- riences which the learners already have de­veloped in previous living.

Experiences must be progressively expandedin accordance with the purposes, interests, andneeds of the learners so as to cut deeply intothe subject matter of the culture and providereal satisfactions for all concerned.

3 For additional criteria for selecting experiences of ahigh educative quality see 1. T. Hopkins, op. cit., p,218 if.

CHILDHOOD EDUCAnON

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Subject matters of all kinds become resourcesfor problem solving rather than end-pointsauthoritatively set out to be learned.

The interactive group process must be usedthroughout so that each individual may reachhis highest attainment in any form of activity,be it physical, social or intellectual.

Each individual must be constantly and con­tinuously aided to improve his ability in self­evaluation of his own experiences.

The emotional overtone of all experiencesmust be such as to produce on the part of thelearners a desire for continued growth and fornew and more challenging experiences along theparticular line of study.

What Is Arithmetic?

Let us now consider for a momentthe line of study known as arithmetic.Under the first conception of conti­nuity as sequence of subject matter,arithmetic is usually conceived as askill subject, with emphasis on sharpen­ing skills and processes through drilland through application in wordproblems. .,

This notion, however, IS a highlyspecialized concept of arithmetic.-apart of arithmetic, but not all. Anth­metic correctly defined means anyquantitative relationship with the en­vironment which grows out of ameaningful situation. It is the indi­vidual who has the quantitative re­lationship; it is the individual forwhom the situation has meaning.

Although the quantitative conceptsof number, size, measurement, and therest may in themselves be involved incomplicated relationships which arecomparatively exact and sometimesdifficult to understand, yet function­ally the concepts and skills inherentin arithmetic are no different fromthose inherent in any of the other sub­ject matters of the universe. Rightlyinterpreted, they occupy the same re­lationship to living as do the concepts

NOVEMBER 1948

arising from social relations; that is,neither aspect finds its optimum placeunless it fits in with and helps to im­prove the continuity of human living.

Continuity in Concepts and Skills

The scene thus shifts from an arith­metic program based upon the logic ofmathematics to a quantitatively mean­ingful program of living for indi­viduals. Upon what reasonable basescan a teacher in working with a groupof children plan a program which willbe meaningful to all concerned·?

Let us admit that some teachersreading the above analysis will reje~t

the newer approach because they. stillfind their security, however precarious,in following well-charted patterns ofarithmetic teaching through the useof textbooks and workbooks, care­fully prepared and organized by ex­perts in the field. These teacher~ donot realize, however, that the contmu­ity of experience which enables t?earithmetic expert to select the matenaland write the texbook is not the samecontinuity of experience which he askseach child to undergo in the courseof, say, the fifth grade. The expert hada real purpose in studying and gather­ing the materials. He investigated allaspects of the environmen~, a.l1 re­sources which might help him m thepursuit of his purpose. He eval.uatedand selected these materials in the bestfashion of which he was capable. Andthe publication of the material consti­tuted a source of deep satisfaction tohim.

But what of the child in the fifthgrade? Does he in the norm~l, tradi­tional program have a real, VItal pur-

. hmeti ;lpose in studying ant metre processes.Does he normally investigate many andvaried quantitative aspects of his envi-

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ronment? Does he evaluate and selecthis own materials? And does the end ofthe unit or the end of the year leavehim with a fine emotional overtone ofsatisfaction? Or does it leave him ar­rested on a low plane of development?

Many far-seeing teachers, adminis­trators, and parents who have askedthese questions have not been satisfiedwith the results of the traditionalarithmetic program. They want to seethe children undergo the same kind ofcontinuity on their own maturity levelthat the expert experienced in solvinghis problem. For these teachers andparents these points are suggested:

There is plenty of arithmetic in the environ­ment. No one can live significantly in theculture of today without realizing in full mea­sure the influence of number, size, and propor­tion in day-by-day living. The fact that all~dividuals lear~ arithmetic skills and conceptsJust from moving around in the environmentoutside of school attests to the significantpresence of arithmetic all about us.

