IB HL History Mr. Blackmonteachers.dadeschools.net/dblackmon/IB World History/11...AP/IB American History Mr. Blackmon Origins of American Revolution Page 3 Discuss how far this claim

IB HL History Mr. Blackmon

Review Notes: Topics 2 and 3 (US History component)

[From the History Guide 1 Exams 2010 Sec 10:46]st

1. Independence movements

This section focuses on the various forces that contributed to the rise of the independencemovements, the similar and different paths that the movements followed and the immediateeffects of independence in the region. It explores the political, intellectual and militarycontributions of their leaders and the sometimes contradictory views that shaped the emergenceof the new nations.

I. Independence movements in the Americas: political, economic, social, intellectual andreligious causes; the role of foreign intervention; conflicts and issues leading to war

II. Political and intellectual contributions of leaders to the process of independence:Washington, Bolivar (suitable choices could be Adams, Jefferson, San Martín,O’Higgins)

III. United States Declaration of Independence; processes leading to the declaration;influence of ideas; nature of the declaration; military campaigns and their impact on theoutcome (suitable examples could be Saratoga and Yorktown)

IV. Independence movements in Latin America: characteristics of the independenceprocesses; reasons for the similarities and/or differences in two countries in the region;military campaigns and their impact on the outcome (suitable examples could beChacabuco, Maipú, Ayacucho, Boyacá and Carabobo)

V. United States’ position towards Latin American independence; events and reasons for theemergence of the Monroe Doctrine

VI. Impact of independence on the economies and societies of the Americas: economic andsocial issues; new perspectives on economic development; impact on different socialgroups: Native Americans, African Americans, Creoles

VII.

2. Nation-building and challenges

This section focuses on the new challenges and problems that came with independence. Itexplores the ways in which, and the reasons why, the countries of the region attempted to buildtheir nations. Independent and new nations emerged; the colonial empires, with few exceptions,were gone; new world links were forged yet the colonial legacy remained. Two of the problemsthat confronted the new nations were how to challenge it or how to build on it. The task ofbuilding new nations opened the doors to novel ways of political, social and economic thinkingand to the redefining of concepts such as nation and state.VIII. United States: Articles of Confederation; the Constitution of 1787: philosophical

underpinnings; major compromises and changes in the US political systemIX. Latin America: challenges to the establishment of political systems; conditions for the

rise of and impact of the caudillo rule in two countries (suitable examples could be Rosas,

AP/IB American History Mr. BlackmonOrigins of American Revolution Page 2

Gomez, Artigas)X. War of 1812: causes and impact on British North America and the United StatesXI. Mexican–American War 1846.8: causes and effects on the regionXII. Canada: causes and effects of 1837 rebellions; the Durham Report and its implications;

challenges to the Confederation; the British North America Act of 1867: compromises,unresolved issues, regionalism, effects

XIII. Changes in the conditions of social groups such as Native Americans, mestizos,immigrants in the new nations

Questions since 1995 that are strictly US History and which fall between 1763-1797

[Please note how frequent such questions are, and what your odds are that such a questionwill be on your examination]

1. How and with what success did the U.S. Constitution attempt to solve the problems of theConfederation period? (1987)

2. What were the major issues in the quarrel between Great Britain and her North Americancolonies in the years 1763-1776? (HL) (1988)

3. How revolutionary was the US Constitution? (HL) (1989)

4. Why did the Thirteen Colonies rebel against Britain and how were they able to win theirindependence? (HL) (1990)

5. Which features of the US Constitution were new? (HL) (Nov 1991)

6. Identify three problems of the Confederation period in the USA. How was each resolved in the constitution? (HL) (1991)

7. To what extent was the United States Constitution revolutionary? (HL) (1993)

8. What were the goals of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 and to what extent did it achieve them? (HL) (1996)

9. What problems faced the United States under the Articles of Confederation and how far did the United States Constitution solve them? (HL) (1998)

10. Was the United States’ Constitution a revolutionary document? (HL) (November 1999)

11. “Wars of Independence in the Americas were primarily caused by economic grievances.”


Discuss how far this claim is justified with reference to any one war of independence inthe region in the period 1775 to 1850. (HL) (2000)

12. To what extent were the grievances expressed in the Declaration of Independence successfully addressed by the Articles of Confederation? (HL) (2002)

13. Analyze the role of different social classes in the Wars of Independence in either theUnited States or Latin America. ? (HL) (2003)

14. Compare and contrast the role of leadership of two of the following: Washington,Jefferson, Bolivar, San Martin. (HL) (2003)

15. What were the main features of the Articles of Confederation, and how successful was thegovernment that resulted from them? (HL) (2003)

16. “The Constitution of the United States, agreed between 1787 and 1791, was arevolutionary document for its time.” To what extent do you agree with this claim? (2004)

17. "Wars of Independence in the Americas were primarily caused by political grievances."To what extent do you agree with this view? Support your answer with detailed referenceto any one war of independence in the period 1775 to 1824. (HL) (2005)

18. Analyse the main problems facing the United States under the Articles of Confederation(1781). How far did the United States Constitution (1788) solve them? (HL) (2005)

19. For what reasons, and in what ways, was the United States constitution of 1787 a “bundleof compromises”?. (2007)

20. To what extent were the ideas of the Enlightenment a cause of independence movementsin either the United States or Latin America?. (2008)

21. In what ways did the Declaration of Independence of 1776 justify the United Statesseparation from Britain?. (2008)

22. “The debates over the ratification of the constitution contributed to the formation ofnational parties in the United States during the 1790s” To what extent do you agree withthis statement? (2009)

23. “American independence from Britain was not a revolution but an evolution.” To whatextent do you agree with this view? (2010)

24. With reference to one independence movement you have studied, analyse the significance


of foreign aid in helping to achieve independence. (2011)

25. Analyse the issues that led to changes in the United States’ political system between 1792and 1797. (2011)

Origins of the American Revolution

I. Imperial Control on the Eve of RevolutionA. In 1750, the British Empire in the Western Hemisphere comprised 8 island

colonies in the Caribbean and Atlantic, and fifteen Atlantic provinces from NovaScotia in the north to Georgia in the south.

B. The 13 provinces of the future United States had a population of approximately1,250,000 whites and 200,000 slaves, and was doubling its population every 25-30 years.

C. Mercantilism on the Eve of Revolution1. Mercantilism sought to ensure a favorable balance of trade by the use of

government intervention in the economy.a. Monopolies were grantedb. Protective tariffsc. Shipping restrictionsd. Regulated manufacturing (Cummins and White 19)

2. The purpose of colonies wasa. To provide raw materials for the mother countryb. To provide a market for the mother country's manufactures.c. Colonies must not compete with manufactures from the mother

country.3. The Navigation Acts collectively required trade with the colonies to be on

English vessels and for enumerated goods to be shipped only to England(where they might be re-exported). The enumerated goods included sugar,tobacco, rice, indigo, molasses and rum, copper, naval stores, furs

4. Funneling the trade through England allowed the British toa. Collect customs and harbor duesb. Allowed British merchants to profit from the re-export trade.

5. Some areas of colonial trade were not touched. The very important tradeof lumber and foodstuffs with the West Indies for molasses was nottouched. The slave trade was not touched.

6. Oliver M. Dickerson argued that the Navigation Acts were a net benefit tothe colonies, and he makes a very strong case. Chesapeake planters, forinstance, were assured of their market for tobacco, and had access toBritish capital and wholesalers. Exports of tobacco dropped from100,000,000 lbs per year in the 1770s to 51.5,000,000 lbs in 1810. Theloss of the British market in rice and indigo was even steeper, with neithercrop recovered from the Revolution. Cummins and White 21)a. Dickerson concludes that the "strangling effect" of the Navigation


Acts could not have been a cause of the Revolution.7. Colonial shipping and ship building flourished under the Navigation Acts.

A substantial portion of Great Britain's merchant marine was American.8. Restrictions on manufacturing included:

a. The Wool Act (1699)b. The Hat Act (1732)c. The Iron Act (1750), which was aimed at the growing iron

manufactures of Pennsylvania.d. The Molasses Act (1733), which attempted to protect West Indian

sugar planters by placing a very heavy 6 p./gallon tax on foreign(ie. French) molasses. The colonists wanted French molasses fortwo reasons: the British planters could not begin to supply thedemand and French molasses was a lot cheaper. The colonistsconverted molasses into rum--a lot of rum (4,000,000 gallons in1771, of which some went into the African trade, 234,000 gallons,some into trade with the Indians (I don't have a figure, but it seemsto have been a lot), and the rest consumed domestically.(1) Rum was such a large part of the colonial economy (at least

the economy that generated economic surpluses, likemoney, as opposed to subsistence farming) that theMolasses Act was potentially a real problem. The colonistsavoided that by bribery. The standard bribe was ½ to 1pence / gallon (instead of the 6 pence duty). (MorganStamp Act 42) When John Robinson arrived in RhodeIsland in 1765 to take up his post of Customs Collector, themerchants of Newport offered him a salary of £70,000(colonial) per year in exchange for looking the other way.

D. Administration1. British administration was cumbersome and inefficient.2. The Treasury was responsible for collecting various revenues and for

enforcing the Navigation Acts.3. The Privy Council instructed colonial officials, heard appeals from

colonial courts, and reviewed colonial laws. It operated largely throughcommittees, the most important of which wasa. The Board of Trade

E. Colonial Government on the eve of Revolution1. Charter Colonies: Rhode Island and Connecticut retained their 17th

century charter government, with the greatest degree of independence fromImperial control. Government was firmly in popular hands. Legally, theCrown could not even disallow legislation in defiance of Imperial laws.

2. Proprietary Colonies: Of the original proprietary colonies, onlyMaryland, Pennsylvania and Delaware maintained that status (andPennsylvania was under pressure to become a Crown colony). Here, thegovernor was appointed by the proprietor and acted as his agent. Thelegislature represented the freemen. The Crown reserved the right to


disallow legislation.3. Crown Colonies: All the rest had become Crown colonies. The structure

was similar to that of the Proprietary Colony, except that the Crown,acting through the Board of Trade, appointed the Governor. The governorpossessed military as well as civil powers. He executed the laws, couldcall and dissolve the assembly, and was responsible for enforcing Imperiallaws. He appointed the upper chamber of the assembly. The governorwas an important source of communication with the government.

4. In every colony, the assembly had seized de facto political power by useof the right to agree to all taxes and legislation and the right to initiatelegislation. This power of the purse left the governor and judgesdependant upon the will of the assemblies, and the assemblies used thatpower ruthlessly at times. "Not only did the assemblies exploit thissituation to coerce the governors into policies which they desired . . . but. . . they had gone further by wholesale usurpation of executivefunctions. . . . [A]ssemblies usurped governors' powers over Indianaffairs by appointing their own agents for such business; controlledtheir discharge of military functions by dictating in appropriationswhere and when the provincial militia might be employed; and byappointing committees to supervise operations." (Christie 20-1) Assemblies regularly maintained their own agents in England to representtheir interests, with Benjamin Franklin being the most famous andeffective agent.a. Efforts to tighten imperial control, to shift power away from the

assemblies into the Crown's hands, will be viewed as a deadlythreat to colonial rights. The assemblies were acutely aware oftheir powers. Bear in mind also, that the history of Englishgovernment saw a very similar process by Parliament graduallyabsorbing power from the Crown: "The whole structure ofconstitutional government had grown out of resistance to theunwise or irresponsible use of authority." (Morgan 51)

F. Parliamentary Authority1. A fundamental constitutional disagreement had developed between the

colonies and Great Britain. This disagreement was not perceived untilevents precipitated a constitutional debate in the colonies. Neither sidereally understood the other: both sides shared the same traditions and usethe same vocabulary, but their course of development had diverged. Thedate at which the colonies were established, the distance between thecolonies and the mother country, and the domestic and foreign distractionsGreat Britain faced which made an earlier establishment of tighter imperialcontrol are the keys to understanding this difference.

2. In Great Britain, Parliament is sovereign. Sovereignty is not divisible. A process had begun with King John and Magna Carta by whichParliament absorbed more and more power from the Crown; in 1750, thatprocess was still going on.


3. The British believed that Parliament's authority over the colonies includedthe right to levy taxes.a. The levying of taxes upon the colonists might or might not be wise

or expedient, but Parliament had the right to tax.4. As we shall see, the colonists did not agree.5. More than any other single issue, the constitutional question of "No

taxation without representation." lies at the heart of the AmericanRevolution.

6. Right to taxa. Locke argued that everyone should be "free from all taxes but what

he consents to in person, or by his representative."b. "Property ought never be taken from people without their consent,

not because material values transcend all others but because humanliberty can never be secure when arbitrary power of any kingexists" (Garraty, p. 73)

7. British position:a. Either Parliament is sovereign, or it isn'tb. "virtual representation": every member in Parliament stood for

the interests of the entire empirec. The colonists had always used direct representation and

passionately rejected virtual representation as an argumentd. Colonists called for "no taxation without representation"

8. The colonists would have refused an offer to send representatives toLondona. Impracticalb. Cost too muchc. Representatives would be corrupted by the metropolisd. Representatives would be too few to affect decisions but our

participation would bind us.9. In 1765, Parliament provided the catalyst for unified colonial action

II. Problems Resulting from the French and Indian WarA. Diminished foreign threat to the thirteen colonies, which meant, from the British

point of view, less incentive for loyalty to the Crown. (Christie 23) This was notimmediately apparent.1. The end of the French and Indian War brought the subject of imperial

reorganization to the fore.2. I accept the argument that the real cause of the American Revolution was a

constitutional conflict that arose over British attempts to change existingconditions.

3. Problems with Indian relations, nominally an imperial concern, are relatedto imperial reorganization.a. Conflict with the Indian policy had two dimensions:

(1) Trade(2) Land

b. Powerful vested interests in several colonies, especially Virginia,


Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Connecticut, sought Western land,particularly in the Ohio Valley. You will recall that Virginia'sattempt to secure the Ohio Valley precipitated the French andIndian War.(1) These land claims often conflicted, especially in the Ohio

Valley.c. Landless frontiersmen, in a society with rapid population growth,

also wanted this land.d. The threat to their homes and way of life posed by the voracious

and insatiable colonial land hunger is the fundamental reason forIndian hostility.

e. The Crown also had an interest in regulating trade with the Indians,which was another source of friction.(1) Sir William Johnson, the Crown's representative to the

Iroquois (and also a Mohawk war chief with the Iroquoisname of Warrahiyageh), was authorized to regulate all tradewith the Indians through licenses. Johnson's intent was toensure fair dealings with the Indians.

(2) Johnson's goal conflicted with numerous commercialinterests competing for the fur trade of the Ohio, GreatLakes and Mississippi region.

4. Pontiac's Conspiracy (1763) hammered home the lesson.a. Pontiac was a charismatic Ottawa war chief, one of the leaders at

Braddock's Defeat, who never reconciled himself to British victory.b. Gen. Jeffrey Amherst, the British commander-in-chief, was

particularly arrogant and insensitive (to colonists and Indiansalike); his handling of the situation was especially inept.

c. For the first time in colonial experience, a viable coalition ofIndian tribes, normally hereditary enemies, was put together byPontiac. The coalitions stretched from the Great Lakes toPennsylvania and New York. It was a remarkable feat of personaldiplomacy.

d. The Indians attacked every fort on the frontier simultaneously. Only Detroit and Fort Pitt held out. The entire frontier wasravished, with perhaps 2,000 settlers killed (Christie 41)

e. Pontiac's object was the drive the European settlers back and away.f. Amherst's Regulars proved ineffective in defeating the Indians, and

he had to turn to the hitherto despised Rangers organized byRobert Rogers.

g. Under the leadership of Robert Rogers, Detroit was relieved andthe Conspiracy eventually collapsed. Politically, the Indianssimply did not have enough cohesion to maintain a lengthy war.

h. It was not lost on the colonists at all that the British Regulars hadhad to rely on colonial forces for success against Pontiac. Therefore, British arguments that 10,000 Regulars were necessary


to defend the colonies (when no more than 3,200 had beenstationed prior to the war, when the French were still a powerfulthreat) did not seem very convincing. If the French were no longera threat, and the colonists could handle the Indians themselves (asthey had always done), against whom were the 10,000 Regularsaimed? They concluded that they were there to coerce them. (Cummins and White 53) Since Regulars were frequently used asa police force to quell popular disturbances, this was not anunreasonable conclusion. But I am getting ahead of myself.

B. Problems with colonial currency now had to be dealt with.1. The colonies simply did not have enough specie to run their economy with

a metallic currency.a. This is over and above the fact that much of the farming economy,

which was 95% of the population, was run on barter.2. The colonies had responded with various paper currencies, usually interest

bearing bills of credit. Such currency could easily be mishandled,resulting in serious inflation. Rhode Island (which will have a long historyof this) was particularly notorious.a. Such inflation of the currency hurt British merchants if the bills of

credit were allowed as payment for debts owed them byAmericans. Not unnaturally, British merchants wanted to be paidback in sterling.

3. The war had brought such need for some way to finance the heavyexpenditures that the colonies expanded their paper money substantially,over the objections of the British merchants. (Christie 28)a. The lawsuit in 1763 known as the Parson's Cause, in which

Patrick Henry first became known for defending the colony againstthe Anglican clergy and the British government, arose out oflegislation that attempted to deal with the currency problem.

b. The crux of the case is that Virginia was attempting to pursue "anindependent monetary policy." (Christie 30)

C. The most pressing and decisive problem were the intertwined issues of imperialdefense and finance.1. The Crown decided to increase their standing military garrison from

3,200 before the war (Cummins and White 52) to 10,000 men (at anestimated annual cost of £220,000. (Morgan 37)

2. The traditional method of paying for defense, requisitions from thecolonies, had simply not worked adequately.

3. The colonists were more than skeptical that these troops were needed(cf my discussion above) and shared the traditional British horror of astanding army in time of peace. British history and European historygave abundant evidence that such standing armies were frequentlyinstruments of oppression rather than protection. The colonial attitude wasthoroughly British. Furthermore, events seem to have proved that theywere correct.


4. Not only was the costs of administering and defending the Empireincreased, but Britain's indebtedness had doubleda. 1755: £ 72,289,673b. 1764: £129,586,789 (Morgan 36)

5. The people of Great Britain were already taxed as heavily as they wouldbear; an attempt to impose a cider tax had led to riots.

6. The colonists were, by contrast, lightly taxed. The British, according toLord North, were taxed 50 x more heavily per capita (Degler 83)

7. The customs duties collected in the colonies produced only £1,800 peryear. (Morgan 38)

8. More than any other issue, the need to increase revenue from thecolonies is the driving force behind the changes in British policies!

9. The introduction of writs of assistance to the colonies are the last problemthat should be mentioned.a. Colonists maintained a substantial (evidently, a very substantial)

trade with the French despite the war.b. In frustration, the British introduced writs of assistance to the

colonies in 1760.(1) A writ of assistance is a general search warrant,

empowering customs officials arbitrarily to enter and searchpremises for smuggled goods. No grounds for suspicionwere required. Issued in England since Charles II.

(2) James Otis of Massachusetts sprang to fame as a result ofhis fiery assault on writs.

(3) Writs were attacked as "instruments of slavery" and Otisdeveloped the common law principle "a man's house ishis castle."

(4) Argued the case for Natural Rights (Enlightenment idea)and that Parliament was not omnipotent and restrained by ahigher law and an unwritten constitution

(5) Otis lost his case, despite its enormous impact on auditors(6) In a classic example of how the assembly could influence

the course of justice, the Massachusetts General Courthalved pay for the judges, except for chief judge, ThomasHutchinson, who lost all salary.

(7) In 1766, a case from Connecticut went before the BritishAttorney General William de Grey, who ruled they wereillegal in the colonies!

(8) Controversy over them continued up to Revolution, withAmericans attempting to define personal rights that werenot firmly enshrined even in England (Morris 126)

(9) It is worth noting that English practice was diverging fromcolonial ie: the colonial position was more traditional(Degler 65)

III. The Grenville Ministry


A. George Grenville become Prime Minister in 1763.1. His chief policy was to increase revenue and reduce spending

B. The Proclamation of 17631. Forbade settlement beyond crest of Appalachian Mountains.

a. Its purpose was to avoid further friction with Indians, at leasttemporarily.

b. Protect the fur trade by placing all trade under Crown license.(1) cf influence of William Johnson

c. The intent was to provide for orderly, gradual, and supervisedsettlement of the west.

2. Came to be seen as a means of keeping colonies in "due subordination" asa market for manufactures. There were some--both British and colonists--who feared (or hoped) that expansion beyond the mountains would forcethe colonies to develop their own manufactures and so be less dependentupon the mother country. To the extent that this influenced anyone'sthinking, it was a very secondary reason.

3. Angered speculators (who were politically very influential in colonies suchas Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania) and settlers.

C. The Sugar Act (1763)1. Avowed purpose: raise revenue2. Tariff on sugar, coffee, wines, and other products3. Tax on imported molasses reduced from 6 pence per gallon to 3 pence per

gallon.4. Enforcement stepped up sharply!5. Imposed complex paper-work which applied not only to trans-Atlantic

trade but also coastal and even river trade. This was probably the worstaspect of the act.

6. Harassed trade by bureaucratic control. If a ship captain failed to complywith the complicated rules, even in very slight details, his vessel and cargocould be seized for smuggling.

7. Established Admiralty Courts to try smuggling cases:a. Provided means by which property could be confiscated over a

technical error. Burden of proof shifted to the defendant; nonjury trial; traditional scope of Admiralty Courts was on the highseas, not land; if the captain were convicted, 1/3 of profits wentto customs official, 1/3 to the Court, and 1/3 to the Governor. Royal Navy captains and crews had a direct financial interest incatching smugglers, since profits went directly to them as prizemoney.

b. It was not unknown for a customs official to deliberately becomelax in some details and then suddenly crack down. It earned himmore money that way.

8. James Otis begins to enunciate the colonial position in "The Rights ofthe English Colonies Asserted and Proved": "But let the origin ofgovernment be placed where it may, the end of it is manifestly the


good of the whole. . . . . Every British Subject born on the continentof America, or in any other of the British dominions, is by the lawof God and nature, by the common law, and by act of parliament, . .. entitled to all the natural, essential, inherent and inseparablerights of our fellow subjects in Great Britain. . . . I can see noreason to doubt, but that the imposition of taxes, whether on trade,or on land, or houses, or ships, on real or personal, fixed or floatingproperty, in the colonies, is absolutely irreconcilable with the rightsof the Colonists, as British subjects and as men. I say men, for in astate of nature, no man can take my property from me without myconsent: If he does, he deprives me of my liberty, and makes me aslave. If such a proceeding is a breach of the law of nature, no lawof society can make it just. --The very act of taxing, exercised overthose who are not represented, appears to me to be depriving themof one of their most essential rights." (Otis 28-33)

9. The New York Assembly enunciated the basic colonial position in 1764 ina petition to Parliament: "But an Exemption from the Burthen onungranted, involuntary Taxes, must be the grand Principle of everyfree State--Without such a Right vested in themselves . . . there canbe no Liberty, no Happiness, no Security; it is inseparable from thevery idea of Property, for who can call that his own, which may betaken away at the Pleasure of another? And so evidently does thisappear to be the natural Right of Mankind. . . . .The Authority ofthe Parliament of Great-Britain, to model the Trade of the wholeEmpire, so as to subserve the Interest of her own, we are ready torecognize . . . But a Freedom to drive all Kinds of Traffick in aSubordination to, and not inconsistent with, the British Trade; andan Exemption from all Duties in such a Course of Commerce, ishumbly claimed. . . For, with Submission, since all Impositions,whether they be internal Taxes or Duties paid, for what we consume, equally diminish the Estates upon which they are charged; whatavails it to any People, by which of them they are impoverished? . . .the whole Wealth of a Country may be as effectually drawn off, bythe Exaction of Duties, as by any Tax upon their Estates."("Exemption from Parliamentary" 33-39) Parliament hasno right in law or custom to lay taxes upon the colonies for revenuepurposes. The colonies never deviated from this position. (Degler 82)

10. Government exists to protect life, liberty, and property. Withoutprotection to property, neither life nor liberty are secure. The right totax is the power to take away property; therefore no man is free if he istaxed without his consent.

D. The Currency Act1. Forbade use of paper money in colonies through fear of colonial

manipulation of rate of exchange2. Paper issued by colonies due to a chronic shortage of coin.


