How to read a scientific paper

Kelly Hogan

What is a Scientific Paper ?

What is a Scientific Paper ?

A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results

Two Types of Scientific Papers Containing Two Types of Information

•1. Review articles•Give an overview of the scientific field or topic •Summarize data and conclusions from many studies. •Good starting place for a summary of what has been happening in the field. •Often contain more background information than primary research articles do, which means if at any point you're confused while reading the primary literature, it will help to go back and look at reviews.• It is also wise to read several reviews by different authors for a well-rounded perspective of the field; individual authors have their own biases and you want to make sure you're exposed to as many different points of view as possible before you settle on your own conclusions.

• 2. Primary research articles • Contain the original data and conclusions of the researchers who

were involved in the experiments. • Contain details about how the experiments were done. • Or, in the cases of some journals, they might contain web

addresses for "supplemental data" found online, which detail the methods used by the authors.

• Should be consulted any time you need to get more information about how an experiment was carried out, or if you need to review the original data, which you may want to do in order to base your experiments off their data, or to evaluate for yourself the validity of the authors' conclusions.

• Useful for seeing how experts in that scientific field visually represent their data. For example, what types of graphs are common to the field? Are there any specific units that are used? You'll eventually need to know this information to put together a good report or display board to convey your research.

• If you're looking at a paper and you're not sure if it is a review or a primary research article, here are a few easy ways to distinguish.

• Many reviews will be labeled as "review" or "tutorial" on the first page of the article.

• Reviews don't have a "methods" section (although you can find entire reviews dedicated to discussing the advances in a specific method or technique).

• In a review, graphs, tables, or figures containing actual data will contain citations in the figure legend to the primary research papers that originally reported the findings.

Evaluating a paper• What questions does the paper address?• What are the main conclusions of the paper?• What evidence supports those conclusions?• Do the data actually support the conclusions?• Why are the conclusions important?

Essential Parts of a Scientific paper

• Title: Describe concisely the core contents of the paper• Abstract: Summarize the major elements of the paper• Introduction: provide context and rationale for the study• Materials: Describe the experimental design so it is

reproducible• Methods: Describe the experimental procedures• Results: Summarize the findings without interpretation• Discussion: Interpret the findings of the study• Summary: Summarize the findings• Acknowledgement: Give credit to those who helped you• References: List all scientific papers, books and websites that

you cited

Abstract• Summary of the information in a document • Should be clear and simple, as it is the first and sometimes

the only part of the paper read.• It should provide a brief summary of each of the main

sections of the paper:1. State the principal objective2. Describe the methods used3. Summarize the results4. State the principal conclusions

IntroductionThe introduction should answer the following questions:

1.What was being studied?2.Why was this an important question?3.What was known about this topic before the study was done?4.What model was tested?5.What approach was taken in this study?

Why is it a good idea to read introductions?•They give you some idea what background information you need before starting•They give you an insight into the authors’ starting point and approach to the subject

Methods• This part of the manuscript must be clear, precise and

concise so that it can be repeated.• If the method is new, all details must be provided• If the method has been previously published in a scientific

journal, only the reference should be given with some identification:

e.g. “cells were broken by ultrasonic treatment as previously described by …”. Preferable than “cells were broken as previously described by …. “

• Questions such as “how” or “how much” must be answered and not left to be puzzled over

• Methods used for statistical analyses must be mentioned; ordinary ones without comments, but advanced or unusual ones require literature citation

Results• Results section is written in the past tense• It is the core or heart of the paper• It should be clear and simply stated since it constitutes the

new knowledge contributed to the world• The purpose of this section is to summarize and illustrate

the findings in an orderly and logical sequence, without interpretation

• The text should guide the reader through the findings, stressing the major points

Methods of presenting the data

1. Directly in the text2. In a table3. In a figure• All figures and tables must be accompanied

by a textual presentation of the key findings• Never have a table or figure that is not

mentioned in the text

Tips for success:• Spend a lot of time on each paper NOW look up every detail

that you are unsure of.• Discovering the answers for yourself is one of the best ways

to learn and have the information be retained.• Imagine yourself teaching the paper or figures to classmates

—teaching something to others is also another great way to learn.

• Start by reading the abstract to make sure the paper is what you were looking for. If the abstract is of interest to you, move on to the introduction. But if you aren't familiar with the topic, or if skimming reveals terms or concepts you don't understand, you'll need to read the introduction and then the methods section carefully, stopping to consult other resources or cited literature to augment your understanding.

• Once you're sure you have a handle on the background information and an idea of how the experiments were performed, you're ready to tackle the results section. The first step is to examine each figure and table. Read the accompanying figure legend so you know what all the variables are, and refer back to the methods if you're unsure of how the data was collected.

• Lastly, if you're interested in the authors' interpretations of the results, read the discussion. If you're already very familiar with the topic, you may find that reading the discussion is unnecessary. But for people just entering the field, discussions are a good place to get a glimpse of what the current competing theories and hypotheses are.

• Read, look things up, re-read, etc. But if you find that you're spending hours looking up information and not making any progress, then it may be time to consider that this paper is not for you.

• If that's the case, try going to a more general paper (like a review or textbook entry) about the topic and then returning to the paper after you're more informed. And if that still doesn't help, it may be time to consider changing your topic.