. Dividing into equal groups for games, pur­chasing articles at stores, investigating the~ea~her, reducin~ expenditures and augment­mg Income, studying the problems of insuranceand the stock market, making plans and draw­ings for construction of all kinds-these areonly a few of the quantitative relationshipswhich may be investigated and studied by anygroup or individual. They are present in theenvironment for all to use. Let's use them.

Number concepts arise, not from develop­ment of specific skills but as a refinement ofmeanings. It is a fundamental principle ofpsychology that meanings and insights or con­cepts in arithmetic are best built into the~dividual by a process of rich firsthand expe­nence plus reflective thinking and evaluationof that experience. The quality of the concept-t~e degree to which it is understood--dependsentirely upon the quality of the firsthand expe­riences involving number and the quality of thethinking about those experiences.

. A high degree of understanding is neverdeveloped by taking the specific skills in isola­tion and drilling for mastery in logical sequence.

118

The concept "one-half," for example, has nomeaning for an individual apart from a situa­tion involving two equal parts or elements.

Whether the definition of meaning includesconcepts inherent in the nature of number orwhether it involves the signficance of numberin everyday living, the principle is the same;namely, that an individual generalizes on thebasis of previous experiences. The best wayto improve these generalizations is to raise thequality of the experiences.

Real continuity can never be in terms of"averages" or in terms of grade placement ofprocesses or concepts. Group continuity of expe­rience in any area can never be built apartfrom the continuities of all the individuals inthe group. Since, by the very nature of expe­rience, each individual has a different continu­ity, then each group and each teacher will havea different continuity.

No blueprint or crystallized pattern of learn­ing is possible if one accepts a functional defini­tion of continuity. No curriculum expert oradministrator can say to a group, "This is thirdgrade arithmetic. Learn itl" because there isreally no such thing as third grade arithmetic.There is no such thing as third grade qualityof experience. Rather there are individuals inthe third grade group who possess certainbackgrounds of experience, certain values, cer­tain ways of thinking, and there is the environ­ment-human and material-in which thatthird grade group must operate. Both theseelements are different for every third gradegroup in the country. Thus each group mustbuild its own continuity in terms of the aboveprinciples.

Finally, the arithmetic progrlNn in the ele­·mentary school becomes a series of cooperativelyplanned, well-developed experiences in whichthe quantitative relationships of children withtheir environment are explored in natural, mean­ingfttl situations. 4

To analyze experiences which arelikely to provide better continuity isnot easy. It is one of the most difficulttasks teachers have to face. But thatis as it should be, for continuity of ex­perience is the heart of the educationalprocess.

• Editor's Note: See "Materials for Instruction inArithmetic" in CHILDHOOD EDUCATION, April 1948.24:372-373.

CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

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• •• in developing science conceptsBy GLENN O. BLOUGH

Continuity in the development of science concepts with illustrations ofareas for study of both planned end incidental experiences is discussed byGlenn Blough, specialist for science, elementary division, U. S. Office ofEducation, Washington, D. C.

HAw GEE, WE STUDIED MAGNETS IN MISS

Jerry's class last year," a third gradersays as Miss Briggs suggests a study of magnetsto her grade fours.

"Oh no we didn't," another child says. "Pauljust brought one to school and we talked aboutit. We didn't really study it much."

And there is Miss Briggs with a magnet inone hand, a science book in the other, and con­fusion in her mind. Did they or didn't theystudy magnets? If they did, should grade fourstudy them anyway to show the children thatthere is still a lot that they don't know aboutthe phenomenon of magnetism? Perhaps,instead, she should follow some current inter­est of the children or a lead from a story intheir newspaper and reader or perhaps suggestsomething else herself.

IT IS A BIT CONFUSING, ISN'T IT? WE

favor following children's leadswhenever possible, letting them helpdecide what is to be studied and howthe study is to progress. But on theother hand we want to provide forcontinuity in the development of con­cepts, broaden children's interests andappreciations, and provide boys andgirls with opportunity for continuousgrowth in ability to solve problems.