3. Post war depression as British reduced spending made things seem worseIV. The Stamp Act Crisis

A. Quartering Act of 17651. This bill is actually passed a month after the Stamp Act, but I mention it

here due to the length of the discussion on the Stamp Act.2. Any colony in which troops are stationed must provide living quarters and

some provisions3. Traditional hatred of standing armies in peacetime. Derived from

British Whig tradition, deeply ingrained, and will appear in post-Revolutionary period (cf Amendment II)

4. Colonists believed that "there was a sinister plot against liberty in bothEngland and America . . . . From the American point of view, then, theBritish measures after 1763 were nothing less than a widespread plot torob all Englishmen of their liberties at home and abroad." (Grob andBillias 113; part of Bailyn thesis)

B. The Sugar Act had hinted at a stamp tax. Action on such a tax was delayed toallow the colonies to respond. In the event, however, Parliament refused to readthe petitions that were sent. Edmund S. Morgan demonstrates that Grenville didnot act in good faith when he solicited responses and alternatives. (80-91)

C. Stamp Act (1765)1. The Act laid an excise tax on virtually all printed matter; only special

stamped paper could be used. This paper was to be shipped to the coloniesand distributed through special agents. (Some of these agents were notaware that they had been appointed, and actually learned of this fromWhigs first)a. Newspapersb. Legal contracts such as mortgages, deeds, leases, bills of sale,

articles of apprenticeship, etc.c. Bills of ladingd. Professional licenses and diplomase. Playing cards

2. The money raised was to be spent in the colonies for the maintenanceof troops, and to pay the salaries of governors and judges.

3. Admiralty Courts, which used Roman law and therefore placed theburden of proof upon the accused and which did not require a jury, weregiven authority to judge cases arising from the Stamp Act. While theSugar Act could conceivably fall under Admiralty jurisdiction(traditionally, cases on the high seas or below the first bridge of anavigable river), the Stamp Act could not possibly fall under Admiraltyjurisdiction. The colonists' right to common-law trial was beingdeliberately abridged. (Morgan 98)

4. Stamp Act was an innovation for the coloniesa. Sugar Act was an indirect tax and involves adapting trade

regulations for the purposes of revenue.b. Stamp Tax was direct tax or internal tax levied on the colonies.


5. Grenville expected to raise £60,000 per year. (Christie 53)6. Grenville believed that Parliament had the constitutional authority to levy

such a tax as a result of virtual representation. According to thistheory, Parliament was not a collection of representatives from particularplaces but representative of the Empire as a whole. (Christie 50-1) Grenville's Secretary, Thomas Whately, who actually wrote the bill,argued, "All British Subjects are really in the same [Situation]; noneare actually, all are virtually represented in Parliament; for everyMember of Parliament sits in the House, not as Representative ofhis own Constituents, but as one of that august Assembly by whichall the Commons of Great Britain are represented. . . . [Thecolonists] are represented in Parliament, in the same manner asthose inhabitants of Great Britain are, who have not Voices inElections." (Whately 49, 51)

7. The Maryland lawyer Daniel Dulany provided one of the first replies tothis theory in a pamphlet that was widely read with approval. Dulanynoted that Grenville tacitly agreed that the colonists could not be taxedwithout their representation (Grenville later dropped this concession, andbased his argument on the naked sovereignty of Parliament). He destroyedthe entire legal defense of virtual representation while working strictlywithin the confines of British law.a. In one respect, Dulany was more conservative than the claims of

Otis and the New York assembly. He drew a sharp distinctionbetween taxation and legislation. He accepted Parliament's powerto legislate (including the Navigation Acts) but not to tax..(1) Dulany noted that, according to Grenville, the revenue

from duties had averaged £2,000 annually and cost£7,600 to collect. (Morgan 117)

8. Patrick Henry and the Virginia Resolvesa. Fresh from the Parson's Cause case, he had just been elected to the

Burgesses.b. His introduction of the Resolves and his defense have been

shrouded in legend. One source for what happened, for instance,was Thomas Jefferson, who was there. However, Jefferson'sversion was written 40 years after the event. In 1921, the onlycontemporary eyewitness report was found, taken by a visitingFrenchman. (Morgan 122)

c. Four Resolves were actually passed, These were relatively mild,re-stating that the colonists possessed the rights of Englishmen.

d. A Fifth Resolution passed by one vote after "bloody" debate(Jefferson's word). However, it is missing from the officialrecords.

e. The newspapers printed from 5 to 7 resolutions, with the extraresolutions being more radical than the four on record.

f. The resolutions insisted that taxes could only be laid on Virginia


by "Persons chosen by themselves to represent them."(Virginia Resolves 61)

9. Stamp Act Congress (1765)a. Probably at the instigation of James Otis, an inter-colonial meeting

was Proposed by the Massachusetts General Court.b. Nine of the 13 colonies were represented (Virginia, North

Carolina and Georgia could not attend because their governorsrefused to convene the assembly in order to elect delegates; NewHampshire did not set delegates but ratified the results). (Morgan139)

c. The Stamp Act Declaration is carefully phrased. It promised "alldue subordination" to Parliament.

d. Second Resolution: "That his majesty's liege subjects in thesecolonies are entitled to all the inherent rights and privilegesof his natural born subjects within the kingdom of GreatBritain."

e. Third Resolve: "That it is inseparably essential to thefreedom of a people, and of the undoubted rights ofEnglishmen, that no taxes should be imposed on them, butwith their own consent, given personally or by their ownrepresentative."

f. Fourth Resolve: "That the people of these colonies are notand . . . cannot be represented in the house of commons toGreat Britain."

g. Seventh Resolve: "That trial by jury is the inherent andinviolable right of every British subject in these colonies."("Stamp Act Congress" 63-65)

h. The 7th resolve begins to develop an argument based on the naturalrights of man rather than the rights of Englishmen. The colonistssaw the one as the underpinning of the other. Eventually,independence will require them to base their arguments moreuniversally.

i. The great Progressive historian Carl Becker believed that theStamp Act Declaration confined its rejection of Parliament's powerto tax to internal taxes only, such as the Stamp Tax, but acceptedexternal taxes, such as the Sugar Act. This point of view was(mistakenly) taken by the British government, and has been echoedby many historians since (It is what I was taught in high school.) Morgan argues convincingly that Becker is wrong. The New YorkAssembly had already taken a stand on the issue. William Pittwould agree with them (but be misinterpreted). Benjamin Franklinwould deliberately evade the point before Parliament. But JohnDickinson, the author of the Resolves, rejected any Parliamentarypower to tax, and, in 1767 in Letters From a Farmer, makes thispoint explicitly with respect to the Stamp Act Resolves. (Morgan


152-4) Be aware of this distinction--a lot of text books still echoBecker.

j. The Stamp Act Congress also called for non-importationagreements.(1) Trade with the colonies was a very important part of Great

Britain's economy. The enforcement of the non-importation agreements seriously hurt London merchants,and the pressure they applied to Parliament is the realreason the Stamp Act was repealed.

10. Sons of Liberty acted as the enforcement arm of the Whigs.a. The term Whigs will be used here to refer to those who opposed

the Crown's policies. They might also be termed "Patriots" sincewe won the war. (Had we lost, they would have been termed"traitors" or "rebels.") This will distinguish them from the termTory, which refers here to Americans who remained loyal to thecrown (Thomas Hutchinson is an example). The terms are takenfrom British politics, where the Whig party generally favoredParliamentary power and the Tory party generally favored Crownauthority (it is not really as simple as that, but this will do for now.)

b. Originated in Boston(1) A committee of artisans organized themselves as the Loyal

Nine.(2) These men were respectable and serious. They formed a

bridge between political leaders such as James Otis andSamuel and John Adams (who were not members) and thelower classes, who did the dirty work.

(3) The Boston Sons of Liberty were led by EbenezerMcIntosh, a shoemaker and leader of the South Endrowdies.

(4) What is very striking about the Sons of Liberty and menlike McIntosh is that, with few exceptions, the Sons ofLiberty stayed under tight control. They rioted on order,and stopped on order as well.

(5) Some historians, such as Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr., seein the Sons of Liberty a deeper social revolution brewing,between the haves and have-nots of colonial society. Thereare certainly some elements of this in New York, Boston,and Newport--using mob violence for limited politicalpurposes is inherently risky. But the leadership certainlydid not wish to overthrow property, and most Whigs ownedsome property. Becker and Schlesinger see the Revolutionas primarily economic in origin--I see it as political andconstitutional.

c. Resignation of the Stamp Collector in Boston(1) Led by McIntosh, the Sons of Liberty began by hanging


Andrew Oliver, the Boston Stamp Collector, in effigy. They then went on to demolish his warehouse, and wreckedpart of his house.

(2) A few weeks later, the Sons of Liberty largely wrecked thehouses of three other officials, including ThomasHutchinson, then Lieutenant Governor and Otis' bitterenemy. Hutchinson was the most notorious Tory inMassachusetts.(a) His case is sad. A man of intelligence and integrity,

he opposed both the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act. He was in complete agreement with Otis that bothwere unconstitutional. He was, however, a deeplyconservative man, and he stood for law and order,even if the laws passed by Parliament were unjust. The Revolution ruined him.

(3) This riot caused the Loyal Nine to retrench, since it didindeed appear as if a "leveling revolution" might bebrewing. (Morgan 167)

(4) The Sons of Liberty accepted this discipline.d. Sons of Liberty sprang up in every other colony, and the scenes in

Boston were repeated in every other colony. In every case, the Sonshad the backing if not participation of the "better classes." Morgan232) Systematically, Stamp Tax collectors were forced, upon threatof harm to person and property, to resign.(1) Jared Ingersoll of Connecticut, who had remonstrated in

person with Grenville against the Stamp Act, and hadpredicted the response, was confronted by a mob of 500 atWethersfield, and forced to resign. Like Hutchinson, hewas ruined.

(2) Things got especially ugly in Rhode Island, which seems tohave been particularly unruly and radical. The destructionof three houses in Newport is grist for Schlesinger andBecker.

e. Having forced the collectors to resign, the Sons then forced theports to open, one by one (that is, to clear harbor without therequisite papers).

f. The Sons also forced the civil courts to close, since they wererequired to use the stamped paper.(1) Closure of the civil courts was of material benefit to

debtors, since debts could not be collected. This is seen bySchlesinger as a radical element in the Revolution, and thisis likely the case. British merchants were big losers here,since the colonists owed them a lot of money.

g. The Sons of Liberty enforced the non-importation agreements.11. By the end of 1765, the Sons of Liberty had established practical control of


the colonies, operating as a kind of shadow government. (Morgan 255)12. Widespread, grass-roots defiance of the Stamp Act turned the issue into

one of whether Parliament could enforce the power it claimed. Moderates in the colonies (like Hutchinson or Ingersoll) werediscredited. The movement becomes much more radicalized.

V. The Rockingham MinistryA. Repeal of the Stamp Act

1. Grenville's government fell for reasons totally unrelated to the Stamp Act(he insulted the King's mother).

2. The new Prime Minister was the Marquis of Rockingham, who had votedagainst the Stamp Act.

3. Rockingham was under heavy pressure from London merchants to repealthe measure.

4. Parliament however, was reluctant to back down on the issue of principle.5. William Pitt finally makes his position known: "It is my opinion, that

this kingdom has no right to lay a tax upon the colonies. At thesame time, I assert the authority of this kingdom over the colonies,to be sovereign and supreme, in every circumstance of governmentand legislation whatsoever. . . . Taxation is no part of the governingor legislative power [Pitt had evidently read Dulany, and is echoinghis distinctions] The idea of a virtual representation of America inthis House , is the most contemptible idea that ever entered into thehead of a man; it does not deserve serious refutation. . . . [Mr.Grenville next stood up:] I cannot understand the difference betweenexternal and internal taxes. They are the same in effect, and onlydiffer in name. . . . America is bound to yield obedience. If not, tellme when the Americans were emancipated? [Mr Pitt then answered]: If the gentleman does not understand the difference betweeninternal and external taxes, I cannot help it; but there is a plaindistinction between taxes levied for the purposes of raising revenue,and duties imposed for the regulation of trade . . . The gentlemanasks, when were the colonies emancipated? But I desire to know,when they were made slaves? . . . . Upon the whole, I will beg leaveto tell the House what is really my opinion. It is, that the StampAct be repealed absolutely . . . . That the reason for the repeal . . . itwas founded on an erroneous principle. . . . At the same time, letthe sovereign authority of this country over the colonies, be assertedin as strong terms as can be devised, and be made to extend to everypint of legislation whatsoever. That we may bind their trade,confine their manufactures, and exercise every power whatsoever,except that of taking their money out of their pockets without theirconsent." ("William Pitt versus George Grenville" 68-72)

6. Benjamin Franklin blurred the colonial position on taxes in histestimony--deliberately it seems. Evidently, he wanted to secure repeal ofthe Stamp Tax, but in so doing he helped create an impression that the


colonies would accept external taxes but not internal ones. Parliamentfailed to understand the distinctions made by Dulany, echoed by Pitt, andlater repeated by Dickinson (who quoted the passage from Pitt above): "Q: Was it an opinion in America before 1763, that the parliamenthad no right to lay taxes and duties there?--I never heard anyobjection to the right of laying duties to regulate commerce; but aright to lay internal taxes was never supposed to be in parliament, aswe were not represented there. . . . But the payment of duties laidby act of parliament, as regulations of commerce, was neverdisputed. . . .Q: Does the distinction between internal and externaltaxes exist in the words of the charter?--No, I believe not. Q: Thenmay they not, by the same interpretation, object to the parliament'sright of external taxation?--They never have hitherto. [note that thisis evasive; there was no occasion] Many arguments have been latelyused there to shew them that there is no difference, and that if youhave no right to tax them internally, you have none to tax themexternally, or make any other law to bind them. At present they donot reason so, but in time they may possibly be convinced by thesearguments." Elsewhere, asked if military force could ensure compliance,Franklin told them no, and added, "They will not find a rebellion; theymay indeed make one." (Franklin 72-78)

7. Rockingham used a speech by William Pitt to try to finesse the matter. Heintroduces the Declaratory Act, using language modeled on Pitt, butcarefully omitting an important qualifier. The bill was a flat statement ofauthority, but Rockingham believed that it would not be correctly read bythe colonists. He was right.a. "That the said colonies . . . in America have been, are, and of

right ought to be, subordinate unto . . . the imperial crownand parliament of Great Britain . . . and that the King'smajesty . . . by and with the consent of the lords . . . andcommons of Great Britain . . . in parliament assembled had,hath, and of right ought to have, full power and authority tomake laws and statutes of sufficient force and validity to bindthe colonies and people of America, subjects of the crown ofGreat Britain, in all cases whatsoever." (Declaratory Act 84-85)

B. Rockingham was prepared to ease tensions, but the political weakness withinEngland soon brought his government down.

C. The new Prime Minister was William Pitt.1. This should have been wonderful news. But Pitt was politically too weak

to choose his own cabinet. His Chancellor of the Exchequer was CharlesTownshend, a vain and silly man.

2. Pitt then went insane, leaving the government effectively in the hands ofTownshend.

VI. The Townshend MinistryA. The New York Assembly refused to pay for the services required by the


Quartering Act in December 1766. They regarded the act as a form of taxation,which it was.

B. Parliament suspended the New York Assembly from meeting in July 1767 untilthey submitted.

C. The Townshend Acts 17671. The garrisons in America were costing more than originally estimated:

£700,000. (Chrisie 70)2. Townshend used Franklin's testimony to assume that the colonists would

not object to an external tax. He even chided the colonists about thedistinction in Parliament. He must not have been paying much attention tocolonial declarations.

3. The Townshend Acts placed duties ona. Teab. Paintc. Glassd. Leade. Paper

4. These were foolish duties by any standard. a. First, they encouraged the colonists to produce their own paper,

glass, and paint, rather than purchase them from British merchants. This is the opposite of mercantilism

b. Second, only tea would provide any substantial income. (Christie70)

5. Although the supposed need for the taxes was based upon the cost ofmilitary garrisons, Townshend designated the £40,000 (Greene 114) inexpected revenue to be applied to paying the salaries of officials appointedby the Crown and governors, that is judges, customs officials, etc. This isa direct attack on the fundamental basis of the power wielded by colonialassemblies. Townshend "wanted the governors to be unfettered byfinancial dependence upon their assemblies in their task of executingand enforcing imperial policy. From the colonial viewpoint, if this planwere successful the one lever by which they enforced the will of theprovince upon the governor would be destroyed. What Parliament hadwon form the Stuarts would be denied to them. So far as they wereconcerned the constitutional progress of the last hundred years (whichconformed with the British pattern) would be reversed." (Christie 71)

D. Townshend also created a separate Board of Customs for the colonies, whichwould be based in Boston.

E. Three new Admiralty Courts were created, in Boston, Philadelphia andCharleston, to hear cases arising from the duties.

F. The colonies soon imposed a new set of non-importation agreements.G. The Massachusetts General Court adopts the Massachusetts Circular Letter,

which was written by Samuel Adams and which restated the colonists' positionthat Parliament had no power in law or custom to levy taxes on the colonists,whether direct or indirect.


H. John Dickinson, who produced the draft of the Stamp Act Congress Resolutions,writes "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania": "An act of parliament,commanding us to do a certain thing, if it has any validity, is a tax upon usfor the expense that accrues in complying with it . . . [he is referring to therefusal of the New York Assembly to obey the Quartering Act of 1765) In fact, ifthe people of New-York cannot be legally taxed but by their ownrepresentatives, they cannot be legally deprived of the privilege oflegislation, only for insisting on that exclusive privilege of taxation. . . .[W]hy may not every colony be treated in the same manner, when any ofthem shall dare to deny their assent to any imposition . . . ? To divide andthus to destroy, is the first political maxim in attacking those who arepowerful by their union . . . when the slightest point, touching upon thefreedom of one colony, is agitated, I earnestly wish, that all the rest may,with equal ardor, support their sister. . .The parliament unquestionablypossesses a legal authority to regulate the trade of Great-Britain and all hercolonies . . . The raising a revenue thereby was never intended. . . .[Dickinson quotes William Pitt] If you ONCE admit, that Great-Britainmay lay duties upon her exportations to us, for the purpose of levying moneyon us only, she then will have nothing to do, but to lay those duties on thearticle which she prohibits us to manufacture--and the tragedy of Americanliberty is finished. . . . 'There is,' say these objectors, 'a difference betweenthe Stamp Act and [the Townshend Acts] . . . The duties imposed by theStamp Act were internal taxes, but the present are external, and thereforethe parliament may have a right to impose them.' To this I answer, with atotal denial of the power of parliament to lay upon these colonies any 'tax'whatever. . . . I am convinced that the authors of this law would never haveobtained an cat to raise so trifling a sum as it must do, had they notintended by it to establish a precedent for future use. . . .Those who aretaxed without their own consent, expressed by themselves or theirrepresentatives, are slaves. We are taxed without our own consent,expressed by ourselves or our representatives. Wee are therefore--SLAVES." (Dickinson 122-133)

I. In April, 1768, the new Secretary of State of the Colonies, Lord Hillsborough,ordered the Massachusetts General Court to rescind the Massachusetts CircularLetter, or be dissolved. The General Court voted 92-17 not to rescind.

J. John Hancock's ship, the Liberty, was seized by customs inspectors for smuggling,but mobs rescued the vessel and forced the inspectors to flee to a British warshipfor safety.

K. Conflict in Boston with the new Board of Customs Commissioners led Gen.Thomas Gage, commander in chief of the British forces in America, to station 4regiments of regulars in Boston itself, to the outrage of the population.

L. The Boston Massacre March 5, 17701. Boston was a small city, only 15,000, with a proud and determined

population that hated and feared the presence of regular soldiers amongstthem.


2. Professional soldiers were recruited in the 18th century from the dregs ofsociety. They were kept in line only by savage discipline. One of theregiments sent to Boston was noted as being particularly badly disciplined.

3. Under these circumstances, Boston was a bomb waiting to explode.4. Samuel Adams emerges in this period as one of the truly revolutionary

leaders. He was already quite radical--much more radical than Dickinson,for example--and he used his considerable talents to keep tension high andto publicize every conflict.

5. The origin of the Boston Massacre began two days earlier with a quarrel ata ropewalk between a soldier and a Negro (Crispus Attucks?) The soldierwas looking for extra work, and felt insulted by the townsman. The fightwas broken up by the foreman, who told the soldier to return to hisbarracks. The soldier started a fight with the foreman. Beaten up, thesoldier retreated to his barracks, and returned with 70 comrades, armedwith clubs. A melee ensued in which the townsman once again beat thesoldiers (Boston townsmen practiced street brawling every year on GuyFawkes Day; obviously, they were good at it). The soldiers returned athird time, with about 300 men. They were beaten off again. (where werethe officers???) The British commander protested to Lt. Gov. Hutchinson. The foreman of the ropewalk (evidently) fired the townsman who was firstinvolved (the Negro?) At this point, versions of what happened on the 5thvary substantially, and I don't know enough to try to guess. One versionhas a large group of soldiers going through the town beating up townsmen,resulting in town boys throwing snowballs at a sentry, who asked for help,which led to the shooting. Another version (which makes more sense tome) has a mob of townsmen rushing the squad of soldiers that came tohelp the sentry. At their head, apparently, was Crispus Attucks (who, if hehad been fired from the ropewalk, was likely pretty angry). Attucksclubbed the officer, clubbed a grenadier, seized a bayonet and tried to clubthe man who held it. At about this point someone shot him. More shotswere fired into the crowd (from the wounds, I suspect that someone fired,reloaded, and fired again). Five men were killed and six wounded.(Cummins and White 75-9, "Boston Massacre" 166-172)

6. Samuel Adams used the Boston Massacre to whip public outrage to a feverpitch. Paul Revere contributed an engraving (he evidently was there).

7. The troops were withdrawn from the town to Castle William, on an island.8. In a testimony to British law, 7 soldiers were charged and tried by civil

authorities. This alone proves that British rule was not as despotic as thecolonists made out.a. It proved difficult to find counsel for the defense. Finally, John

Adams and Josiah Quincy defied public pressure and defended thesoldiers. Their reason was ideological: every man is entitled tocounsel, and if these soldiers were to be denied a defense theneverything the colonists claimed by right would be hypocrisy. Significantly, a Boston jury found 5 men innocent and 2 guilty of


manslaughter, with sentences suspended.M. Ironically, Champagne Charlie Townshend had died, and the Townshend Acts

were repealed on the same day that the Massacre occurred.1. As was the case with the Stamp Act, there was a change of ministry.2. Note that the rapid changes of ministry (for purely internal reasons) meant

that a truly coherent imperial policy was impossible.3. The Townshend duties had collected just £3,500 but had cost English

merchants £7,250,000 in losses. (Cummins and White 34)4. The tax on tea was left in place as a symbol of Parliament's authority to tax

the colonies.5. The boycotts die out (in part due to very successful smuggling of Dutch

tea)VII. A "Quiet Period"

A. The relative calm of the next few years was more apparent than real.B. The tax on tea caused no problem, but smuggling of Dutch tea was very

widespread.C. On June 9, 1770, the revenue cutter Gaspee, which had run aground off Rhode

Island, was boarded by several boatloads of colonists (evidently led by a leadingNewport merchant) (Greene 188) and burned.1. Attempts to apprehend the culprits met with no success, and in despair at

ever receiving justice from a Rhode Island jury, the governmentestablished a special commission to investigate the crime with authority tosend anyone accused to Britain for trial--a violation of the common-lawright to a trial by a jury of one's peers.

D. In the meantime, the Massachusetts General Court continued its feud with thegovernor (originally Gov. Bernard, then Thomas Hutchinson).1. In 1771, the government announced that the Crown would pay the

governor's salary in Massachusetts.2. In 1772, the government announced that the Crown would also pay

the judges' salaries.E. In March, 1773, the House of Burgesses, at the prodding of the radicals Patrick

Henry and Thomas Jefferson, created a Committee of Correspondence andurged other colonies to do the same.1. The specific reason was the Gaspee commission.2. The Committees of Correspondence constituted the mechanism for united

effort.3. All of the other colonies accepted this idea.

