HIGHER EDUCATION

教育IN THE PEOPLE’S

REPUBLIC OF CHINA

ISBN 952-13-2721-9

Finnish National Board of Education/LibraryPO Box 380 (Hakaniemenkatu 2)FI-00531 Helsinki, FinlandPhone +358 9 774 775 (exchange)Fax +358 9 7747 7865kirjasto@oph.fiwww.edu.fi/julkaisut 9 789521 327216

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD 21Historicaloverview 2 1.1Before1949 2 1.21949-1976 3 1.31976tothepresent 52EducationalsysteminChinafrom1977 63HighereducationinChina 8 3.1Administrationandfundingof highereducation 8 3.2Highereducationinstitutions 10 3.2.1Formalhighereducation 11 3.2.1.1Universitiesandspecialisedinstitutions 11 3.2.1.2Specialisedschools/colleges 12 3.2.1.3Vocationaluniversities 12 3.2.2Adult(non-formal)highereducation 12 3.2.2.1Administrativecolleges 13 3.2.2.2Correspondencedepartmentsandattachedeveningcolleges 13 3.2.2.3Employees’colleges 13 3.2.2.4Independentself-studyexaminations 14 3.2.2.5Radioandtelevisionuniversities 14 3.2.2.6Spare-timeuniversities 15

3.3 Higher education degrees, certificates and diplomas 15 3.3.1Highereducationdegrees 15 3.3.1.1Bachelor’sdegree 15 3.3.1.2Master’sdegree 16 3.3.1.3Doctor’sdegree 16 3.3.2 Types of certificates and diplomas 17 3.3.3 Notarial certificates 17 3.4Admissiontohighereducation 18 3.4.1Formalhighereducation 18 3.4.2Adult(non-formal)highereducation 194Sources 19 4.1Publications 19 4.2Links 20 4.3Contactinformation 22

APPENDICES 23Appendix I: Certificate samples 23Appendix II: Samples of notarial certificates 28AppendixIII: Chinese-Englishvocabulary 42

CHARTSChart1: EducationsysteminChina 7Chart2: Administrationof highereducationinChina 9

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FOREWORD

Withthegrowinginternationalisationof thehighereducationsectorinFinland,thenumber of foreign students in Finnish higher education is increasing. As a result,student admissions offices at higher education institutions are faced with an increasingly demanding task in determining the eligibility a foreign qualification gives for higher education. The information on foreign education systems is spread across varioussources and the reliability of the sources may be difficult to evaluate. Furthermore, changesintheeducationalsystemsarecontinuous.

Higher education in the People’s Republic of China aims to provide an overview of theeducationsystemof Chinawitha focuson information that is relevant to studentadmission.Astheprovisionof educationinacountrythesizeof Chinaismanifold,anexhaustivedescriptionof theeducationsystemwasnotpossible.

ThegroundworkforthispublicationwaslaidbytheFinnish Polytechnic Network for East and Southeast Asiawhichisalsothispublication’sco-funder.ThetexthasbeencompiledandeditedbyJanneKetola(MA,Chinesestudies)towhomweowespecialthanks.The publication has been finalised by the Recognition and Comparability of Qualifications UnitattheFinnish National Board of Education.

PleasesendyourcommentsconcerningHigher education in the People’s Republic of Chinato recognition@oph.fi or the Finnish National Board of Education’s Recognition and Comparability of Qualifications Unit.

1 Historical overview

1.1 Before 1949Therootsof aformalsystemof educationinChinacanbetracedbackatleastasfarasthe16thcenturyB.C.laterShangDynasty(1523-1027B.C.).Throughoutthisperiodeducationwastheprivilegeof theelitefew,andforthemostpartexistedfornootherpurpose than to produce government officials. Early on, the curriculum centered on the so-called“SixArts”:Rites,Music,Archery,Chariot-Riding,History,andMathematics.However,basedontheteachingsof Confucius(551-479B.C.)duringtheSpringandAutumnandWarringStatesperiods(770-221B.C.),thecurriculumgraduallygavewaytoonebasedontheFourBooksandtheFiveClassics.Theseworksoutlinedtheprinciplesof societyandgovernment.Confucianphilosophyexertedafundamentalinfluence on virtually all aspects of life, and certainly on education, at least until the ascenttopowerbytheCommunistPartyin1949.

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In 1905 the examination system was dismantled, and a series of reform measureswereissuedbythelastof theDynasties(Qing).Thesecalledfortheoldacademiestobereorganisedintoamodernsystemof primary,secondaryandtertiarylevelsof educationbasedonWesternmodels.

Shortly after, in 1911, the Qing Dynasty was overthrown during the BourgeoisRevolution, anda republicangovernmentwasestablished.By this time, therewerealreadyEuropean,AmericanandJapaneseeducationalmodelsonChinesesoil.Becauseof Japan’s successful adaptation, their system was tried first and implemented by a largenumberof Japanese-trainedChinesescholars.Duringthewarlordperiodof theearly1920s,thisgraduallygavewaytoasystemmorecloselypatternedonAmericanmodels.Atthesametime,theChineseCommunistPartywasborn(in1921),withitsownideasabouttheformforeducationinChina.

Allsidesof thedebateagreedthatasystemwasneededtoprovideforthetechnologicalneeds of the country without sacrificing its Chinese identity, and which at the same timecouldbeexpandedsoastoreachthemasses inapredominantlyruralsociety.During thisperiod, anumberof experimentswereattempted, including the short-lived Hunan Self-Study University established by Mao Zedong. One of the primeobjectivesof thisexperimentaluniversitywastobringhighereducationtothosewhootherwisecouldnotaffordit.WiththeJapaneseinvasioninthelate1930s,thisandotherexperimentsanddebatesweresuspendeduntilafter1949.

1.2 1949 - 1976Shortlyafterthefoundingof thePeople’sRepublicof China,aneweducationalsystemwasimported:theSovietmodel.Thismodelwasappliedwithevenlessconcernforthespecialfeaturesof ChineseidentityandculturethanthemodelfollowingtheSino-JapaneseWar.Asbefore,motivationwasdrivenbytechnologicalneeds,andtheSovietUnionwasnowheldasthenewmodelof success.