What Miss Briggs really needs atthis point is a record, even thoughbrief, of what experiences her pupilshave previously had with magnets.From such a record she might have dis­covered, for example, that they hadtried a few experiments with magnetsto find out what they could do, andthat they had discovered that magnetshave north and south poles.

NOVEMBER 1948

This being the case, the next step isclear-the grade four pupils may goon and expand their knowledge bymagnetizing a needle and making acompass. They might even make anelectro magnet and compare it withthe permanent magnets they havestudied. In this way Miss Briggs buildsOn ideas about magnetism which thepupils have already learned and helpsto expand them into a broader concep­tion. Such a procedure is possible onlyif some sort of record is available toher and if there is a general overall planworked out for the various grades.

But do we teach something aboutmagnets in every grade? Do we layouta course of study allocating certainconcepts for certain grades and holdto this plan? Or do we go to the otherextreme and build the science programaround the incidental happenings thatpop up as the pupils progress throughelementary school?

If we are to provide for continuityin the development of science concepts,make sure that the science program isbroad enough in its scope, and insurethat interests and appreciations ofchildren are broadened we must cer­tainly do some planning in advance.Ideally this planning cannot runthrough the first six grades and thenstop. Pupils go on to grades seven andeight and nine. So must the planning.Nor can it stop there if it is to be trulyeffective. High school science will serve

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the needs of young people better if itis built on their accomplishments inthe grade school, takes them wherethey are, and leads them on.

But does this mean a set program foreach grade so that the walking stickbecomes a third grade insect to be con­sidered there and there only? Does itmean that we cannot have the neces­sary flexibility to take into accountimmediate pupil interest? No, it doesnot.

It is quite possible to build a sciencecurriculum organized sufficiently toprovide for continuity in the develop­ment of concepts but still flexibleenough to allow for the immediate in­terests of children. In some programstwo kinds of science experiences areindicated: one, planned experienceswhich give the program continuity;the other, incidental experiences whichpermit deviations.'

Many of these programs are furtherflexible in that they do not insist thatcertain concepts be taught in specificgrades. They permit selection byteachers and pupils within certain largeareas. The science material is dividedinto blocks, some to be taught in pri­mary (grades K-3), some in intermed­iate (4-5-6) and some in upper (7-8).Certain concepts are allocated for de­velopment sometime by these groupsbut the specific grade level is not neces­sarily specified. At the end of the pri­mary or intermediate or upper gradescertain concepts will have beencovered.

Weather As a Field StudyTo illustrate let us take weather as

a field of study in the elementary

1 Sriencs Instruction in Elementary and High SchoolGrades. Chicago: the Laboratory Schools, the Universityof Chicago, 1939. Pp, 232. Contains a curriculum inscience with a report of the underlying philosophy.

120

grades," The whole subject of weatheris broad and there is much to learnabout it. Weather is the condition ofthe atmosphere, weather changes as theconditions of the air change, and theweather bureau attempts to forecastwhen these changes will occur. Somesuch concepts as these are the big ideaswe are after. They can be learned alittle at a time beginning in the pri­mary grades.

For example, in the primary gradesthe pupils will have experiences cen­tered around the ideas involved inevaporation and condensation. Theycome to know that:

When water evaporates it changes to watervapor. Water evaporates into the air from manyplaces. When water vapor changes back intowater, we say that it condenses. Water usuallycondenses on cold things. Dew evaporates.

These are examples of some of thesimple concepts that primary pupilssometime in grades one to three maycome to understand through experi­ments, observations, reading; fieldtrips, and other ways. Everyday hap­penings such as seeing water colorsdrying up, aquarium water disappear­ing, wet clothes drying near a radiatoror water on a pitcher of cold lemonademay initiate the study.

Sometime during the middle gradespupils may again have experiences withweather. This time their experiencesmay center around what makes thechanges in weather. They will buildon the ideas learned in the primarygrades to discover that the amount ofwater vapor in the air changes inrelationship to the temperature. Theylearn the course of rain, snow, sleet,and other forms of precipitation. They

• Teaching Elementary Science. By Glenn O. Bloughand Paul E. Blackwood. Bulletin 1948, No.4. Washington25, D. c.: Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Govern­ment Printing Office, Fifteen cents.