VIII. The North MinistryA. The Tea Act 1773

1. The intent of the Tea Act was simply to save the East India Company.2. The East India Company had 17,000,000 lbs of surplus tea. (Greene

196)3. Current law required the East India Company to sell tea to wholesalers in

England, who then sold to retailers in the colonies.4. The Tea Act permitted the East India Company is sell tea directly in the


colonies through its agents.a. Cutting out the middle-man in England enabled the Company to

lower the priceb. Duties paid on the tea entering England were also remitted. This

allowed a further reduction in the price of tea.c. The Townshend Duty on tea entering the colonies remained in

place.d. Please note that the price of tea dropped.e. The Company quickly designated agents in each major port and

arranged to ship 600,000 lbs of tea. (Greene 196)5. "The ministers hoped that more tea sold in America would provide a larger

American revenue, and the would not give up the remaining token ofparliamentary authority over the colonies. Not only did they fail toappreciate the degree to which this attempt to undermine principle byeconomic inducement affronted men of deep conviction among thecolonies, they failed also to see that the concession of the right to theCompany to establish a monopoly in the sale of tea in the hands of a fewagents would offend important mercantile interests. Nor did they properlyweigh the consequences of the discontent which would be aroused by theprospect, which they welcomed, of driving out of business the manymerchants who dealt in smuggled tea. In all the chief American ports theAct drove merchants to co-operate with radical politicians in furtherdefiance of British authority." (Christie 81-2)

6. Tea ships were ordered to return at New York and Philadelphia.7. Charleston stored the tea in a warehouse and left it there to rot.8. The Boston Tea Party 12/16/1773

a. The East India agents in Boston were Gov. Hutchinson's sons. b. The tea could not be landed but the Governor refused to allow the

vessels to clear for England without paying the duty. After 20days, the vessels and tea were subject to forfeiture, which wouldput the tea up for auction.

c. Before this could occur, 200 men dressed as Indians marched twoby two to the harbor, urged on by 8,000 spectators, boarded theships, and threw 342 chests of tea worth about £9,000 into theharbor. They were careful not to damage any other property nor toharm anyone.

IX. The Intolerable Acts/ Coercive Acts (1774)A. Parliament's response was furious. Lord North and Parliament were in full

agreement.B. Boston Port Act--closed Boston harbor until restitution was made. Closing

Boston harbor meant financial ruin to every inhabitant.C. Massachusetts Government Act--Governor's council made appointed by king,

not elected; town meetings were limited to once/yr.D. Administration of Justice Act--provided for persons accused of capital crimes

arising out of attempting to enforce imperial law to be transferred from


Massachusetts to England. The colonists interpreted this as an incitement toofficials to use violence, and called it the "Murder Act."

E. Quartering Act--authorized quartering of troops in town, not in barracksF. Quebec Act--an unrelated measure but the timing fanned paranoia

1. This bill was well-intended, and with one exception, was a good piece oflegislation.

2. Gave Canada a permanent government but without an assembly. TheFrench population had never had an assembly, so this did not matter tothem.

3. Established French civil law, not English common law, also a wiseprovision since the population had always lived under French civil law.

4. Special protection for Catholic Church, recognizing that the populationwas Catholic (in Great Britain, a Catholic could not vote, serve on a jury,or hold office.)

5. Annexed everything West of Appalachians and North of Ohio to Quebec. This was unwise, although a logical development from the ProclamationLine. It would surely alarm the colonies with claims to the Ohio RiverValley.

6. Lack of assembly felt to be ominous7. Territorial annexation aroused ire; new settlers would be under Canadian

law8. Congregationalists and Presbyterians saw protection of Catholic church as

a step toward establishing Anglican church throughout coloniesa. There was a rumor that the Anglican Church intended to establish a

bishop and ecclesiastical courts in the colonies, a prospect thatinfuriated the descendants of Puritans. This was not true but waswidely believed.

G. General Thomas Gage sent to replace Hutchinson as Governor of Massachusettsin addition to his duties as Commander in Chief.1. In point of fact, the Coercive Acts followed recommendations made by

Gage himself to the King.H. Unwise and unjust laws

1. Cost an empire2. By subjecting Massachusetts to direct Parliamentary control, and backing

it up with troops, the government indicated that Parliamentary controlmeant loss of liberty

3. Laws were flagrant violations of English principals of justice.I. The severity and injustice of the acts gave credence to the view that "No longer

could there be much serious doubt that a malignant conspiracy among theministers and a corrupt majority in Parliament was intent upon establishing an'arbitrary power' in the colonies." (Greene 211) This is the essence of the BailynThesis.

J. James Wilson of Pennsylvania wrote an influential pamphlet in which he tried toshift the basis of the colonial protest. The reason was that the Coercive Acts werenot tax measures but were as destructive of colonial rights as if they were.


"Wilson stated categorically that the colonies were 'not bound by the acts of theBritish Parliament.'" at all. (Greene 212) [Aren't you glad I didn't give you a longquote from this???]

K. Thomas Jefferson was even more radical in "A Summary View of the Rightsof British America." "Like Wilson, he concluded as well that the colonies weredistinct and independent governments bound to Britain only through their mutualallegiance to a common monarch [the Commonwealth idea] and that the BritishParliament had therefore 'no right to exercise authority' over them. [In otherwords, a radicalization of the American position--all Parliamentary authority isrejected] But Jefferson went significantly farther than . . . Wilson in pointing outthat not just Parliament but George III acting in his executive capacity had beenguilty of a 'wanton exercise of . . . power' in the colonies." (Greene 212)

L. Joseph Galloway represented a conservative [!!] colonial position when heproposed a compromise solution involving an inter-colonial American parliament. The President-General of the Parliament would be appointed by the King; thedelegates would be elected by the various colonies. This Parliament would havejurisdiction over all matters involving all general issues involving Great Britainand the colonies, or two or more colonies. Internal affairs would be left to eachcolony. This Parliament would have a veto over any laws passed by Parliament inGreat Britain affecting the colonies. [!!!!!]1. This proposal resembles Franklin's Albany Plan of Union, and is a half-

way step to a united and independent country built on federal principles.2. Consider that this conservative colonial position could never have been

accepted by Parliament, and one sees how far matters have gone.3. Note that Galloway, like most colonists, did not desire independence.

They desired a workable solution to their grievances within the BritishEmpire.

M. It is my view that, from this point on, an outbreak of fighting was probablyinevitable.

X. Lexington and ConcordA. New England was clearly a powder keg on the eve of revolution. By this point in

time, David Hackett Fischer believes, large numbers of colonists had decided thatopen conflict was inevitable.

B. I am going to describe this in some detail, using David Hackett Fischer'sfascinating Paul Revere's Ride as a source. My chief reason (aside from itsinterest) is to illustrate the process by which actual fighting erupted. Notice theinteraction of attitudes, choices and events, especially after actual shooting takesplace. Especially, there is a dynamic to violence. This is the sort of thing thattends to happen whenever there is a chaotic and tense situation.

C. The New Englanders had no warrior ethic and no love of fighting for its own sake. They were farmers, seamen and merchants. But they were utterly determined todefend their homes and way of life, and to prevent others from ruling their lives.

D. Although not "warriors," they were by no means ignorant of war. New Englandhad been involved in war during every generation.1. The Minute Men were not a new invention. These segments of the


Puritan "training bands" militia originated during the wars with the French.2. Military service in the militias were expected of every able bodied male

between 16 and 50. Many men who fought at Concord were older than 50.a. Interestingly, the Puritans and Yankees recognized conscientious

objectors.b. The majority of them were not, however, pacifists. Once

convinced of the righteousness of their cause, they could beimplacable.

c. War for the New England colonists was not a game, a pursuit ofglory, a test of individual prowess, or a means of proving one'smanhood. War was an ugly but necessary job, to be accomplishedas quickly and rationally as possible so that everyone could gohome. (Fischer 153-4) This is really the American way of warthrough most of our history.

d. Once aroused, soldiers like this can be terrible opponents--ruthless,rational, and almost impossible to discourage.

e. Many militia leaders were veterans of the French and Indian Wars.(1) Captain John Parker of Lexington (the grandfather of

Theodore Parker) is an example, having served incampaigns against Louisberg and Quebec, and probably inRogers' Rangers. (He was also dying of tuberculosis, whichdid not keep him from the fighting.)(Fischer 154)

(2) In point of fact, few of the British troops engaged atLexington and Concord had ever been in combat (and theirfighting showed it).

(3) In all likelihood, more Americans that day were combatveterans than the British.

3. Fischer emphasizes an important point: the New England militia, down tothe last man, was very clear about what they were fighting for. They wereno sheep led to slaughter. They elected their own officers, made their ownrules, and expected to participate in military decisions. this is grass-rootsdemocracy of a fundamental kind.

4. A famous interview expresses these reasons to fight in stark, simple terms. I quote it as Fischer records it: "Many years later, Captain Levi Prestonof Danvers was asked why he went to war that day. At the age of ninety-one, his memory of the Lexington alarm was crystal clear, and hisunderstanding very different from academic interpretations of this event. An historian asked him, "Captain Preston, what made you go to theConcord Fight?" "What did I go for?" the old man replied, subtlyrephrasing the historian's question to drain away its determinism. [a verygood point!!!!! Men make choices; those choices make history; humanbeings are not rats and history is not a Skinnerian experiment; it is not'determined.'] The interviewer tried again, '. . . Were you oppressed bythe Stamp Act?' he asked. 'I never saw any stamps,' Prestonanswered, 'and I always understood that none were ever sold.' 'Well,


what about the tea tax?' 'Tea tax, I never drank a drop of the stuff,the boys threw it all overboard.' 'But I suppose you have beenreading Harrington, Sidney, and Locke [Whig politicalphilosophers] about the eternal principle of liberty/' 'I never heard ofthese men. the only books we had were the Bible, the Catechism,Watts' psalms and hymns and the almanacs.' 'Well, then, what wasthe matter?' 'Young man, what we meant in going for thoseRedcoats was this: we always had governed ourselves and we alwaysmeant to. They didn't mean we should.'" (Fischer 163-4) (emphasisadded)

E. Systematic efforts were made to prepare the colony for defense of its liberties--thefighting is not some spontaneous eruption.1. Arms and powder were collected, in defiance of a British interdiction.2. Militia companies increased and drilled.3. Networks of communication were strengthened.

a. One of the revelations from Fischer's Paul Revere's Ride is todestroy the myth of the solitary rider (of little importance). Revere's Ride was a collective effort and well-organized. Thatorganization required forethought and determination.

F. Gage's orders were explicit about arresting the ringleaders and seizing the powder(which would deny the colonists the power to resist).1. Gage was not the tyrant he was made out to be. He was scrupulous to stay

within the law.a. He refused to arbitrarily arrest men like John Hancock, Samuel

Adams, or Paul Revere.2. Gage may have understood that resistance was not the result of a small

coterie of revolutionary leaders, like the Bolsheviks. The conspiracy wasvery open ended and widespread.a. A study of 7 groups of Boston Whigs, comprising 255 men (of a

population of 15,000) showed that 81% were members of only onegroup. No one was a member of more than 5. Only two men weremembers of 5: they were Dr. Joseph Warren and Paul Revere.(Fischer 27)

3. There were several attempts to seize powder that year. The first wassuccessful, but the second two were thwarted.a. Revere gave the warning both times.b. At Portsmouth, the militia stormed a British fort (held by a few

invalids), disarmed the soldiers (who resisted) and hauled down theBritish colors.(Fischer 52-57)

c. In February, an attempt to seize powder at Salem could easily havebegun the fighting. Fortunately, cooler heads prevailed and theBritish commander had his men under good control.

G. Paul Revere's Ride1. Under direct orders, Gage planned a secret mission to seize powder at

Concord.


2. He did not order the force to arrest Hancock and Adams, although his ownorders insisted upon it.

3. He assembled a picked force of his best troops--grenadiers and lightinfantry--about 900 in all, led by Lt. Col. Francis Smith. (Fischer 114)

4. In a small town like Boston, the preparations could not remain secret. a. When Revere was captured, he was able to tell his captors more

about the mission than his captors knew!5. Yes, on April 18, 1775, Paul Revere did in fact elude the British watch in

Boston harbor and row across while two lanterns shone in the Old NorthChurch steeple. He then borrowed a horse and started for Lexington.

6. On the way, he systematically warned leaders in each town. He eludedBritish patrols and recruited more messengers. Numerous horsemenradiated out from the Boston environs that night.

7. Revere warned Hancock and Adams to flee at Lexington. Then he wenton to Concord in the company of William Dawes (who took a differentroute from Boston) and Dr. William Prescott, whom he had met on theway.a. He was captured, but later released. Dawes was captured but

escaped. Prescott escaped and went on to warn the countryside.H. Lexington

1. By the time the British vanguard reached Lexington, the countryside wasfully aroused.

2. The Lexington militia had been standing to arms much of the night, hadbeen told that it was a false alarm, and ordered to disperse. There wereonly about 70 of them present when the British arrived.

3. As Maj. John Pitcairn's advance guard of 238 men approached Lexington,Pitcairn ordered the men to load.

4. The road at Lexington branches. The left fork takes one to Concord,Pitcairn's destination. The right fork takes one through the town and thennorth. The militia--60 or 70 men--was drawn up on the common near themeeting house. It was not necessary for the British to march through townor to directly confront the militia.

5. The officer in the lead evidently did not wish to leave militia on his flank. He directed the lead companies into the town, advancing at double time.

6. Capt. Parker's instructions were clear, and repeated: the Americans werenot to fire unless fired upon.

7. The British deployed into battle order at 70 yards, the men giving theirbattle cries (which made it very difficult for them to hear spoken orders) Itis a chaotic situation.

8. The British officer on the spot ordered the militia to disperse in highlyprovocative language.

9. Parker decided that the odds were not good, and in fact ordered the militiato disperse. Most of them were obeying when the shooting started.a. Only two Americans were killed in the line; everyone else was

killed while trying to disperse. There is little evidence that many


Americans fired at all.10. No one knows who fired the first shot. American witnesses were sure it

was a British soldier, the British equally sure it was an American. Bothagree that no one from the militia line or the British line fired the firstshot.a. Fischer offers three explanations, any of which could be the truth:

two drunken colonists in the tavern; the British officer on the spot(known to be hot-headed and intemperate) or the accidentaldischarge of a musket (which is perhaps the most likely of all).

11. Whoever fired first, the British line opened up with volley fire withoutorders from any officers. They poured volley after volley in (there was noorder to "aim" in the British manual of arms; load, present, fire and reloadas fast as possible) and then, also without orders, charged with thebayonet.

12. The militia broke. The soldiers broke ranks and began ransacking housesand buildings. It was only with grave difficulty that Lt. Col. Smith,arriving personally, brought them back to order.a. In other words, the British professional soldiers were very poorly

disciplined and their officers repeatedly lost control of them.b. Putting myself in their shoes, I understand how this happened.

Those men were tired, hungry, frustrated, and afraid. On the otherhand, it is easy to see why the Americans did not want professionalsoldiers in their midst.

13. Captain Parker regrouped his militia, and would meet the British againlater that day--from ambush.

I. Concord1. The militia at Concord decided to pull out of the town itself onto

defendable ground beyond a bridge.2. The military stores in the town had already been removed.3. Smith deployed his men to control the bridges, seize powder believed to

be beyond the town, and ransack the town for stores (without searchwarrants).

4. Trouble began again when the British set fire to some wooden guncarriages; the fire spread to the town house. British troops assistedtownsmen in trying to save the building.

5. From the bridge however, the militia could see smoke rising from thetown, and believed the British were torching the town.

6. The militia shook out into a column and advanced on the soldiers guardingthe bridge. They were not in battle line.

7. Again, without orders, British soldiers opened fire. Most of their firstvolley went high--a sign of inexperience. The militia deployed into line ofbattle and replied. Since they lapped the position on the bridge, and werefiring into them from three sides, the effect may be imagined.a. The Americans here began a custom that continued throughout the

Revolutionary War: they shot the officers first.


b. The casualty rate of officers at Lexington and Concord wasmurderous. Here, half of the officers were hit at the first fire. Theeffect on control of the British troops, who were trained to respondlike automatons, was bad.

c. Targeting officers was not sporting, but then the Americans werenot interested in fighting fair.

8. The British line broke and ran. A "raw" militia had broken the famedBritish infantry.a. As they left, an American tomahawked a wounded soldier on the

bridge. Word of that atrocity spread, contributing to Britishatrocities later on. Violence tends to escalate. Once the killingstarts, it is hard to stop.

9. With more and more militia appearing, and from their steady behavior, Lt.Col. Smith prepared for a fighting withdrawal.

10. Militia companies now set a series of ambushes along the approach route,using the terrain with skill, and forcing the British to storm the positionsone by one. When pressured too heavily, the Americans would withdraw; the British just wanted to leave.

11. The continued loss of officers, coupled with exhaustion (they hadn't eatenfor over a day), and fear began to break down the column's discipline. Bythe time they reached Lexington, they were a mob.

12. A relief column under Lord Hugh Percy (one of England's richest men anda soldier of wide experience and great skill) met them at Lexington.

13. Percy had now about 1900 men (Fischer 245) and deployed them in alozenge, prepared to fight in any direction.a. His chief problems were limited ammunition, difficult terrain, and

the skilled tactics of his opponents.(1) An ammunition wagon escorted by 14 men was captured by

6 elderly New England men (led by a man described as a"mulatto," David Lamson (Fischer 243) Six of thegrenadiers, running away, surrendered to an old woman. This led to the Whig quip "If one old Yankee woman cantake six grenadiers, how many soldiers will it require toconquer America?" (Fischer 244)

(2) Between Concord and Lexington, American militia offeredbattle 8 times in a regular, European fashion. The Britishaccepted battle 6 times, 4 times at close range. Britishregulars were broken twice. This is not a "rabble" norfarmers fighting as individuals.

(3) Now, the militia changed tactics. The deployed in skirmishformation, "dispers'd but adhering," (Fischer 250) Thisstyle of fighting forced the British into a battle of attrition(which they couldn't win). It also requires a high order ofpersonal resolve and initiative from the men and especiallythe officers who executed it. Losses among militia officers


were high (indicating their involvement in the fighting) The militia earned Lord Percy's professional respect andpraise that day. (Fischer 254)

b. At some points the fighting was house to house, as colonists nearthe road defended their homes.(1) 80 year old Jason Russell barricaded himself in his home,

saying "An Englishman's home is his castle." He wasfound dead in the doorway with many bayonet wounds.(Fischer 256)

(2) 78 year old Samuel Whittemore fired 5 shots from his yarduntil flushed by a squad. He shot 3 soldiers before shot inthe face and bayonetted. He suffered 14 wounds, butsurvived another 18 years. Fischer 257)

(3) 55 year old Hezekiah Wynan continually rode within rangeof the British, dismounted, picked off a soldier, thenmounted to find another position. He was easilyrecognizable and grew to be greatly feared. (Fischer 254-5)

(4) Percy lost control of his men in the house to house fightingin the town of Menotomy. It is clear that his men were notmuch better disciplined than Smith's had been. By now, hismen must have been maddened.

c. Percy was able to break out of the ring (due to the reluctance of theSalem militia commander to engage; he had been forced by hismen to march to the battle in the first place; I suspect Salem founda new captain soon) and finally reach Boston safely.

14. Thomas Gage now found himself penned up in Boston by an aroused,angry, and armed populace. War had begun.

XI. Historians' Interpretations of the American RevolutionA. Having covered the events chronologically, I want you to familiarize yourself with

the major interpretations of the American Revolution. The issue of "What causedthe American Revolution?" is a pretty obvious essay question.

B. Interpretations of Mercantilism1. George Beer (1907) Stresses mutual reciprocity2. Charles Andrews (1930s) Supervision and administration of the empire

weak and ineffective3. Louis Hacker (1936) [The American Revolution] had as its function the

release of American merchant and planting capitalism from the fetters ofthe English Mercantile System." (Grob and Billias 69)

4. Lawrence Harper (1942) "An analysis of the economic effects of Britishmercantilism fails to establish its exploitive features as the proximatecause of the Revolution." (Grob and Billias 70)

5. Oliver M. Dickerson (1951) Attacks economic interpretation of theRevolution. "It was only after 1763 . . . when the British altered theirmercantilist system to raise revenue rather than to control trade within theempire that the colonists began protesting. In the period after the French


and Indian War, the dominant motive of British imperialism changed fromregulation of trade and commerce to regulation for the sake of revenue andpolitical exploitation." (71)

6. Lawrence H. Gipson (1936-70) "The mother country was perfectlyjustified in levying taxes to pay part of the costs of administering theempire in America. . . . [I]n view of the protection Britain had provided,the taxes imposed upon the American colonists after 1763 were neitherexcessive nor oppressive." (72)

7. Lewis Namier "Parliament's outlook was narrow-minded, factious, andprovincial, and its workings were organized around material interests,family connections, and patronage. This situation made it impossible forParliament to achieve the kind of broad minded, imperial view required forsound policies of empire . . . . Britain could not have produced a viableimperial policy, resolved her quarrel with the colonies, or prevented theloss of her empire." (74)

8. Robert Paul Thomas (1965) "Neither the navigation acts nor the newBritish imperial regulations applied after 1763 imposed any significanteconomic burden upon America." (76)

C. Interpretations of the American Revolution1. George Beer, Charles Andrews, Lawrence H. Gipson Imperial School

1893-1960s "All three historians believed that constitutional issues lay atthe bottom of the dispute between the colonies and the mother country . . .. By the eve of the Revolution, the colonists had arrived at a new conceptof empire--colonies as self-governing units within an empire held togetheronly by a common allegiance to the king." (105)

2. Progressive School a. "[Carl] Becker . . . took the position that the American

Revolution should be considered not as one revolution but two. The first was an external revolution . . . caused by a clash ofeconomic interests between the colonies and mother country. Thesecond was an internal revolution--a conflict between America'ssocial classes--to determine whether the upper or lower classeswould rule once the British departed . . . . the 'question of homerule' and the 'question . . . of who should rule at home' " (106-7)

b. Charles Beard, "[a]fter an examination of the economicholdings of the framers of the Constitution, advanced his now-famous hypothesis that the events leading to the convention of1787 mirrored a split in American society--a conflict between therich and the poor, farmers and merchants, debtors and creditors,and holders of real and paper wealth. More than any other singlework written in the Populist-Progressive era, Beard's book causedProgressive historians to view the period between the 1760s andthe 1780s as one of continuous conflict between social classes inAmerica over economic matters." (107)

c. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Sr. "went on to comment about the


increasing dread of class conflict once independence was declared .. . . [T]he merchants drew together again in the late 1780s to founda new government that would safeguard their class interests. Onceunited the merchant class became . . . 'a potent factor in theconservative counterrevolution that led to establishment of theUnited States Constitution.' To Schlesinger, the Constitution wasthe antithesis of the Revolution." (107-8)

3. Neoconservative School "The Revolution was basically a conservativemovement . . . in order to preserve a social order that was alreadydemocratic in colonial days. When British reforms after 1763 threatenedto upset the existing democratic social order in America, the colonists rosein rebellion." (109)a. Robert E. Brown . . . set out specifically to challenge the thesis of

the Progressive school of historians that the Revolution was, inpart, a class conflict over the question of who should rule at home. One of the starting assumptions of the Progressive scholars . . . wasthat the structure of American society was undemocratic becauseproperty qualifications for suffrage prevented many persons fromvoting. After studying the structure of society in Massachusetts,Brown concluded that the vast majority of adult males in thatcolony were farmers whose real estate holdings were sufficient tomeet the necessary property qualifications for voting. Middle classdemocracy in Massachusetts before the war was an establishedfact." (109)

b. Daniel Boorstin "Americans were fighting to retain traditionalrights and liberties granted to them under the British constitution. .. . In refusing to accept the principle of no taxation withoutrepresentation [sic], . . . the patriots were insisting upon an oldliberty, and not a new right.." (109-10)

c. Bernard Bailyn (1967) "The colonists . . . were convinced thatthere was a sinister plot against liberty in both England andAmerica . . . . From the American view, then, the British measuresafter 1763 were nothing less than a widespread plot to rob allEnglishmen of their liberties at home and abroad." (112-13)

XII. An Interpretation of the American RevolutionA. By now, it must be obvious to you that my interpretation is essentially

Neoconservative. The Progressive interpretation, while very influential intextbooks, simply cannot stand up to close scrutiny. Re-reading the debates whileI typed this has re-confirmed that belief.

B. British government unable to cope with problems1. While Parliament acquired more and more power (one result of the

Revolution was George's loss of power to appoint executives), and whichnow wanted to directly legislate in the colonies, while colonial belief andpractice was a loose confederation of colonies all subject to the monarchthrough his ministers [colonial assemblies ->king<-Parliament] Idea is


similar to today's Commonwealth. By 1763, all colonial assemblies hadseized a dominant role. When Parliament attempted to extend its imperialcontrol, they had to challenge colonial assemblies. That contest forcedcolonists to spell out their political philosophy. They developed it fast,and stuck with it. The ensuing political confrontation escalates demandsand polarizes positions.

C. The colonists were very "liberal minded," very concerned with potential tyranny. The colonists gradually became convinced that there was a conspiracy (led byGeorge III's ministers) to systematically deprive them of liberties. It was astruggle for political survival in the sense of "will the colonies be self-governing"? [the Bailyn Thesis]

D. Colonial position: King and Parliament had undisputed control over foreignaffairs; and overseas trade; Parliament could direct trade into channels profitableto empire; in all other things, colonies had home rule.