Mostof thegovernment’seffortsduringthisperiodweredevotedtothedevelopmentandrestructuringof highereducation.Asaresultof thisrestructuring,thenumberof comprehensiveuniversitiesdiminishedinnumber,whiletheamountof specialisedcolleges showed a significant increase. As part of the restructuring efforts, the Ministry of HigherEducationwasgivenastrongerroleinoverseeingtheadministrationof thecomprehensiveandvocationaluniversities,aswellastheteacher-traininginstitutions.

By1961,thefailedpoliciesof theGreatLeapForward,anepidemicof naturaldisasters,andthebreakingof relationswiththeSovietUnionthwartedfurtherprogressalongtheselines.Evenbeforethis,theAnti-RightestCampaignin1957hadalienatedthe

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intellectuals,manyof whomhadbeeninstrumentalinbringingaboutthesought-aftereducationalreforms.

With the Soviet model no longer the paradigm, the government resumed earlierattemptsatabalancebetweenConfucianandWestern-styleeducation.Theseincludedvocationalandwork-studyschooling,regularuniversity,collegeandcollegepreparatoryschooling.Thissystemdevelopedfairlysmoothly,untilthebreakoutof theCulturalRevolutionin1966.

Thesystemof educationwasseenbymanyasonethatwouldcontinuetoproducea small elite group, with the masses having to settle for less quality of education.Increasingly,itwasfeltthattheadministratorsinthe“regular”schoolsweretoblame,becausetheywereperpetuatingasysteminawaythatcouldonlybeviewedasself-serving.InMay1966,theCulturalRevolutionwasunderway.

Politicalstrugglesagainstadministratorsquicklyspreadtoschoolsacrossthecountry.During the next three years, campuses were controlled in turn by the propagandateams of the Red Guards, soldiers from the People’s Liberation Army, and finally workersandpeasants.Thecurriculumwasreconstitutedsoastoconformtopracticalneeds,resultingintheeliminationof coursesinsubjectssuchashistory,geographyand literature. Even such core science subjects as physics and chemistry gave wayto courses in industrial skills.These reformmeasures canbe traceddirectly to theCommunistPartyCentralCommitteeanditsvarioussub-committees,ratherthantotheMinistryof Educationwhichceasedtofunctionfrom1967through1974.

InJune1966,thesystemof universityentranceexaminationswashalted.Fewcollegesand universities admitted new students until the early 1970s, and the selection of studentswasnowbasedonpoliticalvirtue.Thosefromfamiliesof workers,peasantsor soldiers were deemed the most “virtuous,” and were among the first admitted.

All inall, theperiodof CulturalRevolutionwasaverydisruptiveone forChinesesocietyingeneralanditseducationsysteminparticular.Theeducationalinfrastructurewasdecimatedasaresultof therevolutionarystruggles,andstudentssufferedbecauseof avastlywatered-downornon-existentcurriculum.Perhapstheonlygain,againattheexpenseof quality,wasthedeliveryof elementaryeducationtoanunprecedentedpercentageof school-agedchildren,largelybecauseagriculturalcollectivisationallowedfor thecreationof largenumbersof “communeschools”overseendirectlyby thecollectiveratherthanbyhigher-levelagencies.

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1.3 1976 to the present With the fall of the “Gang of Four” and the ascension to power of the twicerehabilitatedDengXiaoping,theeducationalpoliciesrevertedtothosethathadbeeninitiatedduringtheearly1960s.Theguidingprinciplewastobringabouteducationalreforms that would realise the “Four Modernisations,” significant advances in the areasof agriculture,industry,nationaldefense,andscienceandtechnology,butwouldkeepwiththe“FourCardinalPrinciples”:thesocialistroad,thepeople’sdemocraticdictatorship, the Chinese Communist Party leadership, and Marxist-Leninist-MaoZedongthought.

Theprocessof regularisationinschoolswasresumed,wherebyacademicstandardswerereintroducedatalllevels,placinganemphasisonthequalityof education.Inmostcases,a6-3-3system(sixyearsprimary,threeyearsjuniorsecondary,andthreeyearsseniorsecondaryschool)wasre-established.Thedesignationof “key”schoolswasusedonceagaintosingleoutschoolswhosemissionwastoadministertothespecialneedsof theeducationalelite.Atthesametime,aproposalwasmadetoexpandthesystemof vocationalandwork-studyschools inordertoprovideameaningfuleducationaltrackforthosenotmeetingthestandardsforcollege,orcollegepreparatorystudies.Thisrestartedolddebatesonpopulistversuselitisteducation.

One of the first changes in higher education after the end of the Cultural Revolution was the restoration of the national unified university and college entrance examinations in1977.Furtherreformsborrowedheavilyfromtwoimportantdocumentsof theearly1960s:the“DecisiononUnifyingManagementintheHigherEducationSystem,”andthe “Sixty Articles of Higher Education.” Very briefly described, the former document wasaregularisationdecreeinasmuchasitcalledforthesettingof academicstandards,and empowered the Ministry of Education as the final authority and facilitator. The seconddocumentwasaresolutionthattheinstitutionsof highereducationweretotrain the experts needed for socialist construction, and that the teachers would berelativelyunencumberedbypoliticalconstraintsastheywentabouttheirbusinessof dispensing their expertise.The definitive reformulation of these earlier decrees came in1985withthe“Decisionof theReformof theEducationSystem.”Thishasbeentheguidingdocumentof reform,notonlyforhighereducation,butalsoforalllevelsof educationduringthepost-Maoyears.

The Chinese higher education system was still structured after the Soviet modelsprevalentduringthe1950s.Theartsandscienceswerestilltaughtatthecomprehensiveuniversities (zonghe daxue), whereas separate institutions were responsible for otherfields. The major disciplines offered were still very narrow, since the colleges and universities were primarily responsible for finding job assignments for their graduates.