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may make a study of how the weatherbureau works and why its work is im­portant. They learn about ther­mometers and other simple weatherinstruments. Their ideas about weatherare expanding.

Still later in junior high school theymay again have contact with weatherstudy. By now they are ready to dis­cover how the actual forecasting ofweather is done and how weather mapsare made and what they show.

On these three levels, then, pupilshave learned about weather. The earlysteps were simple, the next a little morecomplex, the last still more so. Eachused the previous experience. Therewas enough repetition to give continu­ity, enough advancement each time tobe interesting and challenging to thepupils. In this way the science conceptsgrow. The importance of an overallplan is obvious.

Incidental InterestsDuring this study of weather at the

various levels there" have been otherincidental interests in science. Pupilshave brought things of science toschool, current science ha ppeningshave been reported; they have askedquestions of immediate concern tothem. There has been enough fuss madeabout these things to satisfy their curi­osity about them. Some especially in­terested pupils have done individualinvestigations and reported their find­ing to others.

These have been the incidental ex­periences. They, too, may have theircontinuity. They may tie in with pre­vious experiences. For example, when

a child brings a turtle to school the dis­cussion may center around, «Do youremember when we studied how ani­mals are fitted to live where they do?Can you observe John's turtle and dis­cover something about the kind ofplace in which he lives?"

Incidental experiences may result ingrowth in interest, more experience inaccurate observation, opportunity forresearch and problem solving as well asin the growth in concepts already men­tioned. Let it be said that in bothplanned and incidental experienceswhether there is continuity of any kinddepends on the intentions of theteacher and on her skill in workingwith her group. The teacher must her­self understand the process by whichconcepts grow and help her groupsaccordingly.

The Need for an Overall PlanSuch a program in science needs a

carefully organized plan just as a similarprogram in social studies or any otherarea of learning does. There is stillmuch to learn about grade placementof science concepts according. to theinterests and capacities of the children.We all know that there is great varia­tion among individual children as wellas between groups. Consequently de­velopment of concepts must, insofaras possible, take these differences intoaccount. The most intelligent pro­grams result when all adults concernedwith children's education--adminis­trators, teachers, parents-e-work to­gether with children in planning con­tent and methods of instruction.

TIm TadpOleBy DAVID HOTCHKISS (six years old)

Wiggle wiggle goes his tail Someday when he can hop quite farIn and'out and round about. He'll hop right out of our big jar.

In The Singing Tree (Kenmore. New York. Public Schools)

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Margaret Lindsey says that continuityin the development of social concepts isto be found in focusing attention uponthe acquisition of feeling for peopleand in acquiring the skills and tech­niques necessary for working and livingtogether in one world. She points outthe importance of readiness and processand tells how the social studies programcan contribute to the development ofthe needed feelings and skills. Miss Lin­sey is professor of education, IndianaState Teachers College, Terre Haute.

FOR ALL PEOPLE OF ALL TIMES AND

in all places the necessary anddesirable common denominator ofsocial competencies has been, is, andalways will be a feeling toward people.The history of civilization, if depictedon a scroll in front of us, would notbe a series of illustrations of individualseach engaged in independent or unre­lated activities. Rather it would showgroups of people working togetherthrough necessity for survival. Duringthe current century the growing com­plexities and intricacies involved inmany peoples living together in oneworld would be depicted.

Although for a long time educatorshave recognized the importance ofthis feeling for people and the greatinterdependence among individualsand groups, it is only recently that wehave begun to realize that educationcan and must playa positive role in thedevelopment of such concepts. Withthis realization have come many at­tempts to identify and define the vari­ous factors which contribute to livingwell in our society.

As a result of such analyses manyeducators have become convinced thatthe school experiences of children andyouth must be modified so that theprimary emphasis becomes one of de-

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.. . in developing

uelo pittg a constructive feeling towardpeople-a feeling accompanied by theskills and techniques which enable oneto take individual action and to par­ticipate in group action for the goodof all.