E. Upcoming Revolution was not fought to obtain freedom but to preserve thefreedom they already had. Independence was reluctantly arrived at.1. [cf Degler 83] "Colonies had arrived at Commonwealth idea of Empire:

colonies as self governing units held together only by common allegianceto the king. (Grob and Billias 105)

2. [cf Degler 88] "Americans fought the Revolution . . . in order to preservea social order that was already democratic in colonial days." (109)

3. "Stress concept of a consensus "among Americans rather than classstruggle [Boorstin; Degler, Robert E. Brown; Rossiter] "One importantelement in this American consensus was the widespread belief among allsocial classes that the liberties of the people were based upon certainfundamental principles of self-government which could not be changewithout their consent."

4. Bailyn--radical Whig ideology, a plot against liberty5. Wallace Brown: Tories = 7.6-18% of white population6. Boorstin "ours was one of the few conservative colonial rebellions of

modern times. (124)7. "From the colonists' point of view, until 1776, it was Parliament that had

revolutionary, by exercising a power for which there was no warrant inEngland constitutional precedent." (125) "It is my view the major issue ofthe American Revolution was the true constitution of the British Empire." (Degler 81-113)

8. ". . . the whole corpus of Revolutionary rhetoric . . . was conservative,expressive of the wish to retain the old ways . . . . One needs only to runthrough the list of grievances in the Declaration of Independence to beforcefully reminded that what these revolutionaries wanted was nothingbut the status quo ante bellum . . . . These men had been satisfied withtheir existence, they were not disgruntled agitators or frustrated politicians;they were a strange new breed--contented revolutionaries" (Degler 88)


Works Cited

"The American Position: Daniel Dulany, 'Considerations on the Propriety of Imposing Taxes in the Colonies.'" Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the AmericanRevolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 51-58.

Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967.

Christie, I. R. Crisis of Empire: Great Britain and the American Colonies 1754-1783. New York: W.W. Norton, 1966.

Cummins, D. Duane and White, William Gee. The American Revolution. Beverly Hills, CA: Benzinger Press, 1973.

"Debate in the House of Commons: William Pitt versus George Grenville." Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 68-71.

"Examination of Benjamin Franklin by the House of Commons." Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 72-77.

"Exemption from Parliamentary Taxation A Right Not a Privilege: The New York Petition to theHouse of Commons" Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of theAmerican Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 33-41.

Fischer, David Hackett. Paul Revere's Ride. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Garraty, John. The American Nation. 5th Ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1983.

Greene, Jack, Editor. Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the American Revolution. New York: Norton, 1975.

Grob, Gerald and Billias, George Athan, Ed. Interpretations of American History. 4th Ed. 2 Vols. NY: The Free Press. 1982.

Gross, Robert A. The Minutemen and Their World. New York: Hill and Wang, 1976.

Morgan, Edmund S. The Challenge of the American Revolution. New York: Norton, 1976.

Morgan, Edmund S. and Morgan, Helen M. The Stamp Act Crisis: Prologue to Revolution. New York: Collier, 1962.

Morris, Richard B. "James Otis and the Writs of Assistance." Historical Viewpoints. Garraty,


John, Ed. 3rd Ed. Vol. I New York: Harper & Row. 1979.

"'A Military Combination': Report of a Committee of the Town of Boston." Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 166-173.

"No Legislature Has a Right to Make Itself Arbitrary: James Otis, 'The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved.'"Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary Historyof the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 28-32.

"The Official Colonial Protest: The Declaration of the Stamp Act Congress." Colonies to Nation1763-1789: A Documentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 63-64.

"Repeal Without Yielding in Principle: The Declaratory Act." Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York:

Norton, 1975. 84.

"'Those Who Are Taxed Wihtout Their Consent Are Slaves': John Dickinson, 'Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania.'" Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of theAmerican Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 122-133.

The American Revolution

I. Following the outbreak of fighting, Massachusetts established a provisional government.A. Ethan Allan in Vermont led the Green Mountain Boys in seizing Fort

Ticonderoga (5/10/75)1. Only 80 Americans and 50 British soldiers were involved. (Mitchell 29)

We shall see that the size of units engaged in the American Revolution arevery small.

2. These forts are crucial links in the communications with Canada. Theyalso possess gunpowder and cannon.

3. Shortly thereafter, Crown Point was also taken.B. In Virginia, Gov. Dunmore fled to a British warship.

II. The Second Continental CongressA. More radical than the First Congress

1. Thomas Jefferson wrote A Summary View of the rights of BritishAmerica.a. He argued the idea that kings are servants of the people.

B. Congress was forced to make decisions without actual legal authority.1. Congress declared the mass of men around Boston to be the Continental

Army.2. Congress appointed George Washington of Virginia to command that


army. This is the most important thing they did, including signing theDeclaration of Independence. Without Washington, the British win.

III. The Battle of Bunker Hill (Breed's Hill)A. Gage received assistance in the persons of Generals Henry Clinton, William

Howe and John Burgoyne. He would have preferred 20,000 men.B. On June 16, the militia began fortifying Breed's Hill with outworks on Bunker

Hill (they were supposed to fortify only Bunker Hill, hence the name of the battle) The position overlooks Boston.

C. Some 3,200 militia were attacked by 2,400 regulars, led personally by WilliamHowe (who had led the assault up the cliffs at the Plains of Abraham.) Howe wasbrave, but foolishly neglected elementary maneuver. The British should have wonthe battle easily. Instead, Howe chose a frontal assault against fixed defenses. Hemust have had only contempt for the fighting ability of militia.

D. The British were repulsed twice, and then stormed the position after theAmericans ran out of ammunition.

E. The British lost 1,500; the Americans lost 440 men. (Mitchell 38) The Britishwon the battle but were profoundly shocked. Howe, who succeeded Gage incommand, did not again attack Americans in such a frontal manner.

F. Bunker Hill drastically reduced the possibility of negotiation. I will harp upon theidea that violence creates its own logic and momentum. Once the wholesalekilling begins, it is not easy to stop it. This must be understood clearly by policymakers and by voters before the killing starts.1. I am not a pacifist; there are times when military force must be used. But

it should never be done lightly. It is a lot simply to let the genie out thanto get it back in the bottle.

G. George III relieved Thomas Gage, whom he suspected of being too lax on thecolonists. William Howe takes over command.1. We shall learn that Howe is a competent soldier but hardly an energetic

one. 2. The quality of British generalship in this war is quite uninspired. Had a

man like James Wolfe commanded, we would have lost.H. George III formally declared colonies to be in "open rebellion" on 8/75I. George III declared a blockade on all of the colonies (not just Massachusetts)

1. A blockade is an act of war.J. George III despatches an army of 25,000 men.

1. This included about 12,000 Hessian mercenaries, and most British armiesin the North included very substantial German contingents.

2. A word about the Hessians (not Haitians).3. These men came from German princes, mostly in the area of Hesse-Cassel.

They were the standing army of these little princedoms. George paid theGerman princes; the poor soldiers got nothing extra at all, except theopportunity to die.

4. Hiring foreigners to kill his own subjects really enraged the colonists, andrepresents a serious escalation of the war.

IV. Efforts to Negotiate


A. Congress sent the Olive Branch Petition, which was written by John Dickenson,to the king, essentially asking the king to agree to status quo ante 1765. The kingand Parliament refused to receive it.

B. Congress also adopted the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of TakingUp Arms."1. This was written by Jefferson and edited by John Dickenson, who is a

moderate who hoped for reconciliation.2. Radicals like Thomas Jefferson, James Wilson and John Adams had

already concluded that a federal solution to the issue of liberty vs.authority was necessary.a. This is like the modern Commonwealth.

3. Jefferson wrote "But why should we enumerate our injuries in detail? By one statute it is declared that parliament can 'of right make lawsto bind us IN ALL CASES WHATSOEVER.' What is to defend usagainst so enormous, so unlimited, a power? Not a single man ofthose who assume it, is chosen by us; or is subject to our controul orinfluence; but on the contrary, they are all of them exempt from theoperation of such laws, and an American revenue, if not divertedfrom the ostensible purposes for which it is raised, would actuallylighten their own burdens in proportion as they increase ours. Wesaw the misery to which such despotism would reduce us. We forten years incessantly and ineffectually besieged the Throne assupplicants; . . . But Administration, sensible that we should regardthese oppressive measures as freemen ought to do, sent over fleetsand armies to enforce them. . . . We resolved again to offer anhumble and dutiful petition to the King, and also addressed ourfellow-subjects of Great Britain. We have pursued every temperate,every respectful measure . . . We have received certain intelligencethat General Carleton, the Governor of Canada, is instigating thepeople of that province and the Indians to fall upon us; and we havebut too much reason to apprehend, that schemes have been formedto excite domestic enemies against us [a slave insurrection; neitherof these claims is false; Gov. Dunmore was attempting to instigate aslave insurrection, and the British actively incited the Indians] . . .We are reduced to the alternative of chusing an unconditionalsubmission to the tyranny of irritated ministers, or resistance byforce--The latter is our choice. . . Honor, justice, and humanity,forbid us tamely to surrender that freedom which we received fromour gallant ancestors, and which our innocent posterity have a rightto receive from us. . . . Our cause is just. Our union is perfect. Our internal resources are great, and, if necessary, foreignassistance is undoubtedly attainable. . . . We will, in defiance ofevery hazard, with unabating firmness and perseverance, employ forthe preservation of our liberties; being with our [one] mind resolvedto dye Free-men rather than live Slaves. . . . In our own native land,


in defense of the freedom that is our birthright, and which we everenjoyed till the late violation of it--for the protection of ourproperty, acquired solely by the honest industry of our fore-fathersand ourselves, against violence actually offered, we have taken uparms. We shall lay them down when hostilities shall cease on thepart of the aggressors, and all danger of their being renewed shall beremoved, and not before." ("Resolved to Dye Free-men" 255-9)a. Note the clearly conservative argument: we are not fighting to

obtain freedom, we are fighting to preserve it. This is aconservative revolution.

C. Congress authorized an attack on Canada (!)1. It was believed that the French Canadians were shaky in their loyalty to

Britain. This proved illusory.D. Congress sought foreign assistance

1. The colonies needed money desperately, as well as arms, and, especially,gunpowder.

2. France and Holland are the likely sources.E. Congress authorized the construction of a navy.F. All of these are the actions of an independent state.G. Nevertheless there was a lot of reluctance for independence.

1. Lingering loyalty and sentimental attachments2. Costs of failure were clear: "We must all hang together or we shall

assuredly all hang separately." Benjamin Franklin.3. Fear of social disorder

a. A word on the logic of monarchy is in order. It is obvious thatsome kings are wise and some are not. Most often, they are not. Why would intelligent men support a monarchy?

b. First, loyalty is to the throne, not the individual.c. Second, a crucial issue for monarchists is legitimacy, that is, who

has legitimate right to the throne, and therefore to authority.d. The monarch represents the principle of order, lawful and

legitimate authority, and stability. If once the monarch isoverturned, then all other institutions which maintain the continuityand harmony of the society are endangered. Indeed, the act ofoverturning the monarch (whether by quarrel over the legitimateruler, as in the Wars of the Roses or by revolution and civil war, asin the English Revolution, the French Revolution or RussianRevolution) will almost certainly unleash powerful forces withinthe society which will at the least disturb if not destroy the societyas presently constituted.

e. The fear of disorder is no light fear. In disordered times, no man issecure (think of the Reign of Terror or Dzerzhinsky's Cheka). Communications often break down and hunger and disease stalkthe land.

f. As Jefferson pointed out in the Declaration of Independence, most


men prefer to tolerate governmental wrongs rather than risk arevolution.

g. The true nature of the American Revolution is clearly shown inthat the kind of profound social cataclysm as was seen in theEnglish Revolution, the French Revolution or the RussianRevolution, did not occur in the American Revolution.

h. I will develop this further, but ours was a "conservativerevolution," in Degler's phrase.

V. The Invasion of CanadaA. Two columns marched on Quebec.

1. One was led by Richard Montgomery with 1,200 men2. The other by Benedict Arnold with 1,100 men.

a. Arnold's approach march was n epic during dead winter; only 600men made it. (Mitchell 40-1)

3. The British commander, Guy Carleton, conducted a very skillful defense.4. The French Canadians remained loyal to the British.5. With the American militia's term of enlistment almost up, Montgomery

and Arnold felt they had no choice but to attack with 1,100 men toCarleton's 1,800 defenders.

6. The American attack was repulsed, and Montgomery killed.7. Arnold conducted a skillful retreat in worse conditions than his approach

march. It was a remarkable feat of leadership.VI. The Evacuation of Boston

A. Adm. Samuel Graves took his squadron from Boston to burn Falmouth, Maineon 10/16/75.

B. Lord Dunmore in Virginia burned Norfolk on 1/1/76.C. Henry Knox, a bookseller, brought the artillery from Fort Ticonderoga by sledge

through deep forest in dead winter.D. Washington then fortified Dorchester Heights on the night of 3/5/76. The British

woke up to find artillery commanding their fleet in Boston Harbor.E. Howe had only two choices--a frontal attack on Dorchester Heights or evacuation

of Boston.F. On 3/17/76, the British evacuated Boston for Halifax. G. The thirteen colonies were clear of British troops.

VII. The Declaration of IndependenceA. Preliminary Events

1. The hiring of Hessians, as discussed above, created both rage and fearamong colonists.

2. The fighting at Bunker Hill tended to harden positions.B. Patrick Henry, (3/3/75) delivered his most famous speech: "It is vain, sir, to

extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry, peace, peace; but there is nopeace. The war is actually begun. The next gale that sweeps from thenorth will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethrenare already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it thatgentlemen wish . . . ? Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at


the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it Almighty God--I know not whatcourse others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!"

C. Thomas Paine, Common Sense published in January 1776 is a very importantstep in mobilizing support.1. Paine was a recent immigrant from Great Britain whose talent was spotted

by Franklin and encouraged. He became the wars' greatest pamphleteer. He is a master of revolutionary propaganda.

2. The language of Common Sense is extraordinarily vivid. The followingquotations will tend to cut up Paine's logic a good deal; I want you toexperience his wonderful eloquence.

3. "Some writers have so confounded society with government, as toleave little or no distinction between them. . . .Society in every stateis a blessing, but government, even in its best state, is but anecessary evil. . . . Government, like dress, is the badge of lostinnocence. . . . For were the impulses of conscience clear, uniform,and irresistibly obeyed, man would need no other lawgiver; but thatnot being the case, he finds it necessary to surrender up a part of hisproperty to furnish means for the protection of the rest; . . . . Thereis another and greater distinction, for which no truly natural orreligious reason can be assigned, and that is, the distinction of meninto KINGS and SUBJECTS. Male and female are the distinctionsof nature, good and bad the distinctions of heaven; but how a raceof men came into the world so exalted above the rest, anddistinguished like some new species, is worth enquiring into, andwhether they are the means of happiness or of misery to mankind. .. . To the evil of monarchy we have added that of hereditarysuccession. . . . One of the strongest natural proofs of the folly ofhereditary right in kings, is, that nature disapproves it, otherwiseshe would not so frequently turn it into ridicule by giving mankindan Ass for a Lion. . . . Because such an unwise, unjust, unnaturalcompact might (perhaps) in the next succession put them under thegovernment of a rogue or a fool. . . . This is supposing the presentrace of kings in the world to have had an honourable origin;whereas it is more than probable, that could we take off the darkcovering of antiquity, and trace them to their first rise, that weshould find the first of them nothing better than the principalruffian of some restless gang. . . . No man in his senses can say thattheir claim under William the Conqueror is a very honorable one. A French bastard landing with an armed banditti, and establishinghimself king of England against the consent of the native, is inplain terms a very paltry rascally original. . . . In short, monarchyand succession have laid . . . the world in blood and ashes. . . . Inthe following pages I offer nothing more than simple facts, plainarguments and common sense. . . . .The sun never shone on a causeof greater worth. Tis not the affair of a city, a country, a province,


or a kingdom, but of a continent. . . Tis not the concern of a day, ayear, or an age; posterity are virtually involved in the contest. . .Now is the seedtime of continental union. . . . I have heard itasserted by some that as America hath flourished under her formerconnection with Great Britain, that the same connection isnecessary towards her future happiness. . . I answer roundly, thatAmerica would have flourished as much, and probably much more,had no European power had any thing to do with her. Thecommerce by which she hath enriched herself, are the necessaries oflife, and will always have a market while eating is the custom ofEurope. . . . But she has protected us, say some. . . . We haveboasted the protection of Great Britain, without considering thather motive was interest not attachment; that she did not protect usfrom our enemies on our account, but from her enemies on her ownaccount. . . But Britain is the parent country, say some. . . . 'Evenbrutes do not devour their young, nor savages make war upon theirfamilies. . . .Not a single advantage is derived. Our corn will fetchits price in any market in Europe, and our imported goods must bepaid for buy them where we will. . . . The blood of the slain, theweeping voice of nature cries, 'TIS TIME TO PART. Even thedistance at which the Almighty hath placed England and America,is a strong and natural proof, that the authority of the one over theother, was never the design of Heaven. . . . It is repugnant toreason, to the universal order of things, to all examples from formerages, to suppose, that this continent can longer remain subject toany external power. . . . Every quiet method for peace has beenineffectual. . . . Wherefore, since nothing but blows will do, forGod's sake let us come to a final separation and not leave the nextgeneration to be cutting throats under the violated unmeaningnames of parent and child. . . . There is something very absurd insupposing a continent to be perpetually governed by an island. . . .But the most powerful of all arguments is that nothing butindependence, i.e. a continental form of government, can keep thepeace of the continent and preserve it inviolate from civil wars. . . .A government of our own is our natural right. . .nothing can settleour affairs so expeditiously as an open and determined declarationfor independence. . . . While America calls herself the subject ofGreat-Britain, no power, however well disposed she may be, canoffer her mediation. . . It is unreasonable to suppose, that France orSpain will give us any kind of assistance, if we mean only to makeuse of that assistance for the purpose of repairing the breach, andstrengthening the connection between Britain and America, becausethose powers would be sufferers by the consequence. . . While weprofess ourselves the subjects of Britain, we must, in the eye offoreign nations, be considered as rebels. . . .Were a manifesto to be


published, and dispatched to foreign courts, setting forth themiseries we have endured, and the peaceable methods we haveineffectually redress, declaring . . . that . . . we had been driven tothe necessity of breaking off all connection with her, . . . such amemorial would produce more good effects to this Continent than ifa ship were freighted with petitions to Britain." ("Common Sense"270-83)

4. The pamphlet was probably read by every literate American, and read toand discussed by a very large portion of the illiterate population.

D. Congress1. Authorized privateers (an act of a sovereign nation)2. Opened our ports to trade with foreign vessels.3. Urged the colonial assemblies to frame their own constitutions (which they

were already doing without any urging)E. Richard Henry Lee proposed the following resolution on June 7, 1776:

1. "That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free andindependent States." ("That these United" 297)

2. A committee was formed to draft the Declaration:a. Benjamin Franklin (PA)b. Thomas Jefferson (VA)c. John Adams (MA)d. Roger Sherman (CN)e. Robert Livingston (NY)

3. The draft was written by Jefferson and edited by Franklin and Adams.4. The Declaration of Independence was officially adopted on July 4, 1776.

F. Structure1. The first portion was an introduction and a justification.2. The second section is a statement of ideological faith.3. The third section is a list of grievances and an indictment of King George

IIIa. Jefferson was careful to impute acts of Parliament to the King,

since our view of the Empire linked the colonies to Great Britainthrough the Crown.

b. Jefferson attempted to demonstrate that the King had broken thesocial contract.

4. The Declaration is not, and was not intended to be, original thinking. Rather, it represented a fair summary of the ideological beliefs of manyAmericans. Its enduring power lies both in the ideas expressed and thewell-nigh flawless expression of those ideas.a. Note key ideas in the Declaration:

(1) Natural law(2) The purpose of government(3) The social contract(4) The source of sovereignty(5) The right of revolution


5. Interestingly, Jefferson wrote the following passage for the indictment,which was deleted by Congress: "He has waged cruel war againsthuman nature itself, violating its most sacred rights to life & libertyin the persons of a distant people who never offended him,captivating & carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere, orto incur miserable death in their transportation thither." (Cumminsand White 89-90)

6. The Declaration has several different audiences:a. Americans whose loyalty was undecided or who were Loyalists

(Tories)b. British Whigs, justifying our resistance.c. European opinion, particularly at the French Court (which could

not, however, be expected to be too sympathetic to our ideas, evenif so many Enlightenment thinkers were French) and in Holland.

d. Posterity, where the Declaration retains its universal power.G. Permit me to mount my soap box briefly. The United States is unlike most

nations in the world in that we have not been created along ethnic, religious,linguistic, or purely geographic lines. If you look around the modern world, youwill see that nationalism remains the most potent force in world politics. Nationalism usually develops around cultural factors, such as language or "race." Not so the United States.1. The United States, even in 1776, did not possess a common language (a

dominant language, yes, but not a universal one); a common ethnicbackground; a common religion; a common race. We have always beenhighly heterogeneous.

2. Even less does the United States possess such common factors aslanguage, race, religion, ethnic background.

3. A comparison with Great Britain, Spain, France, Germany, Poland, Japanwill throw this difference into harsh light. In nations like Bosnia orRuanda or regions like Chechnya, one call see that artificial nations likeYugoslavia can be easily torn apart by these cultural divisions.

4. What defines the United States? What makes us different, as Americans? What makes us, in fact, Americans at all? Is it merely birth within thepolitical borders? No, since a large proportion of our population is andhas always been foreign born.

5. I believe that the United States is defined by three documents, which layout what we, as a nation and a people, believe in. We are, in other words,defined and shaped by a set of political ideas--an unusual circumstance fora sovereign nation.

6. Those documents are the Declaration of Independence--the statement offirst principles--, the Constitution of the United States (includingAmendments)--which give our principles practical form--; and theGettysburg Address--which provides a definitive commentary on themeaning of our great experiment in government.

7. During this course, I shall not hesitate to deal with the unpleasant, ugly,


shameful, and controversial issues in U.S. history. I will criticize our pastwhere I believe it is warranted (and I expect you to be free to do the same,so long as you defend your position). A responsible citizen of a republicmust exercise critical faculties. I am not engaged in propaganda as it isusually understood. Nevertheless, I am proud--very proud--to be anAmerican, and our history is one that, on the whole, uplifts me. Mygreatest background was in European history. Now I am trying to read alot of Latin American history. Believe me, in general, the history of thehuman race is a grim tale indeed. For all our failings, the degree to whichwe have striven to embody our deepest beliefs can be seen in sharpestdetail when compared with the history of any other European nation youmight choose. Even English or French history is pretty grim most of thetime--much less Italy, Spain, or Germany. Russia doesn't even beardiscussion. And Latin American history is pretty depressing.

8. I believe that these three documents go far in defining the differencebetween the experience of the United States and so much of the rest of theworld.

H. "When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for onepeople to dissolve the political bands which have connected them withanother, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate andequal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Natures's God entitlethem, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that theyshould declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are createdequal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienableRights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men,deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That wheneverany Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Rightof the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government,laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in suchform, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety andHappiness. Prudence indeed will dictate that Governments longestablished should not be changed for light and transient causes; andaccordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed tosuffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing theforms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses andusurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design toreduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, tothrow off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their futuresecurity,--Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and suchis now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems ofGovernment. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a historyof repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object theestablishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let


Facts be submitted be submitted to a candid world. . . . he has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large

districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right ofRepresentation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them andformidable to tyrants only. . . .

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposingwith manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. . . .

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure oftheir office, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

he has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarmsof Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies withoutthe Consent of our legislature.he has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the

Civil Power. . . . For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders

which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offenses:For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighboring Province,

establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so asto render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the sameabsolute rule into these Colonies.: . . .

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves investedwith Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protectionand waging War against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, anddestroyed the Lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries tocompleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun withcircumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages,and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. . . .

He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has endeaveoured tobring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whoseknown rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes andconditions. . . .

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, inGeneral Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world forthe rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the goodPeople of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these UnitedColonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; . . .And for


the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of DivineProvidence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and oursacred Honor. ("Declaration of Independence" 297-01)

VIII. Balance of Forces and Military Situation.A. American advantages

1. The colonists were actually in possession of the land being contested. TheBritish were in a position of having to reconquer it all--a formidable task.a. Washington thoroughly understood that fact; his opponents do not

seem to have understood it.b. The war effort for Britain would be very costly in money and

manpower.2. Geographical separation. The British were operating at the end of a line of

communication thousands of miles long, and months in transit. In such asituation, the difference in relative power between the colonies and Britainis narrowed by Britain's ability to project power.a. It works in both directions, by the way. The fundamental fact of

military reality for the United States is that we must project ourpower across vast distances in order to protect our interests. Geography limits us just as it limited Great Britain. As a voter,don't forget that when you face future Iraqs, Viet Nams, Bosnias.