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Sincethen,thecurriculumhasbroadenedsomewhattocomparemorecloselytothatinAmericancollegesanduniversities.Atthesametime,thejobassignmentroleof theuniversitiesisbeingphasedout.

2 Educational system in China from 1977

CompulsoryeducationinChinalastsfornineyears.Childrenenterprimaryschoolattheageof six.Beforeprimaryschoolthechildrenmayhaveattendedpreschoolforafewyears.Compulsoryeducationisdividedintosixyearsof primaryschoolandthreeyearsof lowermiddleschool.

Uponcompletionof thenine-yearcompulsoryeducation,studentsundertakeentranceexaminationstowardsseniorsecondaryeducationwhichisprovidedbythreedifferenttypesof schools.Thegeneralseniorsecondaryschool(seniormiddleschool)preparesstudentsforthenationaluniversityentranceexaminationandsubsequentlyforadmissiontohighereducation.Specialised(sometimestranslatedas“technical”)andvocational(sometimes translated as “professional”) schools provide subject/occupation specific educationandtraining.Graduatesfromthesetwotypesof schoolsenterthelabourmarket.Althoughitispossibleforgraduatesfromaspecialisedsecondaryschooltotakethenationaluniversityentranceexaminationandenteravocationaluniversity,thisisextremelyrareinpractice.

Higher education isprovidedby institutionsof various types includinguniversities(generalandtechnical),specialisedinstitutions(medicine,agriculture,foreignlanguagesetc.),vocationaluniversities (e.g. teacher training) andspecialisedcolleges.Entry tohighereducationinChinaishighlycompetitive.

TheBachelor’sdegreeisgrantedbyuniversitiesandspecialisedinstitutions.However,the right to grant the Bachelor’s degree has also been given to some vocationaluniversities. Vocational universities and specialised colleges provide non-universitypostsecondarystudiesandtheirgraduatesareawardeddiplomas.

Highereducation isalsoprovidedbyadulthighereducation institutionsof varioustypes.Thelengthof studiesmayvaryfromonemonthtothreeyears.Someinstitutionshave the right to award the Bachelor’s degrees upon the completion of four-yearstudies.

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Chart1:EducationsysteminChina(UKNARIC,ECCTISLtd,2005)

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3 Higher education in China

3.1 Administration and funding of higher educationTheMinistryof Educationof thePeople’sRepublicof ChinaisthesupremeeducationadministrationbodyinChina.Itisresponsibleforcarryingoutrelatedlaws,regulations,guidelinesandpoliciesof thecentralgovernment;theplanningdevelopmentof theeducationsector;integratingandcoordinatingeducationalinitiativesandprogrammesnationwide;manoeuvringandguidingeducationreformcountrywide.

TheAcademicDegreesCommitteeof theStateCouncilandtheMinistryof Education(MoE) exercise a unified leadership over the country’s higher education and are responsibleformacroguidanceandadministration.ThefulltextoneducationallawscanbefoundfromtheMinistryof Education’sEnglishwebsite,

www.moe.edu.cn/english/laws_e.htm.

Starting from the 1990s, substantial structural reform has been implemented. ThecentralMinistryof Education,knownfrom1985until1998astheStateEducationCommission(SEdC), isstillresponsiblefortheoverallpolicy,andthedevelopmentand reformof higher education.Education authorities in themajor cities (Beijing,Chongqing,ShanghaiandTianjin)andtheprovinces,however,havebeengiventheresponsibility for local higher education policy, programmes, quality assurance andimplementationof thecentralreformprogramme.

TheDisciplinesAppraisingGroupundertheAcademicDegreesCommitteeof theStateCouncilisformedaccordingtodisciplinesandconsistsof thosespecialistsandscholars with high academic achievements. Its duties include the examination andratification of newly-established Master’s and Doctor’s degree conferring units and disciplines,evaluationand issuingof thecatalogueof degree-conferringdisciplinesandspecialties,promotionof suggestionsonhighereducation,andtheexaminationof thequalityof degreeconfermentandhighereducation.

TheAcademicDegreesCommittee,educationcommissionsof autonomousregions,provinces’ degree committees and municipal higher education bureaus under theprovincesandautonomousregions,areresponsibleforadministeringgraduateeducationanddegreeconfermentinhighereducationinstitutionsundertheirjurisdiction.

The central ministries have relinquished control of most of the higher educationinstitutions to provincial and municipal education authorities. A small number of universitiesarestillunderthedirectcontrolof theMinistryof Education,CSTIND

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(TheCommissionof Science,Technology,andIndustryforNationalDefence),theChineseAcademyof Scienceandothercentralministries.

TheChinaAcademicDegreesandGraduateEducationDevelopmentCenter(CDGDC)isanadministrativedepartmentdirectlyundertheMinistryof Education(MoE).Thecenter was established in 2003. It engages in scientific research into academic degrees and provides counselling for MoE in the formulation of higher education policy.The CDGDC undertakes the accreditation, authentication and consultation workconcerning degree certificates and other related materials.

At the higher education institutions, the president or one of the vice-presidentsis in charge of education. If a department admits students at Master’s-level, theadministration work rests with the dean or vice-dean. The teaching office and advisors in thedepartmentsare responsible for trainingand the implementationof trainingplans.

Chart2:Administrationof highereducationinChina

Most funding for the education budget is received from government funding.However,multiplefundingchannelshavealsobeenopenedupbythegovernment.Atpresent,fundingneededbytheschoolsdirectlycontrolledbythecentralgovernment

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comes from a central financial pool, and schools controlled by local governments are supported by local financing.

China has set up an education system with the government as the major investorandsocialpartnersasco-investors.Currently the localgovernmentplaysakeyrolein financing compulsory education, while the central and provincial governments are dominant inhigher education. Inoccupational andadult education, socialpartnersincludingindustrialorganisations,businessesandpublicinstitutionsplayanincreasinglyimportantrole.Tuitionfeeswereintroducedintheearly1990sandcannowbeashighas12000yen(1217euro)peryear.