If we share this conviction we willexamine our educational programs inthe light of two goals especially:

to develop respect for human personality,both individual and group

to develop desirable ways of working asindividuals and in groups.

These goals are the threads of con­tinuity in up-to-date, forward-lookingsocial studies programs in good ele­mentary schools.

The classroom teacher concernedwith these goals will discover that allexperiences children have contributein some way to their attitudes towardpeople and to their ability to work wellwith others. Probably no one factor ismore important in the attitudes an in­dividual has toward others than theconstellation of reactions of otherpeople to him and his behavior. If thisbe true, the classroom teacher's treat­ment of individuals and groups in allsituations is of crucial importance.Deep understanding of children andsincere respect for individual personali­ties will be the basic ingredients of theteacher's guidance.

The child who is fortunate enoughto have such guidance will developunderstanding and respect for himselfand will be more ready to build desir­able attitudes toward others with

CHILDHOOD EDUCAnON

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By MARGARET LINDSEY

social concepts

whom he comes in direct contact andtoward those whom he meets onlyvicariously. Just as in the case of readi­ness for reading or readiness for certaintypes of physical activity, this readi­ness for understanding and workingwell with others must be developedthrough experiences which help thechild to grow in his management ofthe skills and techniques required. Sim­ilarly, every child progresses throughvarious stages of readiness in the socialsphere and must be aided in acquiringthe more complex skills and under­standings demanded of him as he ma­tures and as his circle of contacts be­comes larger and more interwoven.

The process by which children de­velop these skills and understandings isthe same at all age levels and in all sit­uations. This process is one of dealingwith real situations of the here and nowin such ways as to increase constantlythe effectiveness of individual andgroup action on social problems. Itinvolves making choices, planning,taking and evaluating action, andapplying what is learned to new situa­tions. It is important that individualslearn to use this process in meeting anddealing with their own problems.

But this is not enough. The natureof our living today makes it imperativethat individuals participate in coopera­tive group planning and action. There­fore, the school program must provideopportunities for children to developthe skills of individual problem solvingand of cooperative group action insituations meaningful to them. A con-

NOVEMBER 1948

Ruggles Street Nursery School, Boston

Life is full of adventure with others

structive feeling toward people, ac­companied by skills and techniques ofcooperative group planning, acting,and evaluating is the need of every in­dividual living in the world of 1948.Continuity in the development of so­cial concepts is to be found in focusingattention upon the acquisition of thisfeeling, these skills and techniques.

The Social Studies ProgramIn the typical elementary school the

social studies program is the area of

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experience designed to guide childrenin the development of social concepts.The bases for the selection and organi­zation of activities vary from one sit­uation to another. However, mostprograms are designed to focus atten­tion upon one of these approaches:

Subject matter disciplines of the socialsciences

Related information and understandings con­cerning certain selected problems

Various cultures of civilization, from thesimple to the complex

Certain identified broad areas of livingA series of integrated facts designed to help

children arrive at generalizations.

Teachers responsible for planningand developing experiences with andfor children generally operate withina given curriculum framework. Thescope and sequence of activities sug­gested in such a framework are the re­sult of an emphasis upon one or moreof the above mentioned approaches tothe development of social concepts.Such specific curriculum patterns wereconceived as the result of much carefulstudy of our society, of child growthand development, and of the psycholo­gy of learning. Persons responsible for r

the development of curriculum mate­rials in social studies had clarity of pur­pose which dominated the selection andorganization of suggested activities.

The concepts children developthrough their experiences in the socialstudies program depend to a large de­gree upon the teacher's awareness ofthe ultimate purposes back of a par­ticular curriculum pattern. Everyone of the suggested approaches, asoriginally conceived, has as one of itsgoals the development of a feeling andunderstanding of the peoples of theworld. There is opportunity in everysocial studies program to focus atten­tion upon relationships among people

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and ways of living intelligently in ourworld community.

Every classroom teacher, every prin­cipal and supervisor should stop period­ically and ask himself:

Why are we doing this?What are these children actually learning

from this experience?What purposes do I have for this activity?What purposes do children have for this

experience?