3. Inefficiency and poor leadership in the British Army and Navy.a. The British generals Gage, Clinton, Howe, Burgoyne and even

Cornwallis appear to be no better than journeymen soldiers,technically competent within their sphere, but very limited invision. There is no James Wolfe here, much less an ArthurWellesley.

b. The Royal Navy was at its lowest ebb in strength in a century. Inaddition, the local commander, Adm. Graves, was prettyincompetent--the result of promotion strictly by seniority.

c. The British made some titanic blunders in the war--chief amongthem the omission to send orders to Howe to cooperate withBurgoyne.

4. The generation of the Founding Fathers included some giants--the mostextraordinary generation in our history, and all the more amazing in viewof the size of the population. Above all others, we had GeorgeWashington, the indispensable man, the Father of His Country.

5. Great Britain was a world power, and had to worry about world widecommitments. We shall see that those commitments were decisive. At theend of the war, the British faced war not only with the United States butFrance and Spain as well.

6. The United States could win the war simply by making the British decidethat the cost of winning was greater than it was worth; this is preciselyhow North Viet Nam won the Second Indochina War.

B. George Washington: Father of His Country (OK, so occasionally a little


propaganda!)1. Washington served during the entire war without pay. He asked only to be

reimbursed for necessary expenses. His accounting was so meticulous thatit agreed within pennies to Congress'. (Cummins and White 126)

2. Washington was an amateur soldier, and never pretended to be otherwise. he learned quickly, and did not make the same mistake twice.

3. Trained, professional soldiers were in short supply.a. Some of the ones we had were so bad they helped the British more

than us, like Charles Lee.b. Perhaps it is significant that some of our best professionals came to

us voluntarily from Europe, after fighting had broken out. Thesemen had no stake whatever in the fighting, except for the idealswhich we professed: Thaddeus Koscieusko, Baron de Kalb,Casimir Pulaski, and Friedrich von Steuben. (the Marquis deLafayette was not a professional soldier.)

4. Some of our amateurs proved to be very good: Benedict Arnold (until heturned traitor); Nathanael Greene, John Stark; Daniel Morgan; AnthonyWayne.a. Many others proved poor or incompetent.b. It is a measure of Washington's greatness that few of his choices

for leadership proved not to be able while quite a few of Congress'political appointees were incompetent. Great leaders must be goodjudges of men. (Mitchell 91)(1) Lincoln would go through the same difficulties.

5. Throughout the war, Washington's greatest challenge was to train, feed,clothe, and hold his army together. Fighting the British came second tothat. He battled Congress more doggedly than he had to battle the British.

6. It is a measure of Washington's greatness that he did not depose theincompetent Congress (if pro is the opposite of con, what is the oppositeof progress?) and establish himself as dictator. Caesar did; Cromwell did;Napoleon would soon. In Latin America, how many men on horsebackresponded to the crisis in their nation by seizing power and establishingmilitary rule?a. A concrete example was Washington's refusal to take needed food

and shelter from civilians at the point of a bayonet at Valley Forge. To do so would violate the very relationship of the army to thecitizenry which a republic must have. Many in Congress, who didnot understand the principle of military subordination to the civilauthority, were not so understanding. (Flexner 109-12)

7. Do you realize how unusual Washington's forbearance is? Do you realizewhat an aphrodisiac power is? Don't you think Washington understoodthat he had the power to do it, and that he could fight the war far better asdictator than as simply Commander in Chief of the Continental armies? His refusal to become a Caesar is one of the reasons Europeans, especiallyFrederick the Great, admired Washington so much.


8. George Washington was not committed to an independent nation. GeorgeWashington was committed to an independent republic; he wascommitted to a nation of laws; to a nation of civilian rule, in which themilitary are and must always be the servant of civil authority, howeverincompetent that civil authority might be; where laws are made by the willof the people, not by the fiat of a dictator or the thrust of a bayonet.("Genius" 12-13)

9. Saul Padover assessed Washington as follows: "The Sheer personality ofWashington was the decisive element in the three crucial events of earlyAmerica--the Revolutionary War, the Constitutional Convention, and thefirst national administration." (qtd in Cummins and White 127)

C. American Weaknesses1. There are so many one is almost uncertain where to start.2. The United States lacked money. We desperately needed loans from

abroad. Wars--all wars--are hideously expensive.3. The United States did not produce much gunpowder. Since it is difficult

to win a war within ammunition, we desperately needed to importmunitions from France and Holland. (Washington usually could issue nomore than 12 to 15 rounds per man, as contrasted to the 60 rounds carriedby British soldiers) (Cummins and White 146)

4. Congress had no power to tax whatever. a. Congress could only requisition from the states (a continuation of

the Imperial system, which had already proved to be inadequateand the replacement of which played a significant role in theoutbreak of the war). To requisition means to beg.

b. Congress could also resort to printing paper money. We printedlots and lots of it. Since there was no gold to back it up,eventually, the paper became worthless, and no one would acceptit--"not worth a Continental."

c. The shortage of coin caused prices to rise steeply.d. Since the British paid in gold, many merchants refused to do

business with the United States and gladly did business with theBritish--particularly around Philadelphia and New York.

e. The Army was paid in paper (if they were paid at all), which meantthat the men fighting to win the war did so at great hardship to theirfamilies as well as risk to themselves.

f. The final official value was $40 paper: $1 silver. Unofficially, itwas a lot worse: in 1779, $1.00 in gold was worth $50 to $100Continental. (Cummins and White 150)

5. Our system of supply was consequently very weaka. To say the least. You've heard the stories about men freezing at

Valley Forge; eating shoes and leaving bloody footprints in thesnow? They are true. Every winter. Soldiers were not paid foryears.

6. Lack of unity


a. The United States was divided between Patriots (hey, we won!) orWhigs and Loyalists or Tories.(1) In some states, particularly in New York, New Jersey,

North and South Carolina, the Revolutionary War is a bittercivil war.

(2) John Adams believed that 33% actively supportedindependence, 33% were Tories, and 33% were indifferent.

(3) Robert E. Brown's studies suggest that Tories accounted for7.6% to 18% of the population.

(4) Some 100,000 Tories fled the United States.7. The Tories

a. Modern studies show the numbers of Tories to be substantial. Anestimated 30,000 served for the British at one time or another. In1780, there were 8,000 Tory soldiers for the British, compared with9,000 in Washington's army. (Cummins and White 99)

b. These people tended to be more conservative.c. These people were concentrated along the fringes of the frontier,

and on the seaboard from the Hudson to the Chesapeake. (Cummins and White 99)

d. Tories came disproportionately from minority groups in thecolonies, from Quakers, Germans, Indians, and Blacks--groupswho may have feared for their status amidst the majority. (Cummins and White 99-100)

e. 80,000 to 100,000 Tories left the U.S. and fled, mostly to Canada. In 1783, 9,000 left from New York and Charleston each.(Cummins and White 104)

f. They failed in large measure because they offered no realalternative to the Whigs. They had no positive program. (Cummins and White 103)

g. They also failed in part because Washington deliberately cultivatedthem, refusing to deal harshly with conservatives and holding hismen in check. (Flexner 119) In other words, Washingtondeliberately avoided fighting the kind of revolutionary war thaterupted in France in 1789.

IX. Forming State GovernmentsA. The states turned to the idea of the compact, the covenant of the Puritans, in

establishing a new juridical basis for government. Government must be underlaw. They began to write constitutions.1. Between 1776 and 1780, while the issue of the war was still in doubt, all

13 states drew up constitutions.2. Three states adopted constitutions before the Declaration was even signed.

(Wright 8)3. Remember that the British constitution is not a written constitution. The

new states are breaking sharply with the British tradition.4. All of the states accepted as a fundamental proposition that "a written


constitution is a first essential of a free government." (Wright 9)B. Constitution writing embodied Lockean ideas, but also embodied the colonial

experience.1. The constitution writers were explicit in their belief that they were writing

social compacts: the Massachusetts constitution (drawn up by JohnAdams) states: "The body politic is formed by a voluntary associationof individuals: it is a social compact by which the whole peoplecovenants with each citizen and each citizen with the whole peoplethat all shall be governed by certain laws for the common good."(Wright 15-16)

C. The first constitutions were drawn up by the assemblies. But Massachusetts brokenew ground.

D. Massachusetts in 1780 called a special constitutional convention, and modeledtheir constitution on their colonial charter.1. They then submitted the constitution to the people for ratification.2. This is a crucial innovation: "The same body that forms a Constitution

have of consequence a power to alter it, and a Constitution alterable bythe legislature is no security at all to the individual." (Degler 90)

E. For the most part, the new constitutions dropped outside authority.F. All constitutions provided for an

1. Assembly2. Courts3. Governor

G. Each state strengthened the principle of separation of powers.H. Property requirements to vote were maintained. It has been argued by Charles

Beard, before careful studies had demonstrated the truth of the matter, that therevolution led to the end of the property requirements. This is not the case. Thelaws were modified some, but the principle that only those with property had theright to vote was maintained.1. Recall that Robert E. Brown has shown in Middle Class Democracy and

the Revolution in Massachusetts that property holding was wide-spread,and that about 66% of the male population was qualified to vote. A muchlarger percentage of Americans could vote under property qualificationsthan was the case in Great Britain.

I. Every state created a limited government: all men are tyrants enough at heart.J. The locus of power was the assembly.K. Virtual representation was rejected out of hand, as Gordon S. Wood has

demonstrated: the legislature are agents carrying out the wishes of the people.L. Virginia's constitution, written by George Mason, asserted the right of the people

to revolution. (Wright 16)M. Delaware in 1776 introduced a very important innovation, directly derived from

William Penn's charters for Pennsylvania and Delaware: an amending clause tothe constitution. (Wright 11)

N. The states drew up Bills of Rights: embodied a belief that government must be explicitly limited. Bills of Rights are bulwarks against majority rule.


1. Benjamin Wright draws an interesting comparison with the FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man (1789) which states that all sovereigntyis in the nation (not the people) and that the law is the expression of thegeneral will (Rousseau's idea), a far more totalitarian view of the power ofgovernment. (Wright 18)

X. Social ReformA. Reapportionment was undertaken in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina

(where the Regulator war had raged)B. Feudal remnants legally abolished:

1. Primogeniture: entire inheritance of lands goes to the eldest son; youngersons cut off without a penny.

2. Entail: Estates may be handed down only through the male line.3. Quitrents: a fee paid to the original landholder in mark of his authority.

C. The Anglican church was disestablished in South.1. In New England, however, the Congregational Church remained the

established church.2. There was the beginning of the radical idea that "a man's religion was

irrelevant to government" and that "religious orthodoxy [might not be]necessary for good citizenship and service to the state." (Degler 101)

3. States continued to collect tax money for the churches and to distribute themoney to churches in numerical proportion

D. The Rights of Women1. Abigail Adams had hoped that the Revolution would bring about change

for the better. She wrote her husband John on March 31, 1776, "I long tohear that you have declared an independency--and by the way in thenew Code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you tomake I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be moregenerous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not putsuch unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Rememberall Men would be tyrants if they could. If perticuliar care andattention is not paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment aRebelion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in whichwe have no voice, or Representation."

2. There were some improvements in divorce laws3. There were beginnings of education for women.

a. A republic required an educated citizenry.b. Women held the chief child rearing responsibility.c. Women must be educated so as to rear patriotic sons.d. Improved education is a foundation for the later feminist

movement.E. Slavery

1. Slavery is not compatible with the Declaration of Independence.2. After 1780, the northern states did way with slavery gradually.3. The usual technique was by post-nati laws, that is, all slaves born after a

certain date would be freed upon reaching a specified age.


a. The age varied from state to state. In New York, it was 28 formales and 25 for females; in New Jersey, 25 for males and 21 forfemales.

b. Generally speaking, those slaves born prior to the post-nati datewere never subsequently freed. In New Jersey, 18 slaves lived tosee the election of Abraham Lincoln.

c. Particularly in New York and New Jersey, the process was abusedby illegal sales of slaves to the South just prior to the date offreedom. It has been estimated that New York sold twice as manyslaves away as it eventually freed.

d. Pennsylvania, with 10,000 slaves and a strong Quaker influence,led the way in 1780.

e. Rhode Island, with 6% of the population slave, set the year at 1784.f. Connecticut, with 5% of the population slave, passed their law in

1794.g. New Jersey held 11,423 slaves, and did not pass their law until

1804.h. New York had 12% of the population slave, and did not pass its

law until 1799.. (Freehling 132-33)4. All of the states, even the Southern states, prohibited the further

importations of slaves.5. Except for South Carolina and Georgia, restrictions on manumission were

lifted.6. Emancipation occurred only where slavery was not economically

important.F. A Social Revolution?

1. "It is quickly apparent that the social consequences of the Revolution weremeager indeed. In both purpose and implementation, they were not to beequated with the massive social changes which shook France and Russia.(Degler 108)

2. No new social class came to power3. There was no major shift in leadership as a result of the Revolution

a. 75% of state officials during the war held office prior to 1774.b. This trend will continue through the Constitutional period.c. The emphasis is continuity.

4. Tory lands were confiscated and redistributed.a. Again, comparison with the French Revolution and Russian

Revolution is instructive.b. Land was taken and sold as a revenue measure, not for purposes of

a general redistribution of property or land reform.c. Most of the land was sold to speculators, not landless farmers.d. The amount of Tory land taken is insignificant compared to al of

the land available.XI. Financing the War

A. There are only 4 ways to finance a war:


1. Taxa. Congress had no power tax; they had to rely on requisitions. Only

the states could tax. If the state met a requisition, , it has probablyhad to tax itself.

2. Borrowa. You can borrow money by selling bonds to private citizens or to

foreign citizens or governments. These lenders have in effect,invested in your war.

3. Print moneya. Sovereign nations control their own printing presses. Printing

money is the easiest but worst way to finance a way. It willcertainly lead to inflation, and can easily ruin your currencyentirely. This is precisely what happened to the United States inthe Revolutionary War and also to the Confederacy during theCivil War.

4. Plundera. Make the loser pay the costs. A traditional way of making war. In

modern times, indemnities for costs were imposed on the loser bythe winner. This created animosity. The attempt to do this afterWorld War I helped to destroy the German economy anddestabilize the world economy. Modern war is far too expensive tomake the loser pay the costs without disastrous impoverishment ofthe loser.

B. Requisitions for money often overlooked by the states.C. The states contributed $5,800,000.D. Bonds were sold

1. Private citizens bought $7 to 8,000,000 ; this becomes our domestic debt2. Foreign governments bought $8,000,000; this becomes our foreign debt.

E. Paper money1. Congress printed $240,000,000 in paper, the "Continental" dollar.2. The states printed an additional $200,000,000.3. The effect of this was to depreciate savings via massive inflation. This

leads directly to the massive problems Alexander Hamilton would face asfirst Secretary of the Treasury.

XII. The Articles of ConfederationA. There was a very widespread belief, derived from David Hume, that a republic

was ill-adapted to a large geographic area.1. James Wilson of Pennsylvania expressed it thus: "to a small territory

the democratical, to a middling, the monarchical, and to anextensive territory the despotic form of government is best adapted." (now where did I get that quote? I can't find it where I thought it camefrom!)

2. Therefore, a Confederation of small republics was the best way to protectthe liberties for which we were fighting.

B. Organization of the Continental Congress


1. Delegates were appointed by the state assemblies.2. Each state had one vote, which was the consensus of its delegates.3. Congress was the de facto war government.4. Congress created various committees which served as a substitute for an

executive.a. The most important figure here was Robert Morris, who wrestled

with the impossible problem of financing the war. He was animmensely talented man; no one could have done a better job.

C. The Articles of Confederation were presented on 11/17/77.1. The draft was written by John Dickenson.2. Every state had equal representation, with one vote per delegation.3. Only the states had the power to tax themselves.4. No state was to be deprived of its Western lands (recall that Western land

claims conflicted).5. "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence."6. Congressional powers:

a. decide on war or peaceb. appoint military officersc. requisition the states for men and moneyd. send ambassadorse. make treatiesf. coin moneyg. establish a post officeh. borrow moneyi. fix weights and measuresj. regulate Indian affairsk. settle inter-state disputes.

7. The Articles were accepted by all the states except Maryland by 1779.a. But without unanimous approval, they did not take effect.

D. The Western Lands Issue1. The West had often been divisive

a. Bacon's Rebellion 1676b. the Albany Congress 1754c. the Paxton Boysd. The Regulator War

2. Unequal representation between the East and the West and subsequentWestern resentment remains a problem.a. The East was often less truculent when it came to the Indians; the

willingness to tax to fight the Indians was in direct proportion toproximity to the frontier.

3. Landless States: Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, Rhode Island, andPennsylvania were "landless" states, whose charters limited their size.a. These states desired Congress to control the unoccupied lands.

4. Landed States: Virginia (which had the largest and best establishedclaims), Massachusetts, Connecticut, Georgia, North and South Carolina


had western land claims, extending in some cases all the way to the PacificOcean.

5. Speculators in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and new Jersey had purchasedconsiderable land from Congress and competed with Virginia's OhioCompany, establishing a colony called Vandalia.a. Dickenson's draft blocked the aspirations of these speculators.

Congress can't sell what it does not have title to.6. Speculative interests controlled the Maryland assembly.

a. Maryland refused to ratify until the Western lands were given toCongress.

b. They argued (and this is in fact a legitimate concern) that thelanded states could easily eliminate all taxes, relying entirely uponland sales for revenue, while the landless states would be caught ina spiral of taxation.

7. Thomas Jefferson broke the deadlock.a. Virginia offered to cede all claims to Congress on two conditions:

(1) All prior speculative claims were canceled.(a) This ensured that the Maryland speculators could

not profit by extorting the entire nation.(2) The region was to be divided into states that were small

republics, to be admitted on an equal basis with the originalthirteen states..(a) This proposal sidesteps the potential problems of

colonial expansion and provides a principle forfuture growth. It is an enormously importantprovision for our future, and demonstratesJefferson's wisdom. Jefferson close to his best.

8. Virginia's willingness to cede Western land, since Virginia had the largestand best claims, as well as the largest population, and having paid in bloodand treasure for the Western lands was decisive.a. (remember that Virginia sent Washington out to build Fort

Necessity and start the French and Indian War; also George RogersClark, whose victories at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennessecured the region for us, was sent by Virginia, not by Congress.)

E. Congress Under the Articles of Confederation1. Congress was given responsibility but no power.2. People were extremely wary of giving authority to a central government--

any central government. They did not fight a war to overthrow authorityfrom London only to replace it with authority in Philadelphia.

3. Cecilia Kenyon wrote of the future Anti-Federalists: "They weretransfixed by the specter of power. It was not the power of the aristocracythat they feared, but power of nay kind, democratic or otherwise, that theycould not control for themselves. Their chief concern was to keepgovernments as limited and as closely tied to local interests as possible."(Kenyon *)


a. These Anti-Federalists included Patrick Henry George Mason,Richard Henry Lee of Virginia,, George Clinton of New York,Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, Joseph Warren ofMassachusetts.

4. Congress had no power to levy taxes5. Congress had no power to regulate trade.6. 7 states were needed for a quorum (and much time was lost for lack of a

quorum)7. 9 votes were needed to approve treaty or a requisition.8. Terms were for 1 year, so membership was constantly shifting.9. There was no executive10. Tariffs (called an impost) required unanimous approval.

a. This was never achieved, so foreign loans could not be repaid.XIII. The New York Campaign

A. The British set out to reestablish themselves in the colonies by landing at NewYork.1. A second thrust from Canada was intended to join up with the British in

New York, and thus cut the colonies in two.B. The force that landed at New York was huge, some 250 vessels, and an army of

32,000 men (and 10,000 sailors). The population of New York City was 25,000.C. The army was commanded by General William Howe; the fleet by Admiral

Viscount Richard Howe, is brother.D. Washington could count on about 20,000 men. (Mitchell 53-55)E. Washington should not have attempted to defend the city, but he is still learning,

and he was under heavy pressure from Congress to defend the city.F. Washington made some serious mistakes here, the worst of which was positioning

his army on an island with British command of the sea. The chief factors insaving his army were luck and Howe's dilatory manner.

G. The most charitable explanation of Howe's performance is that he was hoping tonegotiate a reconciliation.

H. Howe won a series of engagements:1. Brooklyn Heights 8/27/762. Long Island 8/27/763. Harlem Heights 9/16/764. By the end of these, Washington realized that he had placed his men in a

potential trap, and had evacuated first Long Island and then the city itself.5. The Continental Army was no match for the British and Hessians in open

battle.I. Washington is then forced to retreat clear through New Jersey.

1. Washington was hampered by an army that was disintegrating around him,and by subordinates who would not obey orders and who seemed intent onletting Washington lose so that they could seize the spotlight (CharlesLee).

2. It is during this retreat that Thomas Paine published his second greatcontribution to revolutionary propaganda: The Crisis.


a. "These re times that try men's souls. The summer soldier andthe sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink form theservice of their country; but he that stands it now, deservesthe love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell,is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us,that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly: it isdearness only that gives every things its value." (The Crisis406)

3. Howe ended the campaign season of 1776 believing that the war was allbut won. Following normal practices, he ordered winter camps set up forhis troops.

J. While this was going on, Gen. Carleton attempted an advance down LakeChamplain with his Canadians. He was opposed by Benedict Arnold. 1. The central military fact of life in upstate New York was that control of

Lake Champlain was essential to movement. Arnold built a flotilla todefend the lake. Carleton dismantled ships, transported them to LakeChamplain, and reassembled them. Carleton won the ensuing battle, butthe season was too advanced for him to continue This has very importantconsequences, since Burgoyne did not have Ticonderoga as a base ofoperations when he began his campaign the next year. (Mitchell 68-79)

XIV. Trenton and PrincetonA. Washington feared that a hard winter following a disastrous spring would led to

the disappearance of his army by desertion ended enlistments.B. Washington determined to risk further battle in order to win a morale booster.C. His plan was really very daring indeed. He had to recross the Delaware River, a

major obstacle, under difficult weather conditions (yes, there were really flows ofice in the river, not to mention a snow storm). Then he had to defeat an enemywho had chased him out of New Jersey. If beaten, he would have his back to ariver: a recipe for annihilation.

D. Trenton was garrisoned by 1,400 Hessians under Col. Johann Rall. Washingtoncrossed the river on Christmas Day with 2,500 men and made a forced march toreach the town.

E. Surprise was complete. The garrison had celebrated Christmas heavily (read that: drunk heavily) Among the officers who distinguished themselves were AlexanderHamilton and James Monroe. 1. 50 Hessians were killed, 920 captured, 4 Americans were wounded (but 2

men froze to death on the way back). (Mitchell 78-83)F. Howe responded vigorously, trying to march columns up to trap Washington.

Washington's response was aggressive: to sideslip Howe and attack his supplybase at New Brunswick.

G. A meeting engagement occurred at Princeton 1/3/77. Washington won this smallbattle, but realized that he could not press farther without disaster, and broke off.

H. Europe's greatest soldier, Frederick the Great, regarded this campaign ofWashington's as brilliant. This is high praise indeed. The battles saved the


Continental Army and probably Philadelphia for that year. (Mitchell 89)XV. The Saratoga Campaign: The Turning Point of the American Revolution

A. Saratoga is the turning point of the American Revolution!!!!!B. Gen. "Gentleman Johnny" Burgoyne, besides being a member of Parliament,

dramatist, and fashionable man about town, fancied himself a great soldier.C. Burgoyne sold the government on a plan to cut the colonies in two, with himself

playing the key role.D. The plan itself is quite sound in principle.E. One thrust would be from Quebec, and would move down the historic water

pathway into the colonies, along Lake Champlain. This would be led byBurgoyne himself. His army consisted of 4,100 British, 3,100 Hessians, 250Canadians and about 400 Indians. (Mitchell 99)

F. Howe, from New York was to thrust up the Hudson toward Albany in order tosupport Burgoyne and to meet him half way. Howe's army was about 15,000 men(Mitchell 92)

G. A third thrust would be through the Mohawk Valley, the granary of New York,and would be comprised mostly of Tories and Iroquois Indians (under theleadership of Joseph Brant (his English name; his Iroquois name wasThayendanegea; he was nephew by marriage to William Johnson and aremarkable leader in every respect). This force was led by Col. Barry St. Leger.