3.2 Higher education institutionsIn2004therewere2236highereducationinstitutions(HEIs)inChina.Outof these1731 were regular HEIs and the other 505 were higher education institutions foradults.Thenumberof regularhighereducationinstitutionshasincreasedfrom598in1978to1731in2004.

A significant reform has been the amalgamation of higher education institutions to create strong, comprehensiveuniversities. Someamalgamationshave involved anumberof small institutions in areas with similar or related fields merging to form a new institution. Othershaveinvolvedsmallerinstitutionsmergingintoanexistinglargerinstitution.

Non-governmentalprivate“minban”educationconstitutesthefastestgrowingsectorof educationinChina.Sincethe1980swhenprivatehighereducationwasre-established,it has grown dramatically. Businesses or enterprises, non-profit agencies, community groupsor individuals runnon-government institutions. Someprogrammes are runthrough partnerships with foreign universities and colleges. “Minban” institutionschargetuitionfees.

There can be two types of programmes offered by the non-government highereducation institutions: those leading to a degree recognised by the Ministry of Education,andthosenotleadingtoanyformallyrecogniseddegree.Thelatterclassincludesprogrammespreparingstudentstositexaminationsforarecogniseddegreeunder the government self-study examinations system, and programmes offeringtraininginknowledgeandskillsof importancetotheChineseeconomy.

Onlyaverysmallnumberof non-governmental institutionsareauthorisedtoofferdegreesrecognisedbytheMinistryof Education(MoE).Theseinstitutionsarelistedon the MoE website alongside regular higher education institutions recognised byMoE,www.moe.edu.cn/english/list.htm(inEnglish)orwww.moe.edu.cn/edoas/website18/info965.htm(inChinese).

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Asof 2003,131non-governmentalHEIshave awardeddegrees recognisedby theMinistry of Education (MoE), four institutions have offered Bachelor’s degreeprogrammes, and 127 institutions have offerered two- or three-year postsecondarylevel programmes leading to a graduation certificate or graduation diploma. Students completingaprogrammenotleadingtoadegreerecognisedbyMoEareoftenissueda Certificate of Completion by the institution.

Theacademicyearof full-timeuniversitiesisdividedintotwosemesters(afewhavethree). The first semester begins in September and the second in February. Each semesterconsistsof about20weeksandeachweekof sixschooldays.Inadditionto mandatory winter and summer vacations, every May (International Labor Day,May1st)andOctober(NationalDay)studentshaveseven-dayholidays.Alsoforthecelebrationof theChineseNewYearthestudentshaveaweek-longholidayeitherinJanuaryorFebruary.Onotheranniversariesandtraditionalfestivals theuniversitiesoperatenormally.

3.2.1 Formal higher educationFormalhighereducationhasthefollowingcharacteristics:

1. Admission is based on scores obtained in the unified national university/collegeentranceexamination.

2. Curriculumguidelinesarepreparednationally,andthenumberof studentplaces available in specific programmes at specific institutions is based on economicneedsasdeterminedthroughcentralgovernmentplanning.

3. Uponsuccessfulcompletionof theprogramme,insomecasesthegraduateisassignedapostof employmentbythegovernment.Inthepastmostgraduatingstudentswereassignedtoemploymentbythegovernment,butthisischanging.

3.2.1.1 Universities and specialised institutions

Universities and specialised institutions offer degree programmes in 11 different fields. Each field is divided into sub-fields and then further into specialties.

1. Agriculture 7.MedicineandPharmacy2. Arts 8.NaturalScience3. Engineering 9.PhysicalCulture4. FinanceandEconomics 10.PoliticalScienceandLaw5. Forestry 11.TeacherTraining6. Humanities

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3.2.1.2 Specialised schools/colleges

TheChinesecharactersfor“specialisedschools”areconsistentlyusedinthenamesof institutions in this category. The characters are usually translated into Englishin a number of ways: “junior college”, “college”, “institute” and “school”. Theseinstitutionsofferhighereducationprogrammeswhichrepresentlessthanfouryearsof full-time study, in the following fields: agriculture, animal husbandry, various areas of commerce (i.e. accounting and customs), engineering and technology, medicalsciences,navigation,sericulture,teachertraining,andtourism.

Admissiontospecialisedcollegesisgenerallybasedongraduationfromseniormiddleschool and scores on the unified national university entrance examinations. Diplomas may be earned upon completion of two- or three-year full time programmes, orthree-tofour-yearpart-timeprogrammes.Themostcommonlengthof anacademicprogrammeofferedbyspecialisedschoolsisthreeyearsof full-timestudy.

Aftertwoyearsof study,successfulstudentsinspecialisedcollegescanapplytothethirdyearof aBachelor’sprogrammeinadegree-grantinghighereducationinstitution.

3.2.1.3 Vocational universities

Vocationaluniversitiesarepartof theformalsystemof highereducation.Thepurposeof vocationaluniversitiesistoaddressthemanpowerrequirementsof thecommunityinwhich they are located.Someof the institutionshavegrownoutof employees’colleges and someoutof thebranchcollegesof largeuniversities,while someareentirelynewestablishments.Thegraduatesareusuallyawardeddiplomas,butveryfewvocationaluniversitiesalsohavetherighttooffertheBachelor’sdegreeprogramme(this should always be verified from the university case by case). The issue of student transfersfromvocationalnon-degreeprogrammestoBachelor’sdegreeprogrammesisstillanunsolvedissue.

Even though most vocational universities do not offer degree programmes, theygenerally use the Chinese characters for “college” or “university” in their official name. Thecharactersfor“vocational”mayormaynotappearintheinstitution’sname.

3.2.2 Adult (non-formal) higher education

The Adult Education Guidance and Coordination Commission, formed by theState Education commission in 1986, administers adult higher education. In mostcases the admission is based on the unified national entrance examination for adult higher education, which differs from the unified national college/university entrance

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examination.Enrolmentquotasarenotpartof thecentralgovernmentplanandthegraduates arenot assignedemploymentby thegovernment. InChina, adulthighereducationisconsideredtobeattertiarylevel,butneverthelesstobeatlowerlevelthantheformalprogrammesof highereducation.