Serious attempts to answer thesequestions and to modify our work withchildren in accordance with the im­plications of the answers would bringrapid changes in our social studies pro­grams. Here is an example of how itmight begin:

An inexperienced teacher was privileged toobserve a group of eight-year-olds for severalconsecutive days. She watched carefully andmany times participated in their activities.She helped one small group with the construc­tion of a teepee. She observed the music teacheras _she' helped the children learn an Indianlullaby. She gave some assistance to a groupof children making costumes out of burlap. Shewalked around the room from time to timeduring free work periods and helped individualsconstruct drums, copy poems about Indians,and build individual spelling lists of words metduring their reading about Indians.

At the end of a few days, in conference withthe teacher whose children she had been observ­ing, this inexperienced teacher asked, "Why arethese children studying Indians?"

When she was told the children were inter­ested and that "Indians" was one of the unitsthey were to cover in third grade, she askedanother question. "But wouldn't they be inter­ested in almost anything if the teacher did allthese things with them?"

A few minutes later she said to the classroomteacher; "Do you hope that these children willlearn. something from this unit that will helpthem to see in general why people live as theydo? Are you trying to give them a chance towork together in small groups? Do you thinkit is important that they have a chance tomake some choices and plan how they willwork?"

CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

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A few days later in relating this conferenceto a consultant the teacher commented, "Thatyoung lady set me to thinking. You know, Ihad never really seriously asked those questions.I found in trying to answer them for her thatI had some very fuzzy ideas about the 'why'behind what we are doing. I don't believe I'llever feel right again about working with chil­dren unless I'm sure of why I'm doing whatI'm doing with them."

It would be good for the children ofAmerica if every classroom teacherhad a similar experience and a similarawakening.

What would happen to our socialstudies programs if such questions wereto be asked by each of us? Is it possiblethat teachers working within a sub­ject-matter framework would be moreconcerned with helping children to seerelationships between content beingcovered and their living today? Wouldthese teachers begin to help childrendevelop a feeling for the peoples of theworld, over and above the acquisitionof certain facts of history and geogra­phy? In doing these things, is it possiblethat teachers would begin to focus at­tention upon the present and to use thestudy of the past as a basis for under­standing the present?

What about the social studies pro­grams which result from the simpleculture approaches? Wouldn't ourteachers, having faced these questions,make a strong effort to have childrengain insights regarding the likenesses ofpeoples the world over? Wouldn't ourchildren cease to think of the Dutch aspeculiar people who wear wooden shoesand baggy trousers? Would our pro­grams be likely to include experiencesdesigned to help children understandthe Indians within our own countrytoday, as well as other minority groups?

Might we find children centeringtheir study around real problems of

NOVEMBER 1948

living rather than artificial problemssuch as "why is Africa called the dark­est continent?" And would it not betrue that we would find children par­ticipating in the designing of their ownschool experiences? Would we not seethe importance of direct experience inthe development of a feeling towardpeople and the skills and techniquesnecessary for living well with others?

Regardless of the curriculum frame­work within which we operate we canand must focus our attention upon thebroader social concepts. Children willsee relationships and their experienceswill have continuity if we will considerof primary importance this basic socialneed of all-the development of aconstructive feeling toward peopleand the growing management of theskills and techniques essential for work­ing cooperatively with others in takingsocial action.

To modify our social studies pro­gram is not enough. Until we recognizethat the entire school experience ofchildren contributes to the develop­ment of social concepts, until we seethis development as the primary pur­pose of education with all other pur­poses a part of it, we shall have failed toassume completely the responsibilitysociety has a right to expect us to as­sume.

When this responsibility is assumed,it is reasonable to expect that we shallmove out of present-day curriculumpatterns. Until then let us do what ispossible within every social studies pro­gram: place primary emphasis uponthe broader concepts. But let us not besatisfied with these modifications. Letus be working toward an educationalprogram designed to provide more ade­quately for the social learnings of ourboys and girls.

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