H. Properly executed, this plan should have won the war for the British. The Britishtotally botched it. The British Minister, Lord Germain, failed to send orders toHowe. (Mitchell 93)1. Just in case you missed that, the British planned a three pronged attack to

win the war, but forgot to order the strongest prong to take part. Ifmemory serves me correctly, the clerk entrusted with copying the orderstook a long weekend in the country, and forgot that he had not copied themor sent them when he returned. I am looking for that source. No wonderthe British lost the war.

I. Instead of cooperating with Burgoyne, Howe conducted an entirely unrelatedcampaign against Philadelphia. Howe won every battle, captured Philadelphia,and lost the war. Mitchell criticizes Howe, orders or no orders, for failing tosupport Burgoyne--it was only common sense. (93-4)

J. In contrast, Washington, while facing off against Howe, always paid closeattention to the northern campaign, and dispatched his best troops from his over-matched army to fight at Saratoga.

K. Oriskany1. On 8/3/77 St. Leger besieged Fort Stanwix at the mouth of the Mohawk

Valley, with a force of 900 Canadians and Tories and 900 Indians underBrant.

2. A militia force of 800 men plus 60 Indians under Nicholas Herkimerarrived to relieve the fort.

3. The Iroquois ambushed Herkimer at Oriskany. A very bitter and desperatebattle developed, with frequent hand-to-hand combat. After a day offighting, the Iroquois broke off, and the militia fell back (Herkimer died of


his wounds).4. The situation was saved by Benedict Arnold. Arnold arrived in the valley

with about 950 men. He did not think he was strong enough to defeat theBritish and Indians by force so he resorted to guile. Either he understoodthe Indians well, or he listened to advice.a. He arrested a Tory, a man who was retarded, and sentenced him to

death. He then convinced this man (in exchange for his life) to goamong the Indians and tell them that he had a huge army coming,and then released him into the Indian camp.

b. This man was perfectly safe from the Indians. They regarded hismental affliction as the work of the Great Spirit and would notharm him under any circumstances.

c. The rumor spread quickly. St. Leger's Indians became alarmed,and melted away.

d. St. Leger turned back. (Cummins and White 160-1, Eckert 174-7)L. The Murder of Jane MacCrae

1. Burgoyne started down from Canada on the historic invasion route to andfrom New York..

2. On July 27, 1777, his army neared Fort Edward.3. Jane MacCrae was a young woman who was well-known as a Tory, and

who was engaged to a British officer with Burgoyne. She evidentlypossessed very long, beautiful, and distinctive hair (I assume red).

4. A band of Indians accompanying Burgoyne's army captured her andanother Tory woman. One of the Indians murdered both of them, scalpedthem, and took the scalps to Burgoyne's army in order to collect thereward.a. Burgoyne, like other British commanders before and after him,

paid bounties for the America scalps. Americans also were knownto pay for scalps. The governor of Pennsylvania had promisedbounties for Indian scalps in 1774. (Eckert 27) Theoretically, thesewere only paid for the scalps of adult males in rebellion, notwomen or children or Tories. Of course, after someone wasscalped, it was difficult to ascertain their politics. As for womenand children, Indians on the warpath had always killed women andchildren indiscriminately. Any serious attempt to curtail thebounties on humanitarian grounds would have led to the Indianssimply melting away. The fact is that the British accepted thepractice of murder when they began paying for hair. Eckertdescribes the method the British used to collect and identify scalpsfor proper payment--it is chilling. They were collected in bundlesof 88 to 100 with minimum shipments to the Governor of Canadaof 700. Categories of identification included Soldier, Old Person,Woman, Boy, Girl, Infant, Mothers, Wives, Beaten to Death,Tortured to Death, Died Fighting. (Eckert 522-3)

5. MacCrae's fiancee recognized the scalp (his fellow officers physically


restrained him from killing the Indian), the bounty was duly paid, andBurgoyne wished the whole thing had not happened.

6. It is in fact a disaster for him far beyond the human tragedy of JaneMacCrae. If a well-known Tory woman, under the protection of theCrown, was not safe from the Indians with Burgoyne, then no one was. Burgoyne's army therefore represented a direct, deadly, and tangible threatto the life and well-being of every family in up-state New York and theupper New England states. (Mitchell 105, 128)

7. Recruits began pouring in to the Americans to stop Burgoyne. And, undersuch circumstances, where one's very home and loved-ones are directly atrisk, men will fight very hard indeed.

8. The Patriots made certain that the news of Jane MacCrae's death wasspread far and wide.

M. The Battle of Bennington 1. Burgoyne was literally hacking his way through virgin forest. He had

made a terrible choice of traveling 23 miles over very difficult terraininstead of sticking strictly with the longer, but better portage route. (Whyis uncertain; he knew better and had said so in a letter before thecampaign).

2. The small American forces in front of him systematically obstructed hispath, and destroyed everything of value in his path, especially food.

3. By August 11, Burgoyne's shortage of supplies was serious. He dispatched800 men, mostly Hessians to round up food stored at Bennington.

4. The militia that collected to defend Bennington were led by John Stark, aveteran of Rogers' Ranger, Bunker Hill, Trenton and Princeton. Theynumbered about 2,000 (Mitchell 108-9)

5. Stark aggressively attacked the Hessians, and defeated them. Reinforcedwith a further 650 men, the Hessians attempted to retreat under fiercepursuit.

6. The battle is a disaster for Burgoyne. He lost 900 men (to an Americanloss of 30 dead and 40 wounded) (Mitchell 112) Most of his Indians lefthim, and he was no longer strong enough to dare to detach a force toobtain supplies. And the Americans were getting stronger.

N. The Battles of Saratoga.1. Command of the main American force went to Horatio Gates, who was

supposed to be a good soldier, but who was in fact pretty incompetent.2. The real leaders of the American were the subordinate commanders,

Philip Schuyler, Benedict Arnold, Thaddeus Kosciusko, Daniel Morgan. These men, and especially Arnold, won the battles.

3. The Battle of Freeman's Farm 9/19/77a. Burgoyne attempted to outflank the American fortifications

blocking his advance at Bemis Heights. b. Benedict Arnold eventually stirred Gates into allowing Daniel

Morgan attack Burgoyne's column in the forest.c. Arnold and Morgan fought very successfully, nearly breaking the


British line. Hessian reinforcements thrown in at the last minutesaved the battle. Gates did nothing at all, despite repeated andangry pleas from Arnold for reenforcement.

4. The Battle of Bemis Heights 10/7/77a. The repulse at Freeman's Farm led Burgoyne to decide to entrench

and wait for help from Clinton, which wasn't going to come intime. Here, the terrible error of not sending clear instructions toHowe bears bitter fruit for the British.

b. The Americans simply build up their superiority in men (about11,000 to 5,000).

c. A strong reconnaissance in force led to a fight at Fraser's Farm,with Benedict Arnold once again bringing Daniel Morgan'sriflemen in. Arnold ordered Morgan to kill Gen. Simon Fraser,who was conspicuously rallying his men, and Morgan asked hisbest shot, Tim Murphy, to do so. Murphy killed the Britishcommander and the British defense collapsed.(1) British officer casualties in the War were very heavy

indeed. They thought it ungentlemanly to specificallytarget officers. The Americans had learned from theIndians--and they regarded war as a job to get done, not ameans of obtaining personal glory. Later, George S. Pattonexpressed the American attitude by saying, "No son of abitch ever won a war by dying for his country. You win awar by making the other poor son of a bitch die for hiscountry."

d. Arnold followed up the victory at Fraser's Farm by immediatelyattacking the main position, and over-running part of Burgoyne'smain defenses. Arnold was seriously wounded here.

5. Burgoyne's position was hopelessly compromised. He began a retreat, butwas brought to bay on October 17, 1777, and surrendered his entire army,5,700 men to a force now numbering about 20,000 men.

O. The Significance of Saratoga1. The French wished to hurt the British, but did not wish to back a losing

horse.2. The British are sufficiently shocked to attempt a negotiated peace.

a. Carlisle Commission was sent to offer concessions which, twoyears earlier, would have ended the conflict and saved the coloniesfor Britain; but now, after two years of war, it is too late. "Thecommissioners were empowered to offer if necessary all, and morethan all, that had been demanded by the first Continental Congress,provided the Americans would return to their allegiance and acceptparliamentary control of imperial trade. They were instructed tosalvage what elements of British authority they could, but anyterms short of independence might be accepted." (Christie 103)

3. Silas Deane (remember him from the Wethersfield DBQ?) had been sent


to Paris as our ambassador, trying to obtain supplies.4. The French Foreign Minister, the Comte de Vergennes, saw the

Revolution as an opportunity to hurt France's traditional enemy.a. Pierre Beaumarchais (yes, the playwright) provided loans to the

colonies via a dummy corporation, Roderique Hortalez et Cie.5. After the Declaration was issued, Arthur Lee and Benjamin Franklin

were sent by Congress to join Deane.6. Vergennes (understandably) was cautious; he wanted Spanish support and

he wanted assurance that the U.S. could win.7. Saratoga and the Carlisle Commission made Vergennes fear a

reconciliation between Britain and the U.S. This gave Franklin achance to negotiate very favorable treaties.

8. I cannot help but mention Franklin's role here. He was easily the mostfamous American alive, and was lionized by Parisian society. Franklincarefully cultivated his image as a plain rustic man of the people, which ofcourse concealed a very acute and sophisticated intelligence. He was avery experienced negotiator, having been a colonial representative beforethe war. His performance as a diplomat is simply brilliant; the U.S. owesa lasting debt to Franklin for his skill at this critical juncture of our history.a. By the way, while in Paris, he invented daylight savings time and

probably fathered an illegitimate child with a French aristocrat.9. There are actually two treaties signed on 2/6/78:

a. A Treaty of Commerceb. A Treaty of Amity.c. They provide a defensive alliance should Britain declare war on

France (remember this for later).d. Their explicit purpose was to preserve U.S. independencee. Neither side was to make a separate peace with Britain.f. All captured territory was to go to the U.S. France explicitly

renounced all claims to Canada.P. French assistance is essential to U.S. victory. The French alliance is a direct result

of the victory at Saratoga. Therefore, Saratoga is the turning point of theAmerican Revolution.

XVI. Brandywine and GermantownA. While Burgoyne advanced south, Howe decided to advance on Philadelphia from

New York.B. Washington offered battle at Brandywine 9/11/77, with about 11,000 to 15,000 en

to Howe' 15,000 men. (Mitchell-4)1. Washington had a strong position, but Howe's columns maneuvered well

against them, and confusion set in as to what was happening. Washington's reactions were slow. Such confusion is not unusual. The"fog of war" is not an idle phrase. There was some stubborn fighting bySullivan, Greene, and Wayne, but Howe massed 2/3s of his army underCornwallis against 1/3 of Washington's and drove the Americans from thefield.


a. Once again, Washington has been defeated, but once again, hewithdrew his army in good order. So long as he can maintain anarmy in the field, the British cannot defeat him. The proper Britishcourse of action would have been to pursue Washington's armyruthlessly, ignoring all other opportunities, until Washington wasdestroyed. The professional British soldiers did not understandtheir craft as well as Washington did. ("Genius" 8-19)

2. Howe went on to capture Philadelphia. Washington correctly refused topin his army down in a siege defense of Philadelphia, or any other fixedpoint. He could not win a siege engagement. Cities could be lost andwon, but he could not replace his army. In these fundamentals,Washington's judgement is absolutely sound.

C. Germantown1. Washington believed that Howe had weakened his army by detachments

and that he could surprise and defeat him at Germantown. 2. On 10/4/77, Washington attacked Howe with four columns. His plan was

too complex.3. Washington achieved initial surprise, driving back one unit to a stone

farmhouse. Then he erred in not by-passing the farmhouse. The defendersheld out heroically, and this disrupted the American attack.

4. Howe was able to rally and beat back the attack. Again, he wins thisdefensive battle.

5. This battle is only 13 days before Burgoyne's surrender; the news of thisbattle helps influence the French, who were impressed by the resilienceand aggression of Washington's army. (Mitchell 126)

XVII. Valley Forge and MonmouthA. Howe now went into winter quarters in Philadelphia. B. Washington took up winter quarters at nearby Valley forge.

1. This winter is as bad as the mythology portrays.C. Washington was under enormous pressure and criticism from Congress. he was

being unfavorably compared with Horatio Gates, the "hero" of Saratoga.1. He also found himself faced with the Conway Cabal, named for Thomas

Conway, an Irish-French adventurer, and which included Richard HenryLee, Horatio Gates, Thomas Mifflin and Lt. Col. James Wilkinson (aman without redeeming virtues so far as I know; his career is one ofunmitigated shame and betrayal.) The Cabal aimed at supplantingWashington with themselves. They were schemers, backroom backstabbers. (Flexner 108-16)

2. The Conway Cabal collapsed when they achieved control of theCongressional Board of War and attempted direct control of the army. Their sheer incompetence, when compared with Washington's skill andintegrity, led to their failure. "The threat that he [Washington] might beeliminated made Americans visualize the leadership without him. . . . therewas no one else. Washington was recognized as the indispensable man." (Flexner 116)


D. His immediate military problems were severe. The army was ill-fed and ill-clothed. The stories about men without shoes leaving bloody footprints in thesnow are true.

E. He paid for supplies for the army at times out of his own pocket. Heconspicuously shared the hardships of his men. Only his iron will and prodigiousauthority held the army together.

F. Maj. Gen. Baron Friedrich von Steuben (who was not actually a Maj. Gen. nor aBaron) arrived from the Prussian Army of Frederick the Great to help. Frederick'sarmy was renowned as the best in Europe. Steuben was set to work as a drillmaster.1. Von Steuben had to adapt his drill to American conditions, and some of

his observations on the differences between European and Americanrecruits are still valid. Von Steuben respected the Americans. "NoEuropean army, the bogus nobleman pointed out, would have heldtogether under equivalent hardships. 'The genius of this nation,' hewrote a European comrade, 'is not in the least to be compared with thePrussians, the Austrians, or French. You say to your soldier, Dothis, and he doeth it, but I am obliged to say, 'This is the reason youought to do that,' and then he does it.'" (Flexner 118)

2. Von Steuben's drill work produced an army much more able to maneuveron the battlefield. The difference in performance between the Colonials(von Steuben trained regulars) and the militia is notable.

3. Oddly, given the historic reputation of the Prussian army, von Steubenexpected more responsibility and initiative out of junior officers than didthe British; Americans responded well to this attitude. (Mitchell 143)

G. Henry Clinton succeeded William Howe to command, as Howe returned toEngland. Clinton was ordered to evacuate Philadelphia and return to New York. Clinton began to pull out on June 16, 1778

H. Washington ordered Charles Lee, the man who had obstructed orders in NewJersey before being captured (and who was now exchanged; a dirty trick by theBritish) to attack Clinton's long, vulnerable columns.

I. Lee was loud and insulting in his opposition to any such attack on the British,believing Americans to be incapable of standing up to them. Greene, Lafayette,and Wayne were equally determined to fight. Lee received the command onlybecause of his relative rank.

J. On June 28, Lee not only gave no orders to attack, but lost control of themovement of his men. When he ran into the British, Lee promptly lost his nerveand ordered a retreat.

K. Washington approached leading his own column, and was stunned to run acrossconfused and retreating men from Lee's command. He rode ahead to see whatwas wrong. When he saw Lee calmly chatting while his men retreated withoutfighting, he lost his temper spectacularly. The situation became genuinely seriouswhen the British continued to attack toward a disorganized American army. Washington took immediate charge and tried to rescue the botch Lee had madeeven as Clinton attacked. He organized a delaying action, and then a second,


stronger line. The result was a stubborn and inconclusive battle. Clinton won inthat he succeeded in protecting his convoy. The Americans won in that CharlesLee was court-martialed and resigned.1. Having faced the newly trained Continentals under favorable conditions,

Clinton chose to avoid pitched battle with them for the rest of the war. Silent but eloquent testimony to their new battle skills. (Flexner 119-24)

L. Most significantly, Clinton simply returned to New York and stayed there. Washington will observe him and keep him there. The British have given uptrying to reconquer the North. Their effort will shift to the South.

XVIII. The WestA. Joseph Brant brought the Iroquois back into the field in 1778, conducting a

devastating attack on the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania in July and the CherryValley in November. The carnage was awful.

B. Virginia's response to the threat to the frontier was to commission George RogersClark to seize key forts in the Ohio Valley. Indians from that region were raidingthe entire frontier, urged on by the British governor at Detroit, Lt. Col. HenryHamilton, called the "Hair Buyer" for his scalp bounties.1. With less than 200 men, Clark marched overland, and surprised first

Cahokia, then Kaskaskia and last Vincennes, capturing them all. Hamilton recaptured Vincennes, but Clark again marched on Vincennes,under terrible winter conditions, and recaptured Vincennes in February1779.

2. Clark's actions are small scale, but have huge consequences. The shortterm effect is to provide relief for the frontier. The long term effect is togive the U.S. physical control of most of the Northwest Territory. Ourcontrol of Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes is the reason why the U.S.obtained a western border on the Mississippi River. The importance ofpossession of the Northwest Territory for our future can hardly beoveremphasized.

C. Joseph Brant returned to the fight in July 1779, devastating Minisink, New Yorkand ambushing the pursuing militia.

D. At this point, Washington detached one of his most reliable and experiencedgenerals, John Sullivan, with an army of 3,700 men, (mostly Continentals) anddirected him to break the back of the Iroquois Confederation. The objective wasnot so much to kill warriors as to destroy homes and crops.1. Sullivan's campaign is a textbook example of the weakness of the Indian

style of war when faced with determined Europeans. It also demonstratesWashington's thoroughly sound grasp of Indian fighting.

2. Sullivan timed his approach march to reach the heart of the Iroquoisvillages just before harvest.

3. The Iroquois were not nomadic. They had fixed villages and extensivecrops.

4. Sullivan's approach was slow, but careful and irresistible. Only once wasBrant able to offer serious battle. He prepared a brilliant ambush atNewtown on August 27, but Sullivan was no Herkimer, and refused to


walk into it. Instead, he mounted a well-coordinated flanking attack.Sullivan made no mistakes to be exploited. Brant was forced to retreat.

5. The Iroquois people fled before Sullivan's advance, but their crops couldnot. Sullivan systematically burned out the heart of the Iroquois. Thedamage included 50 towns, 200,000 bushels of corn, 50,000 bushels ofvegetables, 10,000 fruit trees killed--all the things necessary to sustain thelives of the 20,000 Iroquois.

6. The immediate consequence is that Brant fled to Canada with his people. The ensuing winter was the coldest in memory. Their winter food andshelter had been destroyed. The British in Canada helped as much as theycould, but the Iroquois suffered horribly in the winter--a large percentageof the total population died of exposure and malnutrition. More important,however, the League itself had been destroyed by Oneida joining theAmericans. The will of the Iroquois League to continue the fight wasbroken. Although Brant (who refused to give up) would burn Canajohariethe next summer, the power of the Iroquois Nation is permanently broken. (Eckert 506-7) (the description of the campaign is from Eckert 322-507)

7. Note that Sullivan waged a systematic, well-thought out war against theentire nation by destroying their economic base. It is a very businesslikeapproach to war (which Americans have tended to display throughout ourhistory). In the 1870s, the U.S. would break the Sioux and the Cheyenneby massacring the buffalo and attacking their winter camps. In the CivilWar, William Tecumseh Sherman would apply this callous, brutal,workmanlike and enormously effective mode of war to the Confederacy. In World War II, the U.S. would systematically bomb German andJapanese cities to rubble.

XIX. War in the SouthA. Clinton besieged Charleston in February 1780.B. The American garrison made the mistake of thinking to defend the city instead of

maintaining freedom of maneuver. The result was a disastrous siege that couldhave only one result. About 5,000 men were captured.

C. Two effective British leaders in South Carolina were Col. Banastre Tarleton andMaj. Patrick Ferguson.1. Tarleton, who raised a body of Tory cavalry, began making himself the

most hated man in South Carolina when he captured and massacred aVirginia cavalry unit at Waxhaws.

2. The fighting in South Carolina turned out to be perhaps the most bitter ofthe war. There was a large number of Tories in South Carolina, and theAmerican Revolution in the South became a civil war, with all the furysuch a war entails.

D. Congress sent Horatio Gates to take command of Virginia militia andContinentals to drive the British out. Gates met British commander Charles,Lord Cornwallis (who had been left in command when Clinton returned to NewYork) at Camden on 8/16/80.1. Gates had 3,050 men to Cornwallis' 2,250, but only 1,000 of the


Americans were Continentals.2. Gates arranged his troops badly, then joined the militia in running away as

fast as he could when they simply melted before British attack (he fled 200miles in 3 days, which is good riding). The Continentals were trapped anddestroyed.a. Camden is among the worst defeats ever sustained by American

arms: with 1,050 American dead and wounded to 324 (that doesnot include the militia who never returned) (Mitchell 171-4)

3. Camden left South Carolina in British handsa. Cornwallis found that he did not have complete control, however.

Bands of guerrillas formed and began harassing his garrisons.(1) These guerrillas were led by Francis Marion (the "Swamp

Fox"), Thomas Sumter, and Andrew Pickens.(2) These men understood guerrilla war very well, and would

later combine with Nathanael Greene to recapture the state.E. King's Mountain (10/7/80) marked the end of Cornwallis' thrust. Fought in

North Carolina, every man involved except the British commander, PatrickFerguson, was American: Whig or Tory.1. The Whigs were mostly Scotch-Irish backwoodsmen, the Tories mostly

Scotch backwoodsmen (I have always been amazed by the loyalty giventhe British Crown by the Scotch after Culloden; the British do not deserveall the blood these magnificent soldiers have shed for them.)

2. Ferguson was killed, and the Tories soundly defeatedF. In January, 1781, Benedict Arnold, now a British general after his famous

betrayal, burned Richmond.G. Washington sent his best commander, Nathanael Greene, south to retake South

Carolina. With him, he sent Daniel Morgan and his riflemen.H. The Battle of Cowpens 1/17/81

1. Cornwallis sent Tarleton with about 1,100 men to catch and destroyMorgan, who had about the same number of men.

2. Morgan chose to fight at the Cowpens, an unusual locations because heput his men in open woods with his back to a river.

3. Morgan left no account of his thinking, but one suspects that heunderstood his militia very well, and in the position he took, his militiacould neither run nor hide.

4. Tarleton attacked straight up the hill. Tarleton was a brave and impetuousman, but Morgan handled his forces exceptionally well, and destroyedTarleton.a. Morgan lost only 70 men killed or wounded. Tarleton lost 930

men of 1,100 engaged. It is a serious loss to Cornwallis' strength.I. Cornwallis stripped his columns of excess baggage, and set out grimly in pursuit

of Morgan. Morgan grimly set out to lure Cornwallis farther and farther north. Morgan linked up with Greene, and Cornwallis pursued them both.1. Greene knew exactly what he was doing. He gathered boats at rivers,

stripped the surrounding countryside of all food and expected that


eventually Cornwallis would have to stop for lack of supply. Then Greenecould counter-attack when Cornwallis was weakest. This is the samestrategy used by Kutusov against Napoleon in 1812.

J. The retreat came to an end when Greene brought Cornwallis to battle at GuildfordCourthouse, which he had selected in advance.1. As at Camden, Greene's militia ran away. But his Continentals did not,

and the battle was exceedingly hard fought. Greene withdrew at the end ofthe day, but Cornwallis had lost 25% of his men. (Mitchell 186-92)

2. As Cornwallis was shifted to Virginia, Greene set out to recapture SouthCarolina. His was a brilliant campaign involving close cooperationbetween his tiny army and the guerrillas, and resulted in resoundingsuccess.

K. Fighting in Virginia1. Benedict Arnold had landed at Petersburg and was destroying a lot of

property. Washington sent the Marquis de Lafayette to face off againsthim.

2. Cornwallis then arrived by sea with reinforcements up to 7,000 men. Heset out to catch and destroy Lafayette.a. Lafayette refused to be caught, and fought a series of skirmishes as

he fell back north.b. Cornwallis gave up trying to move north to catch him, and fell

back to the coast.c. Cornwallis was ordered to send 3,000 men to Portsmouth, Maine.

XX. YorktownA. Cornwallis positioned himself on the Yorktown Peninsula on the James River.

From there, he could be supplied by sea, or could embark for another thrust.1. He had also put himself in a potential trap. Washington saw this

immediately.B. A French fleet with 3,500 soldiers under Adm. de Grasse set sail for the

Chesapeake.C. Washington left a covering force in front of Clinton in New York, with orders to

keep Clinton deceived about where Washington's main force was. Washingtonthen marched south.