3.2.2.1 Administrative colleges

Administrativecolleges are alsoknownas“in-servicemanagementcadrecolleges”.Theyofferadultmiddleschoolandhighereducationprogrammesfor“cadres”,atermwhich designates all the levels of the staff members employed in government offices. Sometrainingcoursesarealsoofferedinseparatedepartmentsorsectionsatcollegesanduniversities.

3.2.2.2 Correspondence departments and attached evening colleges

Many colleges and universities offer part-time adult higher education programmesthrough correspondence and attached evening colleges. Diploma programmes, in-servicecourses,refreshercourses,andothercoursesareofferedonatuitionbasisinordertosupplementaninstitution’sincome.Bachelor’sdegreeprogrammesmayalsobeofferedonapart-timebasisbycorrespondencedepartmentsandeveningcolleges.Bachelor’sdegreesearned in thiswayareconsidered tobeequivalent toBachelor’sdegreesearned in formalhighereducationprogrammesand thereforeapprovedbytheMinistryof Education.

3.2.2.3 Employees’ colleges

Thistypeof institutionisalsoreferredtoasastaff,orworkers’,collegeoruniversityandmayormaynot designate in its namewhether it enrols studentson a regularorpart-timebasis,orboth.Admissiontoanemployees’collegerequirescompletionof a unified national entrance examination for adult higher education. Since 1982, in addition to coursework, the awarding of a diploma has required completionof agraduationprojector thesis,aswellasagraduationexaminationregulatedby thenational government and administered by the local educational authorities. Thisexaminationisrequiredif thecollegeisnotregisteredandapprovedbytheMinistryof Education.

The employees’ colleges award two types of credentials: specialty certificates which testify a certain level of specialised knowledge and single-subject certificates. There is someevidencethatafewemployees’collegesmayofferBachelor’sdegreeprogrammesrecognisedbytheMinistryof Education.

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3.2.2.4 Independent self-study examinations

Followingatrialperiodduring1981and1982,thissystemhasbeenavailablenationallysince1983. It is theonly formof highereducation inChinawithanentirelyopenadmissionspolicy.Becauseof thispolicyof unrestrictedadmission,theMinistryof Education carefully regulates the examinations in order to ensure quality. Studentswhopassallself-studyexaminationsinaBachelor’sdegreeprogrammearegrantedtheBachelor’s degree, the first of which was awarded in 1986. In the self-study examination system, a regular university, under the supervision of the municipal or provincialHigherEducationSelf-StudyExaminationsGuidanceCommittee,developsthestudymaterials,conductstheexaminations,aswellasawardstheBachelor’sdegree.

Certificates issued after passing independent self-study examinations will normally have an official round red seal, with a centre star and terminology/text such as the “Self-Study Examinations Guidance Committee of Higher Education of ZhejiangProvince.”Thesealof theuniversityatwhichtheexaminationshavebeenconductedmay also be stamped on the certificate.

3.2.2.5 Radio and television universities

Radioandtelevisionuniversitiesareopenanddistanceeducationinstitutionswhichoffermulti-mediacoursesthroughradio,television,print,audio-visualmaterialsandcomputernetworksonanationwidebasis.Radioandtelevisionuniversitiesarerunatfour levels,correspondingtotheorganisationof China’ssystemof nationalandregionalgovernments.

TheCentralRadioandTelevisionUniversity(CRTVU)inBeijing,atthehighestlevel,is under the direct leadership of the Ministry of Education. The provincial radioand televisionuniversities,at thesecond level,areunder theauspicesof provincialgovernments. Their branch schools, at the third level, come under the prefecturesandcivicgovernments.Workstations,atthefourthlevel,areruneitherbydistrictorcountyeducationbureausorbyaparticularindustry.

The CRTVU controls the unified admission standards, teaching plans, level of education and examination criteria. It is also the national centre of teaching administration,programmeproduction,coursedeliveryanddistance-educationresearch.

Graduationfromseniormiddleschoolisnotmandatoryforadmission,butpassinganentranceexaminationisrequired.Diplomascanbeearneduponthecompletionof a3-yearprogrammeandanationwidestandardisedexitexamination.Theyareviewedbythegovernmentasequivalenttoathree-yearfull-timediplomaprogrammeofferedbyspecialisedschools/colleges.

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3.2.2.6 Spare-time universities

Spare-timeuniversitiesoffersub-degreelevelprogrammesundertakeninthestudents’“spare-time”.Theuniversitiesareunderthesupervisionof thelocalauthoritiesandofferprogrammesof an appliednature that are relevant to theneedsof the localcommunity.

3.3 Higher education degrees, certificates and diplomas

Highereducation institutionsofferawidevarietyof traditionalandnon-traditionalprogrammesthatleadtodegreesordiplomas.However,onlyprogrammesapprovedby theAcademicDegreesCommittee/Ministryof Educationcanbeconsideredasrecognised.

There has not been much change to the structure of higher education since theresumption of the education programmes in the late 1970s. There have, however,beensomechangesinentryrequirements,advancedstandingopportunitiesandthenatureof someprogrammes.

Sub-degreeprogrammes,oftenreferredtoas“diploma”programmes,lastforthreeyears.Programmesareofferedattwolevels:postsecondarylevelzhuanke programmeswhich are usually vocationally oriented and largely applied, or undergraduate levelbenke programmeswhich aremore academicallyorientated.Bothprogrammesmayrequire a graduation project. A graduation certificate or graduation diploma is awarded uponthesuccessfulcompletionof theseprogrammes.TheBachelor’sdegreexueshiprogrammesusuallyinvolvetheexactsamecourseworkasthebenkeprogrammes,buthavetheapprovalof theAcademicDegreesCommittee.

3.3.1 Higher education degrees

Degrees are regulated by the Academic Degrees Committee of the State CounciltogetherwiththeMinistryof Education.Inprinciple,alldegreesandexaminationsthroughout thecountryare the same.However, theconcept“credit”hasnotbeendefined nationally. This is why the required number of credits for graduation varies among colleges and universities. There is also a lot of variation in the names andcontentsof coursesprovidedbydifferenthighereducationinstitutions.

3.3.1.1 Bachelor’s degree

The Bachelor’s degree is generally awarded after four years of full-time study.Programmesinmedicine,dentistry,architectureandengineeringinsomeuniversities,however, may take five to six years to complete. Students who successfully complete

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all requirements are awarded two certificates: the degree certificate and graduation certificate. Those students who do not pass all the requirements for a degree, by gettingmarksthataretoolow,failingcoursesortheNationalEnglishExamination,for example, only receive the graduation certificate. Those students who enrol in non-degree programmes also only receive the graduation certificate. The requirement for the graduation certificate is lower than that for the degree certificate.

Traditionally, the Bachelor’s degree is a highly academic programme. Alternativepathwaysappeartoallowstudentstopursueamorevocationalorappliedprogrammeof study.Forexampletwo-orthree-yearpostsecondaryorsub-degreelevelprogrammesfollowedbytwotothreeyearsinaBachelor’sprogrammecanleadtotheBachelor’sdegree.

3.3.1.2 Master’s degree

Since1981,applicants toMaster’sdegreeprogrammeshavebeenobligedtoholdaBachelor’s degree and be under the age of 35. Most Master’s degree programmesinvolve threeyearsof full-timestudyafter theBachelor’sdegree. It is,however, insomecasespossibletoearnaMaster’sdegreein2to2.5years.

Master’sdegreeprogrammecomponentsinclude:

• completionof basictheoreticalandspecialisedcourses• readingandresearchabilityinoneforeignlanguage• studyof Marxisttheory• thesisanditsoralexamination.

A substantial portionof thedegree involves researchwork andwriting a thesis inpreparationfortheoralexamination.StudentswhocompletetheMaster’scurriculumwithoutathesiscanonlybeawardedadiploma.Thediplomastatesthecompletionof thecoursesbutdoesnotmentioncompletionof thethesisexamination.Athesiscanbecompleted later,andtheMaster’sdegreecanbeearneduponthesuccessfulcompletionof thethesisexamination.Thegraduateswillbeissuedtwodiplomas:thegraduation certificate and degree certificate.

3.3.1.3 Doctor’s degree

TheDoctor’sdegreeisofferedatdegree-grantinguniversities,institutesandresearchinstitutes.Generally,candidatesmustholdaMaster’sdegreeandbe40yearsof ageoryoungertogainadmission.Candidatesmusttakeanentranceexamination.AgraduatefromaBachelor’sprogrammewithtopgradescanalsobeallowedtotaketheDoctor’sentranceexaminationandgainadmission,butthisisextremelyrare.

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Doctoralprogrammesusuallytakeaminimumof threeyearstocompleteforpersonswith a Master’s degree, or four to five years for persons with a Bachelor’s degree. Therequiredcourseworkincludesadvancedcoursesinonespecialisedareaandthemasteryof twoforeignlanguages.Thepreparationanddefenseof adissertationarealsorequired.

3.3.2 Types of certificates and diplomas

Chinese-language certificates are always available and should be the only official documents accepted. Translations may be verified by an institution’s foreign language department, if one exists, but such a verification cannot be a guaranteed one. Only certificates issued by the institution either completely in Chinese, or in a bi-lingual format, should be considered official.

A certificate of attendance can be issued at any point of exit from the educational process. This certificate verifies a student’s enrolment in courses only, and not their actualcompletion.

Students who successfully complete all requirements are awarded two certificates: the degree certificate and the graduation certificate. Those who do not pass all the requirements(e.g.marksaretoolow,coursesfailed)orenrolinnon-degreeprogrammesonly, receive the graduation certificate; no degree certificate is awarded.

From 1982 to 1984, graduating students were awarded a separate degree certificate and graduation certificate. Between 1984 and 1993, however, both certificates were combined into a single booklet called the “Graduation Certificate.” In 1993, the degree certificate and graduation certificate were separated once again. Since then students have been awarded with two certificates, both the degree certificate and graduation certificate.

From 1994 to 2000, all certificates were printed by the Ministry of Education (MoE) butawardedbyindividualinstitutions.Startingin2000,universitiesandcollegesbeganissuing their own certificates, and these must be registered and made available for inspectionatMoE.

3.3.3 Notarial certificates

Notarial certificates provide evidence that the documents attached to the notarial certificate are true copies of the original documents. Notarial certificates are prepared by notariespublicinChina.Thecopiesareboundintoabookletwithanattachednotarialcertificate attesting that the copy is a true copy. Notarial certificates are not educational

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qualifications in their own right, although they may provide some information about the document to which they are attached. The notarial certificates should not be considered to be official proof of the award of degree without the attached copies of theoriginaldocuments.Inordertopreventtheuseof falsedocuments,itisstronglyrecommended that application materials are authorised by a notarial office not lower than the city level, as these offices are considered reliable.

The notarial certificates may contain the following documents:

1. Diploma or degree certificate to prove the level of education (Appendix II, sample1)

2. Transcriptof recordstoshowthesubjectsandthegradesof eachcourse(AppendixII,sample2)

3. Personal identity certificate to show personal information (Appendix II, sample3).

3.4 Admission to higher education

3.4.1 Formal higher education

Studentsmayapplytouniversityanunrestrictedamountof timesaslongastheymeetthefollowingrequirements:

1. Theapplicantsupportsthe“fourcardinalprinciples”of China:lovemotherland,observediscipline,observelaws,andexpressdeterminationtostudyhardforthesocialistmodernisationprogramme.

2. Theapplicantisagraduateof seniormiddleschooloritsequivalent.

Admission to all formal higher education (Bachelor’s degree programme) requiresgraduation from senior middle school and a passing grade on the annual nationaluniversityentranceexamination.