D. On 9/5/81 the French fleet under de Grasse defeated the British fleet under theincompetent Adm. Graves. It is Britain's only loss of a fleet engagement in 100years, and it gave the French command of the sea at Chesapeake Bay. Cornwalliscannot leave nor be supplied by sea.

E. On September 16, 1781, Washington had arrived to close the trap. Cornwalliscould not escape by land.1. Washington had 8,850 American and 7,800 French troops under Gen.

Rochambeau with him. Cornwallis had only about 7,000 men.2. Cornwallis decided to stand a formal siege. The French, however, wrote

the book on siegecraft in the 18th century (I mean that literally). This is atype of warfare that was highly scientific in conception if brutal anddangerous in execution. The date of the fall of Yorktown could be


predicted quite precisely.3. Siege lines were dug and advanced. Cornwallis' outer redoubts were

stormed. Cornwallis' situation was militarily hopeless.F. On October 19, 1781, Lord Cornwallis surrendered 7,247 soldiers and 840 seamen

to Washington.G. From a military point of view, the American Revolution was over. There is no

further significant fighting (unless of course, you were involved in theinsignificant fighting.)1. Sir Guy Carleton replaced Clinton in New York and asked for a

suspension of hostilities in 1782.XXI. The Treaty of Paris of 1783

A. After Yorktown, the United States, France, and Great Britain were ready tonegotiate a peace.1. Spain was not. Spain had entered the war to regain Gibraltar and

(obviously) had not attained that goal. They were allied with France, butnot with the United States, which made things a bit awkward.

2. Furthermore, Spain had ambitions in the Mississippi Valley, and wished tolimit the size of the United States.

3. France wanted an independent United States, since that would weakenGreat Britain, her hereditary enemy, but she did not wish the U.S. to be toopowerful.a. Please note that, although the U.S. and France are allies, our goals

are not identical. This is a fundamental fact of coalition warfare,and statesmen or voters forget that only at their peril.

b. Usually (but not always) a coalition will hang together while thewar is going on, based on the common goal of winning the war.

c. Once the war has been won, however, splits can show up andformer allies fight over the spoils.

d. The classic example of this is the origin of the Cold War.e. Alliances are based on commonalty of purpose. Once common

objectives have been fulfilled, the alliance can be expected to breakup. Do not ever trust an alliance beyond the national self interestof each composite member. Sovereign nations will not act contraryto their self interest unless they re forced to do so.

f. It is the task of the statesman to identify those areas of legitimateand fundamental difference between his nation and other nationsand also to identify areas of legitimate agreement. The statesmanwho wishes to avoid war and conflict will work to maximize theareas of agreement and to minimize the areas of conflict. Thiscannot be done, however, unless an honest and frank appraisal isnot first made. The statesman who deludes himself may ruin hisnation.

4. France tended to side with Spain, since Spain was a fellow Europeanpower. If France had to choose between pleasing a great European powerand pleasing a weak nation 3,000 miles away, France would obviously


choose Spain.5. Britain was tired of the war, and the costs of the war.

B. The U.S. Peace Commissioners1. John Adams was our Minister to Great Britain.

a. Adams asked for recognition of U.S. independenceb. He proposed boundaries with the Mississippi on the west, the 31

Parallel and the Flint and St. Mary Rivers on the south, and on thenorth, a line roughly the same as that today between Maine andCanada.

2. The French Foreign Minister, the Comte de Vergennes, disliked Adamsand undercut him.a. Vergennes convinced Congress to dilute Adams' authority by

adding John Jay, Henry Laurens, and Benjamin Franklin to thedelegation.

b. Congress then added the extraordinary instruction that thedelegation should keep Vergennes fully informed and to obtain hisagreement to proposals.(1) In short, Congress placed our treaty negotiations in the

hands of the Foreign Minister of another country!3. Our treaty with France prohibited a separate peace with Britain. If the

Spanish balked, and the French refused to sign without Spain, we werestymied.

4. Vergennes sent a secret envoy to London with suggestions of a boundaryeast of the Mississippi, along the crest of the Appalachians. In otherwords, Vergennes is double-crossing his own allies.

5. Fortunately for the U.S., John Jay suspected this, and spied on the French. He obtained proof, and using this, convinced Franklin and Laurens to quitkeeping Vergennes informed.

6. Jay secretly negotiated with the British.a. The British were reconciled to the loss of the United States. They

preferred to see the U.S. obtain the trans-Appalachian region sincethe U.S. would be pro-free trade (ie, we would trade with GreatBritain) while Spain and France was mercantilist and would try tokeep British merchants out.

7. Jay achieved rapid agreement on Adams' plan, then Franklin presented itas a fait accompli to Vergennes.

8. France did not want to continue the war without the U.S. and now had anexcuse to force the Spanish into agreement. Spain agreed on 9/3/83.

C. The Terms of the Treaty1. Recognition of U.S. independence2. Western boundary on the Mississippi.3. The U.S. were granted the right to fish off Newfoundland, Nova Scotia,

and Labrador, some of the richest fishing grounds in the world.4. Congress was to recommend to the states that they provide restitution to

the Tories.


D. Lessons1. The U.S. succeeded in gaining a treaty far more favorable than our power

warranted by playing one European power off against another.2. One can see the beginning of American isolationism in the discrepancy

between our interests and those of Europeans.a. Washington would later enunciate the idea of "no entangling

alliances"b. Paine had already sketched this idea in Common Sense.c. John Quincy Adams would later develop the idea of separate

spheres when he wrote the Monroe Doctrine.d. The idea is that our system, our interests, are distinct from

Europe's; we should not become enmeshed in their problems.


Works Cited

"The Call for Independence: Thomas Paine, 'Common Sense' (1776) Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. NewYork: Norton, 1975. 270-83.

Christie, I. R. Crisis of Empire: Great Britain and the American Colonies 1754-1783. NewYork: W.W. Norton, 1966.

Cummins, D. Duane and White, William Gee. The American Revolution. Beverly Hills, CA: Benzinger Press, 1973.

Degler, Carl. Out of Our Past: The Forces That Shaped Modern America. 3rd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1984.

Eckert, Allan W. The Wilderness War. New York: Bantam, 1978 [A note on books by Allan W. Eckert. You will see them sold as fiction. They are not. They are written as if theywere a fictional narrative, but every incident and conversation is based on documentaryevidence, and they are heavily footnoted.]

Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man. New York: Signet, 1984.

Freehling, William. The Road to Disunion: Secessionists at Bay 1776-1854. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1990.


"Independence Moved in Congress: Richard Henry Lee, Resolves for Independence (June 7, 1776). Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the AmericanRevolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 284-5

Mitchell, Lt. Col. Joseph B. Decisive Battles of the American Revolution. Greenwich, CN: Fawcett, 1962.

Morgan, Edmund S. The Genius of George Washington. New York: Norton, 1977.

"'Resolved To Dye Free-Men Rather Than Live Slaves': Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms (July 6, 1775)" Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 255-9.

"'That These United Colonies Are, and of Right Ought To be Free and Independent States'; TheDeclaration of Independence (July 4, 1776). Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: ADocumentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 297-301.


"Thomas Paine, 'The American Crisis'" Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary Historyof the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 406-8.

Wright, Benjamin Fletcher. Consensus and Continuity 1776-1787. New York: Norton, 1958


Works Consulted

Bailey, Thomas A., Kennedy, David M. The American Pageant. 7th Ed. Lexington,Massachusetts: D.C. Heath, 1983.

Bailyn, Bernard. Faces of Revolution: Personalities and Themes in the Struggle for American Independence. New York: Random House, 1992.

Bailyn, Bernard, Dallek, Robert, Davis, David Brion, Donald, David Herbert, Thomas, John L., Wood, Gordon S. The Great Republic: A History of the American People. 4th Ed.Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1992.

Blum, John M., Morgan, Edmund S., McFeely, William S., Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M., Stampp, Kenneth M., and Woodward, C. Vann. The National Experience: A History of theUnited States. 6th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985.

Boyer, Paul S.; Clark, Clifford Jr.; Kett, Joseph F.; Purvis, Thomas; Sitkoff, Harvard; Woloch, Nancy. The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People. New York: D.C.Heath. 1990.

Current, Richard N., Williams, T. Harry, Freidel, Frank, and Brinkley, Alan. American History: A Survey. 6th Ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983.

Morgan, Edmund S. The Birth of the Republic 1763-89. Rev. Ed Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.


Scheer, George and Rankin, Hugh F. Rebels and Redcoats. New York: Mentor, 1957.

Tindall, George Brown and Shi, David E. America: A Narrative History. 3rd Ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 1992.

Wood, Gordon S. The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787. New York: Norton,1969.

Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,1992.

The Critical Period

I. The Land OrdinancesA. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 are the

greatest achievements of under the Articles of Confederation. They are largelyderived from Jefferson's original proposal.


B. Land Ordinance of 17851. Based on Jefferson's draft of 1784.

a. He proposed that several states be admitted on an equal basis whenthe free population equaled any one of the original states.

b. He proposed self-government until admission.2. The ordinance provided for the survey of townships of 6 miles square.

a. This would give 36 sections of one square mile each.b. Section 16 would be sold to provide for a school.c. 4 sections would belong to the U.S. d. The price would be at least $1.00 in gold / acre with the minimum

unit to be a section, or $240 / acre in gold. This provision wasstrongly favorable to speculators, since most small landholders didnot have that much money in gold.

3. Speculators formed the Ohio and Scioto Companies. They offeredCongress 10¢/acre for 1,500,000 acres, payable in paper.a. despite the violation of the ordinance this price entailed, Congress

accepted the offer.C. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787

1. This reflects in some ways the interests of the speculators.2. The speculators were afraid of the threat to property rights (read that, their

property rights since they would have formal title to the land) fromsquatters (read that, settlers who have actually cleared the land and areliving on it). Squatters had a reputation for violence and murder,especially toward wealthy Easterners who showed up at a cabin they hadbuilt and fields they had cleared and defended, as proven by the graves oftheir family which they had dug, to tell them that they land wasn't theirs, itbelonged to someone they had never seen who had bought it from alegislature they had never seen. Since the squatters were well-armed,short-tempered, and not especially tender hearted, these fears are perhapswell-founded.

3. Therefore, Congress was to govern the territory, instead of Jefferson's self-government, which would have placed political power in the hands of thesmall farmers actually on the spot.a. Congress was to appoint a governor, secretary and 3 judges.b. The governor would head the government until the population

reached 5,000.c. When the population reached 5,000, the territory could elect an

assembly. The governor would retain the power to veto bills, andthe assembly could send a non-voting representative to Congress.

d. When the population reached 60,000, the assembly could draw upa constitution, and then submit a petition to Congress foradmission to the Union on a basis of complete equality.

4. The Northwest Territory was to provide 3-5 states (not the 10 statesenvisioned by Jefferson).

5. Slavery in the Northwest Territory was forbidden


6. Public schools were provided for.7. Freedom of religion was guaranteed.

D. Their Importance1. Provided for the orderly rule of the West

a. cf the uncertainty that led to the State of Franklin.2. Created a government similar to the British colonial system, but

a. Set a definite limit to the period of subordination and provided foreventual equal status.

3. Provided an orderly process for expansion.4. The system was applied to nearly all regions absorbed by the U.S.5. Imposed the typical checkerboard look to the Midwest.6. Underscored the importance of public education in the U.S. by requiring

public schools.7. Established the precedent that Congress could bar slavery in a territory

which it governed.E. These ordinances are very wise in their long range effects. Although they were

not as good as Jefferson hoped, their strengths far outweigh their weaknesses.II. Western Tensions

A. Weakness of the national government encouraged other governments to takeadvantage of us.1. Great Britain

a. Never evacuated the 7 military posts in the Northwest Territory(1) Their excuse was that the states had not provided restitution

for the Tories whose property had been confiscated duringthe Revolutionary War.

(2) This was true but irrelevant, since the Treaty of Paris didnot obligate the US to provide restitution, but only that thenational government would request the states to providerestitution. The US had complied with the treaty.

(3) Great Britain, from Canada, stirred up Indian tribes againstthe US by providing weapons and encouragement.

(4) The lack of US military power made it impossible tocompel the British to withdraw in accordance to their treatyobligations.

b. Great Britain refused to establish a reciprocal legation, which madenegotiations difficult and implied a lack of respect.

c. Great Britain conspired with Ethan and Levi Allan of the GreenMountain Boys to acquire Vermont.

2. Spaina. Spain won back the Gulf coast and Florida by the Treaty of Paris.b. Spain did not recognize our territory south of the Ohio River and

west of the Appalachians. They coveted this territory themselves.c. Conspired to seize the east bank of the Mississippi River.d. Settlers in Kentucky and Tennessee relied on the Mississippi River

to float produce to market at New Orleans. For these settlers, the


Mississippi River is their economic lifeblood.e. Spain controlled the entire west bank to St. Louis and the east bank

to Memphis. They could therefore close the Mississippi at will toUS settlers.

f. Spain's expectation of growing trade in the trans-Mississippi regionled her to cut off navigation rights (the right of deposit) in hopesthat the settlers would yield to economic pressures and split fromthe fledgling US and join with Spain.

g. This objective is made more probable by problems inadministering the territories--ie the imposition of state governmentcentered east of the Appalachians on settlers who desired self-government. The result is secessionist sentiment.(1) The brief creation of the State of Franklin illustrates

this.h. Jay-Gardoqui Treaty

(1) Don Diego Gardoqui sent in 1785 to the US(2) He refused the right of navigation asked by Jay(3) Instead he offered to recognize our boundaries in the west

and to give merchants in the east new trading privilegeswith the Spanish Empire.(a) Recognition of the western boundaries without the

right of deposit was meaningless.(4) Westerners felt betrayed.(5) 7 Northern states voted to ratify the treaty(6) It does not receive sufficient votes to be ratified.(7) The whole episode is another piece in a long history of

East/West tensions:(a) Bacon's Rebellion(b) The Paxton Boys(c) The Regulator War(d) State of Franklin

i. Spanish intrigue(1) The Spanish governor of Louisiana wood General James

Wilkinson to lead Tennessee to Spain.(a) Wilkinson is beginning a long career of betrayal.

3. The Barbary Piratesa. The Barbary Pirates, who occupied the North African littoral, begin

attacking the US flag.b. The Barbary Pirates had plied their trade for centuries. It had

proven expedient for European powers to pay bribes for protectionrather than fight them. Until our independence, British bribesand/or the Royal Navy had protected Americans. Obviously, thatprotection is now withdrawn.

c. The US bought protection in 1787.d. We will eventually go to war with the Barbary Pirates during


Jefferson's administration.III. Foreign Trade

A. Loss of British trade1. There was some free-trade sentiment in England, the forerunners of

England's free trade policies of the 19th century. They are a minority atthis time however. Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations in 1776and he has not yet achieved dominance within English economic thinking.

2. Loss of bounties for naval stores and indigo hurts North and SouthCarolina hard.

3. There was a labor shortage in the 1780's in the South anyway as a result ofthe seizure of slaves during the war.

4. British Orders in Council in 1783 barred American meat, fish, and dairyproducts from the West Indies, thus severing an extremely important partof American trade.a. The effects of this were mitigated to some degree by smuggling

(with the collusion of West Indian authorities, who still neededAmerican food and lumber) or temporary permits issued by WestIndian governors under their emergency powers (such emergenciesoccurring with surprising frequency)

5. Shipbuilding slumps as British merchants cancel orders.6. At the very least, our new position outside the British Empire requires

American merchants to find new markets. Under the best ofcircumstances, this would take time, and would entail disruption andshort-term hardship. From this point of view, the Revolution did not makegood economic sense.

7. Parliament, in addition to cutting off our trade with the British Empire,chooses to build up exports to the United States in order to win a positionof economic dominance. They hoped to win economically what they hadlost militarily.

8. Accordingly, British merchants flooded the US with cheap manufacturedgoods (to be fair, they were not only cheaper but qualitatively better thananyone else's).

9. The trend is aggravated by pent-up post-war demand for British products.10. Balance of payments becomes very bad.

B. Congress fails to block the unimpeded flow of British imports to the country.1. A tariff, or impost required unanimous approval, which was never

achieved.2. When some states passed an impost, the British entered the market by

another state.3. Failure to pass the impost (by votes of 11-2 and 12-1 with Rhode Island

voting nay both times) points out the need to revise the articles since thegreat majority of the states wished to expand the national authority butcould not do so.

4. Stubborn and small pockets of resistance such as Rhode Island couldthwart the will of the majority.


IV. Inflation and DeflationA. There was a post-war depression in the 1780's

1. The failure to pay war debts hurt the economy2. There were some crop failures, a rare occurrence in US history3. The states, in the face of depression, were very reluctant to meet Congress'

requisitions. At the same time, many of them levied heavy property taxesto pay off their debts. Other states resorted to the printing press.

4. Fundamentals of inflation and deflation.a. Let us illustrate the problem of inflation and deflation by supposing

a farmer in a base year who farms 100 acres and produces 100bushels of wheat, which he sells at $1.00 per bushel. The price ofwheat is now $1.00. The price of a dollar is a bushel of wheat. Please note that the equation goes in both directions.

b. 1770 100 acres = 100 bu =$100.00c. 1780 100 acres = 100 bu = $200.00d. 1790 100 acres = 100 bu = $ 50.00e. Let us suppose that the money supply doubles from 1770 to 1780--

which is what might happen if the government produces a lot ofpaper money. If the supply of wheat remains constant, but thesupply of money doubles, the value of money will go down. Thisis the effect of the law of supply and demand. In this case, thevalue of wheat (which is the farmer's commodity) doubles ($1.00to $2.00) and the value of money (which is the bank's commodity)halves. This is inflation. The money supply is increasing.

f. Let us suppose that the money supply now contracts to half thelevel of 1170. This is what might happen if paper money iswithdrawn and specie only (gold or silver) is used. Now the valueof wheat is halved (1 bu = $ .50) and the value of money is doubles($1.00 = 2 bu ). This is the effect of deflation. The supply ofmoney has contracted.

g. Let us further suppose that the farmer held a mortgage that costhim $25.00 a year in 1770. Mortgages are long term loans, usuallyat a fixed rate of interest. In the base year, 1770, the farmer mustdevote 25% of his annual income to paying the mortgage. In 1780,he needs only devote 12.5% of his income to his mortgage. In1790, however, he must devote 50% of his income to his mortgage.

h. Inflation tends to benefit debtors of all kinds. Farmers are typicallydebtors. Politically, they tended to prefer inflationary monetarypolicies. We will see this during the Articles of Confederationperiod, in the late 1820s, the mid-1830s, throughout the post-CivilWar Gilded Age, and during the Great Depression. This is anenduring theme in US history and is worth an essay.

i. Deflation tends to benefit creditors of all kinds. In this timeperiod, merchants and speculators are typically creditors. Later,banks will fulfill that role. They will consistently support "hard-


money" policies--ie use of specie only--which tends to bedeflationary, since the supply of gold and silver does not usuallymatch the growth of the economy.

B. Effect of the depression1. States pressed by debtors to print paper2. States pressed by debtors to pass laws favorable to debtors3. War-time paper had become worthless.

C. Attempts to restore credit1. Some states imposed heavy taxes and restrict paper2. Combined with depression and increased imports, causes deflation.3. Debtors cried for relief.4. Stay laws, which made it harder to collect debts, passed.

D. State issues of money1. South Carolina, New York, Pennsylvania issued paper money from 1785-6

and handled them well (enough paper to give relief, but not so much as soseriously devalue the currency).

2. Georgia, North Carolina, New Jersey handled their issues badly andfailed.

3. Rhode Island's disastera. The public lost all confidence in their issueb. Creditors refused to accept worthless paper.c. Even Congress, which desperately needed the money, refused

Rhode Island's money.d. Rhode Island passed a law fining a creditor who refused to accept

ite. Creditors began to flee the state to avoid being paid!f. In Trevett v. Weedon the Rhode Island Supreme Court strikes

down the law protecting creditors--the first law declaredunconstitutional

g. The situation alarms conservatives around the country.V. Shays' Rebellion

A. Massachusetts legislature levied heavy taxes 1. Merrill Jensen estimated that western farmers paid 33% of their income in

taxes.2. The tax burden added to depression and deflation equaled foreclosures and

men imprisoned for debt.3. Speculators had bought up bonds which were being paid by the heavy

direct taxes.4. Farmers demanded paper money.5. The legislature, following sound business practices, and controlled by

merchant interest from the Eastern counties, refused.B. Daniel Shays, summer 1786, leads a rebellion which demanded

1. paper money2. moratorium on debts3. removal of the state capital to interior


4. end of imprisonment for debt5. prevented collection of debts by armed force (ie. a threat to property)

C. Militia raised by subscription by wealthy merchants1. Threat to law and order and to property alarms many2. "liberty must not become an excuse for license"--cf John Milton3. Reaction to Rhode Island debacle and to Shays fosters nationalism.4. Notice that the reaction to Bacon's Rebellion, the Paxton Boys, and the

Regulator War was not as severe.VI. Continentally-minded Men

A. Continentally-minded persons warned that the nation, suffering fromhumiliation in foreign policy and internal weakness was threatened withcollapse.1. Opposition to a stronger government motivated by fear that a

stronger government might be aristocratic or tyrannical, andthreaten the principles of equality and republicanism for which theRevolution had been fought.

B. Mount Vernon Conference: meeting of representatives from Va. and Md. tosettle a dispute over navigation of the Potomac, meeting at Washington's home.1. James Madison issues a call for the Annapolis Convention to discuss

interstate commerce.C. Annapolis Convention:

1. Only 5 states show up.2. Alexander Hamilton introduced a proposal that Congress call a

convention of special delegates to "render the constitution of the Federalgovernment adequate to the exigencies of the union."

3. Shays' Rebellion generated strong support for the convention.VII. The Constitutional Convention

A. All but Rhode Island sends delegatesB. Washington was elected PresidentC. Persons conspicuously not present

1. Thomas Jefferson, ambassador to France2. John Adams, ambassador to England3. Patrick Henry, Sam Adams, and Tom Paine, refused to attend since they

suspected that the convention would tear up the Articles. This is apolitical mistake; by refusing to participate, they forfeit all power toinfluence the shape of the Constitution.

D. The Founding Fathers:1. Young (average 44 years, going to 42 if Franklin is not included.2. Very sophisticated politically, both as students of political theory and

history and as practicing politicians with an understanding of the realitiesof political power.

3. Model was the Roman Republic, but keenly aware of how the RomanRepublic had been overthrown by tyrants.

E. Points of Agreement1. Wanted a federal system of government.


2. Wanted a republican model of government for both the state and federalgovernment.

3. No single group withing society should have unrestricted authority.a. separation of powersb. checks and balancesc. power must be divided and balanced: "Power corrupts; absolute

power corrupts absolutely."4. They decided that the Articles could not just be revised, as they had

been instructed by Congress. Instead, they chose to write anentirely new Constitution.a. This is justified because their decisions were not binding.

They first would have to submit the Constitution to theCongress with a recommendation that it recommend that itbe submitted to the states for ratification. Then, theConstitution would have to be ratified by the statesindividually.

VIII. Powers Granted the Federal GovernmentA. Right to levy taxesB. Right to regulate interstate tradeC. Right to raise and maintain an army and navyD. Power to summon state militiaE. States were deprived of the right to

1. Issue money2. Make treaties3. Tax either imports or exports without Congressional approval

(which, so far as I know, has never been granted)F. Match up these powers with the weaknesses of the Articles of

Confederation!!!!!!!!G. There was little debate over this massive shift of power from the state to the

federal level.IX. The Issue of Who Shall Control the Federal Government?

A. Note that the issue is not one of which powers to grant the government, but ofwhere the focus of power should be--that is essentially a political question, notan economic one.

B. The Virginia Plan1. Drafted by James Madison2. Submitted by Edmund Randolph3. National Legislature

a. Representation by populationb. Lower house elected by the people directlyc. Upper house nominated by the state assemblies and elected by the

lower house.d. Congress to be given the power to legislatee. Congress to be given the power to veto state laws.

4. National Executive chosen by the National Legislature


5. National Judiciary also chosen by the National Legislature.6. The National Legislature would therefore have powers approximating the

powers of Parliament, and would resemble a unified system7. The plan rested the government on the people, not the states, since the

legislature is apportioned by population not by state. This is of somesignificance in the future debate on the nature of the Union: a compact ornot.

C. The New Jersey Plan1. Proposed by William Paterson2. Unicameral Legislature

a. Equal apportionment by stateb. Legislature to be given power to impose an import duty, regulate

interstate trade and foreign trade.c. Members to be elected by the state assemblies.