Graduates fromspecialised (technical)uppersecondaryschoolsareallowedto takethe national university/college entrance examinations in order to enter vocationaluniversities.However,inrealitytheyarenotencouragedtodosobecausethiskindof uppersecondaryeducationislabourmarketoriented.Thepurposeof thiseducationand training is to prepare graduates for jobs for which academic degrees are notrequired.

The national university entrance examination is drafted by the State ExaminationCommissionandadministratedbyprovincialauthoritiesthroughoutthecountryduringthree days in June. Until 2001 the entrance examination comprised examinations in five

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subjects.Since2001therehavebeenthreecompulsorysubjects(Chinese,mathematicsandoneforeignlanguage)andthreeoptionalsubjects(chosenfromphysics,chemistry,biology,politics,historyandgeography).

Admissiontomaster-levelstudiesrequiresthecompletionof aBachelor’sdegreeorequivalentandisdeterminedbytheresultsonthenationalMaster’sentranceexaminationand entrance examinations administeredby the admitting institution.Studentswhohave completed theBachelor’s studyprogrammeandhave received the graduationcertificate, but have not received the degree certificate because of low marks or failed courses,haveaccesstoMaster’sdegreeprogrammes.Admission,however,isveryrarebecauseof hardcompetitioninentranceexaminations.

Admissiontodoctoralprogrammesrequiresthecompletionof aMaster’sdegreeoritsequivalentandtheresultsof thenationalDoctor’sdegreeentranceexaminationaswellasadditionalentranceexaminationsadministeredbytheadmittinginstitution.ItisalsopossibletoaccessadoctoralprogrammewithoutaMaster’sdegree,butadmissionisveryrare.Inthiscase,thelengthof studiesfortheDoctor’sdegreeislongerthanwhenbasedontheMaster’sdegree.

3.4.2 Adult (non-formal) higher education

Beginningin1976,admissiontoemployees’collegesrequiredgraduationfromseniormiddleschool.In1986,theAdultEducationGuidanceandCoordinationCommissionstatedthatstudentswishingtoenrolindiplomaprogrammesofferedbyemployees’collegesmustmeetcertainstandards.Accordingtothesestandardsstudentsmust

1. beundertheageof 302. haveaminimumof twoyearsworkingexperience3. passnational,provincial,ormunicipalentranceexaminationsforadult

highereducation4. beseniormiddleschoolgraduatesortheequivalent.

4 Sources4.1 PublicationsTheCountry Education Profile Update2003forChinaPublishedforAEI-NOOSRbytheJSMcMillianPrintingGroup2003ISBN187703259X.

AGuidetoEvaluatingEducationalCredentialsfromChinabyShelleyM.Feaglesandwaspublishedin1992.Secondprinting2001.ISBN1-883971-0-4.

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The Educational System of China, Cloud Bai-Yun, UK NARIC & James Frey,EducationalCredentialEvaluators,Inc.UnpublishedmaterialforaworkshopatEAIEseminarinCracowinSept2005.

4.2 LinksListings of Chinese universities:

www.moe.edu.cn/english/list.htmwww.canadian-universities.net/World_Universities/China.htmlwww.internationaleducationmedia.com/china/universities.htmwww.index-china.com/index-english/index-china-edumap.html

Chinese websites:

Ministryof Educationwww.moe.edu.cn

Educationlawof Chinawww.moe.edu.cn/english/laws_e.htm

CERNET(ChinaEducationandResearchNetwork)www.cernet.edu.cn/HomePage/english/index.shtml

ChinaEducationAssociationforInternationalExchange(CEAIE)www.ceaie.edu.cn

Listof themembersof theStateAcademicDegreesCommitteewww.chinavitae.com/connect.php?cat=STA&inst_id=320.568000000

ChineseAcademyof Scienceshttp://english.cas.cn/eng2003/page/T42.htm

BeijingMunicipalEducationCommissionhttp://english.bjedu.gov.cn/

Departmentof Educationof GuangdongProvincewww.gdhed.edu.cn

HebeiEducationDepartmentwww.hee.cn/en/en.htm

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HubeiProvincialDepartmentof Educationwww.hbe.gov.cn/e21web/jyt_english/index_en.html

NationalEducationExaminationsAuthoritywww.neea.edu.cn/buttom/english.htm

Ministryof Justicewww.legalinfo.gov.cn/english/englishindex.htm

ChinaDailywww.chinadaily.com.cn/english/home/index.html

UniversityrankingsinChina(2003)http://rank2003.netbig.com/en/index.htm

Other websites:

Universityof HongKong:Centreof ResearchonEducationinChina(CREC)www.hku.hk/chinaed/index.html

ArticlesandlinksonhighereducationinChinahttp://us.tom.com/english/197.htm

Asia Pacific Academic Recognition Networkwww.aparnet.org

InternationalAssociationof Universitieswww.unesco.org/iau/index.html

EuropeanNetworkof InformationCentreswww.enic-naric.net

WorldEducationServiceswww.wes.org/ewenr/02march/practical.htm

EducationalCredentialEvaluatorswww.ece.org

NOOSR (National Office of Overseas Skills Recognition)http://aei.dest.gov.au/AEI/QualificationsRecognition/default.htm

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NationalUniversityNetworkforEastandSoutheastAsianStudiesandFinnishPolytechnicNetworkforEastandSoutheastAsiawww.asianet.fi

4.3 Contact informationForverifyingdocuments:

ChinaAcademicDegreesandGraduateEducationDevelopmentCenter1WangZhuangRoadHaiDianDistrictBeijing100083Chinawww.cdgdc.cn(inChinese)andhttp://79.cic.tsinghua.edu.cn/english/about.htm(basicinformationinEnglish)

ChinaHigher-EducationStudentInformationScience,TechnologyandEngineeringBuildingTowerNO.9ZhongguancunSouthStreetHaidianDistrictBeijing100081Chinae-mail:kefu@chsi.com.cnwww.chsi.com.cn/about_en

For recognition of studies & qualifications:

ChinaEducationAssociationforInternationalExchange37,DamucangHutongXidanBeijing100816Chinawww.ceaie.edu.cn

Office of the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council37Damucang,XidanBeijing100816Chinawww.moe.gov.cn

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX I: CERTIFICATE SAMPLES

1. Senior Middle School Graduation Diploma/Certificate2. Senior Middle School Graduation Diploma/Certificate from Hong Kong 3. Graduation Certificate from a Vocational Secondary School4. Graduation Certificate from an Ordinary College (non-degree programme)5. Graduation Certificate, Bachelor’s Degree 6. Certificate from a University of Workers and Staff7. Graduation Certificate of a Higher Education Self-study Examination

(withoutdegree)8. Graduation Certificate of a Higher Education Self-study Examination

Note: The certificates do not have a nationally uniform format; there are differences between the certificates of different provinces, cities and schools.

1. Senior Middle School Graduation Diploma/Certificate

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2. Senior Middle School Graduation Diploma/Certificate from Hong Kong

3. Graduation Certificate from a Vocational Secondary School

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4. Graduation Certificate from an ordinary college (non-degree programme)

5. Graduation Certificate, Bachelor’s Degree

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6. Certificate from a University of Workers and Staff

7. Graduation Certificate of a Higher Education Self-study Examination (without degree)

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8. Graduation Certificate of a Higher Education Self-study Examination

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APPENDIX II: SAMPLES OF NOTARIAL CERTIFICATES

Sample1:DIPLOMAORDEGREECERTIFICATESample2:TRANSCRIPTOFRECORDSSample3:PERSONALIDENTITYCERTIFICATE

Sample1:DIPLOMAORDEGREECERTIFICATE

Normallyfourpages:• copyof theoriginaldiplomawithpersonalphoto• translationof thediplomainEnglishorotherrelevantlanguage• notarial certificate in Chinese to prove the diploma is genuine and the

translationhasthesamecontentasthediploma• translation of the notarial certificate in English or other relevant

language.

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Cover of a booklet of notarial certificates. Most notarial certificates look like the one here. The name of the notarial office is written at the bottom of the page.

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Copyof originaldiplomawithphoto

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Translationof diplomainEnglishorotherrelevantlanguage

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Notarial certificate of diploma in Chinese

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Translation of notarial certificate in English or other relevant language

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Sample2:TRANSCRIPTOFRECORDS

• copyof theoriginaltranscriptof recordswithorwithoutphoto• translation of the transcript of records in English or other relevant

language• notarial certificate in Chinese to prove the diploma is genuine and the

translationhasthesamecontentasthetranscriptof records• translation of the notarial certificate in English or other relevant

language

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Copyof originaltranscriptof recordswithorwithoutphoto

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Translationof transcriptof recordsinEnglishorotherrelevantlanguage

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Notarial certificate of transcript of records in Chinese

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Translation of notarial certificate in English or other relevant language

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Sample3:PERSONALIDENTITYCERTIFICATE

Twopages:• original notarial certificate indicating name, date of birth, place of birth, and

thenamesof parents• translation of the notarial certificate in English or other relevant language

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Original notarial certificate

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Translation of notarial certificate

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APPENDIX III: CHINESE – ENGLISH VOCABULARY

Numbers

一 Yi-one二 Er-two三 San-three四 Si-four五 Wu - five六 Liu-six七 Qi-seven八 Ba-eight九 Jiu-nine十 Shi-ten

Dates

年 Nian-year月 Yue-month日 Ri-day生 Sheng-born

Dateof birth,e.g.1972April3born一九七二年四月三日生

Common educational vocabulary

教育 Jiaoyu-education本科 Benke-undergraduatecourse本科学习 Benkexuexiao-undergraduateschool自学 Zixue-self-study专科 Zhuanke-specialisedstudies研究 Yanjiu-study,research学制 Xuezhi-lengthof programme专业 Zhuanye-nameof major学号 Xuehao-studentID分校 Fenxiao-branch学分 Xuefen-credit毕业 Biye-tograduate

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Types of schools 中学 Zhongxue-middleschool大学 Daxue-university学院 Xueyuan-college学校 Xuexiao-school师范 Shifan-“normal”,teachers示范学院 Shifanxueyuan-teachers’college师范大学 Shifandaxue-teachers’university广播电视大学 Guangbodianshidaxue-radioandtelevisionuniversity业余大学 Yeyudaxue-spare-timeuniversity职业大学 Zhiyedaxue-workers’(vocational)university专科学校 Zhuankexuexiao-specialisedschool成人高等学校 Chengrengaodengxuexiao-adulthighereducation

institution夜大学 Yedaxue-eveningcollege

Fields of study, subjects

农学 Nongxue-agriculture文学 Wenxue-arts经济学 Jingjixue-economics教育学 Jiaoyuxue-education工学 Gongxue-engineering历史学 Lishixue-history法学 Faxue-law医学 Yixue-medicine哲学 Zhexue-philosophy理学 Lixue-science师范学 Shifanxue-teachertraining

Degrees

学位 Xuewei-academicdegree学士学位 Xueshixuewei-bachelor’sdegree硕士学位 Shuoshixuewei-master’sdegree博士学位 Boshixuewei-doctor’sdegree

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Bachelor’s degrees in different fields

农学学士 Nongxuexueshi-Bachelorof Agriculture文学学士 Wenxuexueshi-Bachelorof Arts商学学士 Shangxuexueshi-Bachelorof Business经济学学士 Jingjixuexueshi-Bachelorof Economics教育学学士 JiaoyuXueshi-Bachelorof Education工学学士 Gongxuexueshi-Bachelorof Engineering法学学士 Faxuexueshi-Bachelorof Laws医学学士 Yixuexueshi-Bachelorof Medicine理学学士 Lixuexueshi-Bachelorof Science

Types of certificates

文凭 Wenping-diploma毕业文凭 Biyewenping-graduationdiploma证书 Zhengshu - academic certificate毕业证书 Biye zhengshu - graduation certificate学位证书 Xuewei zhengshu - degree certificate 肄业证书 Yiye zhengshu - certificate of attendance/incompletion公正书 Gongzhengshu - notarial certificate