3. Plural executive (on the Roman model) also elected by Congress.4. A National Judiciary appointed by the Executive 5. Acts of the National Legislature are "supreme law" of all the states.

D. The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)1. Proposed by Roger Sherman2. Bi-Cameral Congress

a. Lower house elected by the people and apportioned by population: the House of Representatives

b. Upper house selected by the state legislatures and apportionedequally by state: the Senate.

E. Three-Fifths Compromise1. The North believed that slaves should be counted as property for direct

taxes.2. The South wanted them included in calculating population.3. 3/5's of the slaves would be counted for both purposes.4. This was a victory for the South since no direct taxes were passed until

prior to the Civil War. In the meantime, the South benefitted from theextra votes (Jefferson was elected by virtue of the extra votes)

F. Compromise over the Slave Trade1. Congress cannot outlaw the slave trade until 1808, and in the meantime

has restricted power to tax the trade.2. After 1808, all restrictions were lifted; it was tacitly understood that

Congress would likely ban the trade altogether, which is what actuallyhappened. The U.S. became the first nation in the world to outlaw theAfrican slave trade (by a few months; Parliament passed a law earlierbanning it, but their bill did not take effect until after the US bill did.)

G. Commerce Compromise1. Taxes on exports are banned--a victory for Southern interests2. South drops a demand for a 2/3 majority in order to pass a law regulating

foreign commerce--now a tariff can be passed by a simple majority.H. Other Provisions


1. The House of Representatives given sole right to initiate a revenue bill2. Senate must approve treaties3. Creation of a powerful president

a. Washington would obviously be the first President, and hischaracter and integrity eased the fears of a powerful executive.

4. An Electoral College to choose the President5. Creation of a National Judiciary

I. Checks and Balances1. Separation of legislative, executive, and judicial powers2. Presidential veto3. Congress may override that veto by a 2/3 majority4. Congress has the power to impeach5. Senate has the power to ratify treaties and appointments6. judicial review7. Congress declares war but the President is Commander-in-Chief.

X. Ratification of the ConstitutionA. The Convention proposed that special conventions ratify the Constitution.

1. Followed the example of Massachusetts when it drafted a new stateconstitutiona. If the Constitution were ratified by the state legislatures, then it

would be a creature of the legislature, and could be altered bythem.

b. If the Constitution were ratified by the people meeting in specialstate conventions, then it would be a creature of the people andcould be altered only by them.

2. Each ratifying convention must be called by the state legislature.B. Federalists versus Antifederalists

1. Federalists favored ratification2. Antifederalists opposed ratification3. David Ramsay: takes the view that most Americans was the need for an

"energetic" national government.4. Antifederalists believed in local autonomy

a. Local autonomy does not necessarily mean that they believed inequal rights in our sense of the word for all locals.

5. Cecilia Kenyon argues that "the Antifederalists were as muchantimajoritarians as the Federalists, and shared a common Whig mistrustof governmental power--legislative as well as executive. TheAntifederalists believed, however, that a successful republic must begeographically small and composed of a homogeneous population . . . .What ultimately distinguished the Antifederalists from the Federalists wastheir lack of faith in the ability of Americans to create and sustain arepublic continental in size." {G&B I 159)

6. Prominent Antifederalistsa. Patrick Henryb. Edmund Randolph


c. George Clintond. Richard Henry Lee

7. Federalists agreed to add amendments guaranteeing the civil liberties ofthe people.a. With this concession, much of the opposition evaporated.b. James Madison opposed a Bill of Rights in the fear that such a Bill

would serve to limit rights to those enumerated. However, hedecided to compose them himself if they must be written. The Billof Rights has not, in fact, served to limit personal rights but tojustify the increase of rights.

C. Ratification1. Constitution ratified quickly by Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,

Georgia, and Connecticut, or 5 of the 9 necessary for ratification.2. First tight vote was Massachusetts, where the Bill of Rights won over even

Sam Adams. Massachusetts ratifies.3. Three more states quickly follow: Maryland, South Carolina, and New

Hampshire. This now makes now and officially ratifies the Constitution.4. Realistically, the union cannot possibly survive if Massachusetts,

Pennsylvania, New York and Virginia do not ratify the Constitution. Attention now shifts to New York and Virginia.

5. New Yorka. The Antifederalists controlled the state convention.b. In order to convince a skeptical public and convention, Alexander

Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison write a series of essaysentitled the Federalist Papers.

c. The Tenth Federalist, written by Madison, is especially important.d. The essays are revered by political theorists but ironically probably

had little effect on the New York convention.e. Alexander Hamilton (despite his refusal to sign the Constitution

and his misgivings over it) throws himself into the struggle forratification. He becomes a one-man army.(1) He debated every single clause of the Constitution, clause

by clause, on the floor.(2) He button holed delegates, and lobbied them tirelessly

outside of session.(3) He deliberately dragged out the proceedings until word was

reached from Virginia.(4) In Virginia, the opposition of Patrick Henry, Richard Henry

Lee, and Edmund Randolph was overcome by JamesMadison and above all, the enormous prestige and supportof George Washington. Virginia's ratification weakensopposition in New York.

(5) As a result of Hamilton's herculean efforts, New Yorkratifies.

f. North Carolina delayed ratification until 1789. Rhode Island


(naturally) delayed until 1790.XI. Douglas Adair: "That Politics May be Reduced to a Science" Huntington Library

Quarterly 20(1957) 343-60.A. Study of Madison's Tenth FederalistB. Madison was influenced by David HumeC. Montesquieu observed the role of a great leader as a symbol of unity.D. This leader usually succumbed to the temptations of power.

1. Caesar2. Cromwell3. Napoleon4. It is a measure of Washington's greatness that he did not succumb.

E. Hume argued that a leader did not necessarily succumb.F. "Hume's analysis here had turned the small-territory republic theory upside down:

if a free state could once be established in a large area, it would be stable and safefrom the effects of faction."

G. In order to protect minorities from the tyranny of the majority, indirect electionswere used.

H. However in a republic, "the majority, however composed, ultimately give thelaw."

I. Madison saw the multiplicity of different interests acting to prevent any particularinterest from dominating.1. Interests might be sectional, economic, religious, political, ethnic. For

example, North/South; East/West; debtor/creditor; farmer/city dweller; bigland holder/small farmer; rich/poor; Protestant/Catholic; nativeborn/immigrant; Democrat/Republican.

XII. Carl Degler on labels (Out of Our Past 92-110A. Warning about labelsB. "Radicals" in 1770's

1. looked for independence 2. included Sam Adams, Tom Paine, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson

C. "Conservatives" in 1776 wished a reconciliation on the lines of status quo antebellum1. included Robert Morris, John Dickenson, Joseph Galloway

D. "Radicals" in 1780's (Beard's terminology)1. Believed that centralization endangered local control and threatened

freedom; therefore they supported the Articles of Confederation. "Freegovernment inhered in local control and the supremacy of the states."

2. included George Clinton, Patrick Henry, Sam Adams, ie theAntifederalists

E. "Conservatives" believed that centralization was objectionable because it wasBritish and not American authorities who undertook it. They supported theConstitution.1. Included George Washington, John Jay, James Madison, John Adams,

Alexander Hamilton; ie the Federalists.F. Note that "Conservatives" in the 1780's worked for a strong central government--a


departure, not "conserving." A strong central government was actually a radicalinnovation in the way in which Americans had run their government.

G. Note that "Radicals" tended to support "state recognition of some religion.""Conservatives" took the extremely original position that "a man's religion isirrelevant to government."

H. "Radicals" and "Conservatives" in the 1790's both accept the Constitution asbeyond debate. There is now societal consensus on a fundamental issue.

I. "Radicals" in the 1790's included Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and werestrict constructionists.

J. "Conservatives" in the 1790's included Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, andwere loose constructionists.

K. But how do you reconcile "loose" and "strict" with "conservative" and "radical" if"conservative" and "radical" are to retain their original meanings? And if they donot retain their original meanings, then one must continually redefine them, andthe label per se means little.

L. How is it that John Adams was a radical in 1770, a conservative in 1780 and1790. How is Madison a conservative in 1780 and a radical in 1790? Did thesemen change their views? Actually, they did not. It is our labels which isinadequate.


Works Cited


Works Consulted

Bailey, Thomas A., Kennedy, David M. The American Pageant. 7th Ed. Lexington,Massachusetts: D.C. Heath, 1983.

Bailyn, Bernard, Dallek, Robert, Davis, David Brion, Donald, David Herbert, Thomas, John L.,Wood, Gordon S. The Great Republic: A History of the American People. 4th Ed. Lexington,MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1992.

Blum, John M., Morgan, Edmund S., McFeely, William S., Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M.,Stampp, Kenneth M., and Woodward,C. Vann. The National Experience: A History of theUnited States. 6th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985.

Boyer, Paul S.; Clark, Clifford Jr.; Kett, Joseph F.; Purvis, Thomas; Sitkoff, Harvard; Woloch,Nancy. The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People. New York: D.C. Heath. 1990.

Current, Richard N., Williams, T. Harry, Freidel, Frank, and Brinkley, Alan. AmericanHistory: A Survey. 6th Ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983.

Degler, Carl. Out of Our Past: The Forces That Shaped Modern America. 3rd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1984.

Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man. New York: Signet, 1984.


Morgan, Edmund S. The Birth of the Republic 1763-89. Rev. Ed. Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1977.




Wood, Gordon S. The Creation of the American Republic, 1776- 1787. New York: Norton,1969.

Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,1992.

Wright, Benjamin Fletcher. Consensus and Continuity 1776-1787. New York: Norton, 1958


The Washington Administrations

I. Organization of Washington's AdministrationA. Washington was the unanimous choiceB. John Adams was his Vice PresidentC. Qualities in office

1. firm2. dignified3. cautious4. deeply aware that he would establish precedents for the future.5. Believed that a President should not propose legislation, that he should

stay above specific questions, should use the veto only if a bill wereunconstitutional.

D. Widespread loyalty to the Constitution could not have been achieved so quicklyhad it not been for his extraordinary popularity, rooted in his extraordinarycharacter.

E. First Cabinet1. Alexandere Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury2. Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State3. Henry Knox, Secretary of War4. Edmund Randolph, Attorney General5. Washington instituted the cabinet system and cabinet meetings.6. he consulted his cabinet frequently, but he also often involved himself in

administrating, especially in the State Department.7. Washington is very unique, to the point of being totally unique in his

willingness to tolerate disparate opinions within his cabinet. a. His technique was to allow the cabinet to debate an issue

thoroughly as a means of making up his mind.b. He was slow to make a decision (which frustrated Jefferson), but

once he had made a decision, he was immovable.c. This is not an indication of obduracy. The fact is that his

judgement was remarkably sound.d. I do not know of a single significant error of judgement which

Washington made as President. Considering how severe hisproblems were, that is a stunning achievement.

8. The longer I teach American History, and the more I know of Washington,the greater my admiration and respect. He is an even greater man than Iwas brought up to believe.

9. Thomas Flexnor is fully justified in entitling his biography, TheIndispensible Man.

II. The Judiciary Act of 1789A. Created 13 district courtsB. Created 3 circuit courts of appealC. Created 6 Supreme Court Justices


1. John Jay was the first Chief Justice.III. The Bill of Rights

A. James Madison composed the Bill of Rights, even though he feared that such aBill of Rights would effectively limit rights, not protect them.1. The Bill of Rights was a condition of ratification in some states. Madison

is fulfilling a promise.B. This is not a government class; I will approach them from a historical perspective.

Some of them are more important to this class than others.1. First Amendment: Congress shall make no law infringing upon freedom

of speech, press, religion, assembly. This is the most basic of all ourrights.

2. Fourth Amendment: Freedom from unreasonable searches. Note thaexplicit rejection of writs of assistance.

3. Fifth Amendment: No man may be deprived of life, liberty, or propertywithout due process. This is next only to the First Amendment infundamental importance. No man may be compelled to testify againsthimself.

4. Sixth Amendment: Triai by jury is guaranteed.5. Powers not delegated to the federal government, nor denied to the states,

are reserved to the states or to the people.C. The Bill of Rights is unlike the English Bill of Rights in that it is more inclusive.

In addition, the English Bill of Rights is an act of Parliament and can therefore berevoked or modified by Parliament.

IV. Problems Faced by the Federal GovernmentA. Collapse of the financial structureB. Disruption of commerce as a result of independenceC. Threat from the British, the Spanish, and the Indians.

V. Alexander HamiltonA. My conviction is that, next to Washington, Hamilton is the greatest of the

Founding Fathers (I am not a great fan of Jefferson).B. Much of the following discussion is taken from an article by Saul K. PadoverC. Of all the outstanding Founding Fathers, Hamilton is the least glorified

1. Admired conservatives2. Attacked by liberals

D. Contradictions1. Lifelong believer in monarchy as the best form of government

a. Fought for adoption of the federal Constitution2. Tended to have contempt for democracy

a. Gave the Republic devoted supportE. View of Jefferson in 1818: "Hamilton was, indeed, a singular character. Of acute

understanding, disinterested, honest, and honorable in all private transactions,amiable in society, and duly valuing virtue in private life, yet so bewitched andperverted by the British example, as to be under thorough conviction tha5tcorruption was essential to the government of a nation." (246)

F. Hamilton's reputation as a reactionary derived from a speech at the Constitutional


Convention1. Proclaimed that the British monarchical-aristocratic system, because it was

so corrupt, was the "most perfect government which ever existed."G. Central to Hamilton's thought was the conception of Man as a corrupt, selfish

animal motivated by the worst passions.1. An underlying democratic belief is confidence in the virtue and potential

of Man, especially "perfectibility through education"--Jefferson's firmbelief.

2. Since human passions were a fact of Nature--which therefore could not bechanged--he believed that one must recognize them as such and harnessthem for useful political ends.

3. "Take mankind in general, they are vicious, their passions may beoperated upon . . . . Take mankind as they are, and what are they governedby? Their passions. . . . Our prevailing passions are ambition andinterest; and it will ever be the duty of a wise government to avail itself ofthe passions, in order to make them subservient to the public good; forthese ever induce us to action."

4. His generalizations about human nature applied to all men, Hamilton madedistinctions between the "Few" and the "Many" or "the rich, the well-born,the able" vs. the "masses"a. The masses were "turbulent, uncontrollable", driven only by blind

passion, and could not be trusted with the power of government. They are selfish, but are not capable of exercising enlightenedself-interest.

b. The few were equally motivated by greed, selfishness, andself-interest, but had enough sense and education to see that theirbest interests lay in using political power responsibly.(1) Personally disliked "money men" and was scrupulously

honest in his public affairs; he once denied the allegationof an improper friendship with a wealthy man (by which heallegedly was gaining financially) by confessing to havingan affair with the man's wife--thereby admitting a privatevice to protect his reputation for public integrity

c. Nevertheless thought that the wealthy were "safer" with power.d. Believed that their loyalty to the new government would be won

through economic advantages.H. Hamilton's objectives

1. "The creation of a unified nation"a. Political weakness, local intrigues, and disunity outraged him

2. "The establishment of a centralized government with power to defendproperty and to maintain order in the face of potentially turbulent radicalforces."

I. Proposals1. The rich should be given a "distinct permanent share in government" to

keep future democracy in check


a. A permanent Senateb. Executive for life

(1) Chosen indirectly by electors from each state(2) Chosen from economically superior individuals in the

community2. Believed that the public's hostility to class government would diminish

when they saw it would be to their advantage3. Masses were never to be totally powerless or voteless4. To pacify people, let them elect the lower House5. Believed that only the rich would know what was best for the masses,

since the rich had the opportunities to travel and study.6. These Hamiltonian ideas--a kind of aristocratic republicanism--was not

acceptable to the Constitutional Convention, and indeed, not acceptable toAmericans as a whole.

J. Reasons for Hamilton's support for the Constitution1. Nothing better offered2. Upper classes could still shape it to their advantage

K. Actions supporting the Constitution1. Of the 85 Federalist Papers, Hamilton wrote 51 individually, 3 in

collaboration with Madison, 12 were written either by Madison orHamiltona. "In its searching and far-ranging analysis of the principles of free

government, as well as of the mechanics of republicanism ingeneral, The Federalist has probably no equal in any language." (*)

2. Secured the ratification of the Constitution in the crucial state of NewYork (winning over nearly a dozen delegates to obtain a 30-27 vote, theslimmest of all the states) virtually single-handedly: in Jefferson's words,he was "a host unto himself."

3. Served as first Secretary of the Treasury, where he established the fiscaland economic policies of the United Statesa. Funding of the national debtb. Assumption of state debtsc. Establishment of the Bank of the United Statesd. Proposals for protective tariffs to develop a balanced economy

4. Demonstrates the ability to rise above personal bias to truly greatstatesmanship.

5. "Hamilton threw himself into the battle for the Constitution not because heloved republicanism but because he hated anarchy." (*) (emphasisadded)

6. Hamilton is a deeply committed nationalistVI. Hamilton's Financial Program

A. Tariff Act of 17891. Revenue tariff on imports to enable government to pay debts2. Discriminatory tariff on foreign tonnage to stimulate U.S. ship-building.

B. Report on Public Credit


1. Desired to strengthen government by binding the wealthy to it by theirown self interest.

2. Desired to secure captital (investment from abroad, especially Holland, inmany cases) for commercial developmenta. U.S. is still critically short of specie

3. He proposed to "fund" the foreign and domestic federal debt at par (fullface value)a. call in all outstanding bondsb. issue new bonds at full face valuec. establish a sinking fund to pay interest and principal off

4. He proposed to "assume" state debts on the same terms: full face value(ie. the Assumption Bill)a. Benefitted speculators, including a number of members of

Congress. These speculators had bought up outstanding bonds atbargain prices from the original investors--who might be a patrioticfarmer for whom the investment was a genuine sacrifice--, who haddespaired of ever being paid by the government. The speculator isthus gambling that the debt will eventually be repaid at a profit tohimself. Only a wealthy man would have the money to invest inthis sort of venture.

b. Benefitted Northern states in particular because Southern states ingeneral had already taxed themselves to reduce their debts (4/5 ofNorthern debts still unpaid). In effect, Southern taxpayers, whohad already borne the full burden of their own debts, would have tobear part of the burden of the Northern debts as well, clearly unfair.

c. Madison suggested a portion go to the original bond-holders.d. Hamilton argued that the best way to restore credit is to convince

all investors that all obligations would be paid in full.e. Despite the short-term unfairness to original bondholders and to

Southerners, Hamilton is clearly correct. Establishment ofnational credit has long-term benefits for all Americans, and isessential to economic prosperity.

5. Resolution of the fight over assumption of state debtsa. Hamilton compromises with Jefferson and Madison: they will

support assumption if Hamilton will agree to locate a new capitalin the South (Washington, D.C.)

b. U.S. quickly achieves highest international credit rating(1) One ironic benefit is that our credit rating enabled

Jefferson to purchase Louisiana: they were paid for byU.S. bonds which Napoleon could cash immediately inHolland.

C. Proposal for a National Bank1. Advantages

a. Provide safe storage for government fundsb. Act as an agent for government collections, expenditures, and


transfersc. Issue bank notes to serve as a medium of exchange

2. Structurea. $2 million in capital owned by the governmentb. $8 million in capital owned privatelyc. Proposal especially beneficial for the well-to-do, who could invest,

although ultimately, all Americans would benefit3. Jefferson vs Hamilton

a. Washington asked for opinions as to the constitutionality of a Bankof the United States

b. Jefferson's argument:(1) -- Chartering a bank is not specifically enumerated (2) -- A bank, while "convenient," is not "necessary"(3) -- Strict construction: Jefferson contrues the elastic

clause very narrowly, stressing the word "necessary" in thephrase "necessary and proper"

(4) -- Strict construction is usually used by politicianswho OPPOSE some measure

c. Hamilton's arguments(1) Argues that the bank is covered by the elastic clause(2) "Necessary" means "needful, requisite, useful"(3) Classic definition of loose construction: ". . . if the end be

clearly comprehended within any of the specified powers,and, if the measure have an obvious relation to that end,and is not forbidden . . . it may be deemed to come withinthe compass of national authority."

(4) Loose construction stresses the word "proper" in thephrase "necessary and proper"

(5) Loose construction is usually used by politicians whoSUPPORT some measure

d. Washington supports Hamilton's view4. Evidence of success of Hamilton's plan

a. Growth in state banks (which, Jefferson feared, would be unable tocompete with the Bank of the United States) from 3 in 1791 to 32in 1801; financial stability fostered by the Bank of the UnitedStates helped all banks.

D. Report on Manufactures1. Use of tariffs, and subsidies to create a complex, self-sufficient economy

(not unlike aspects of mercantilism)2. Program would directly benefit business and commercial interests located

primarily in the North3. Farmers in particular would have to foot the bill by paying higher prices

for consumer goods and higher taxes4. Program too radical, and was defeated; Hamilton's only defeat5. Program resurrected by Henry Clay's "American System" following the


War of 1812, when the wisdom of Hamilton's vision of the Americaneconomy became apparent. Ironically, Hamilton's program here will beimplemented by the Democratic-Republicans.

VII. Foreign ProblemsA. An attempt to retaliate against the British for closing their ports to us was defeated

by Northern merchant interests. It would have placed a discriminatory tonnageduty on British goods. The fact of the matter is that American merchants wantedBritish goods and wanted to trade with Britain. That put us in a relatively poorbargaining position.

B. The Wars of the French Revolution1. The real problem is the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 and the

ensuing period of almost unremitting war from 1792-1815.a. This warfare in Europe is the single fact of life most important to

our foreign policy2. The French Revolution is one of the turning points in modern history. It is

obviously also an enormous subject, highly complex, and I certainlycannot give you a thumbnail sketch that will clarify it. Nevertheless, thereare some concepts you should bear in mind. You need to be able tovisualize what is happening in Europe in order to comprehend ourresponses. Please bear in mind, however, that I am grossly simplifyingthings.

3. The conventional date for the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789,with the storming of the Bastille by the Paris mob.

4. There was uncertainty as to what shape the new government would take. There are moderates and radicals within the ranks of the Revolution.a. The Girondins in general wanted to construct a constitutional

monarchy on British lines, and represented a more or lessbourgeois revolution.

b. The Jacobins were far more radical, and sought a thorough goingsocial revolution rather than just a political revolutioon; Theysought a republic. Their leaders included:(1) Maximilien Robespierre(2) Jacques Danton(3) Jean-Paul Marat

c. In 1793, most of the monarchies of Europe declared war on France;

(1) the French Republic was proclaimed; (2) Louis XVI was beheaded (followed by his Queen, Marie

Antoinette); (3) the Girondins were purged by way of the guillotine; (4) a Reign of Terror was instituted, coordinated by the

Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, Marat, andDanton.(a) All enemies of the state, including former

aristocrats, or those less radical than the Jacobins,


were executed.(5) This police state looks very modern to us, as the full

resources of the state were mobilized to face the threat fromabroad and to impose uniformity from within.(a) The French declare a levée en masse, (b) French Revolutionary armies take the war to their

enemies, spreading the slogan Liberté, Egalité,Fraternité.i) The French embark on an ideological war of

conquest.C. How should the US react?

1. In general, public opinion was overwhelmingly pro-French, owing tolingering hostility to Britain from the Revolution, and to sympathy withthe French people and shared republican ideals--the American Revolutioninfluenced the French Revolution, including providing two leaders,Thomas Paine and the Marquis de Lafayette, and (more important) bothwere influenced by the Enlightenment.

2. We will see, however, that attitudes towards the French Revolution serveas a catalyst to help polarize US politics. Domestic and foreigncontroversies tend to become entangled, and both help to create modernpolitical parties. That is why the AP question "There is no US historyapart from European history" is true for this time period.

3. Was the US obligated under our Trety of Amity of 1778 to support Franceand declare war against her enemies?

D. Proclamation of Neutrality 17931. The entire cabinet believed we should stay neutral. No one thought we

should get involved. We were far too weak and our problems far tooserious for entanglement in a general European war.

2. Alexander Hamilton was horrified by the Reign of Terror a. We are talking about 16,000 official public executions by the

guillotine. More were killed in unofficial fighting, particularly inthe Vendee.

b. Hamilton also felt that England was more dangerous to the USthan France since England possessed a navy.(1) Hamilton is clearly correct

c. Hamilton believed that British commercial interests had more tooffer the US than France(1) He is also clearly correct here.

d. Hamilton admired the British and their government.e. He hoped to use the war as an excuse to scrap the French alliance

and win commercial concessions from the British.f. Hamilton is a Francophobe and an Anglophile.

3. Jefferson was very sympathetic to the Revolution ( having seen the ancianregime as Ambassador to France) despite the Terror.a. Jefferson argued that our alliance was with the French people, not


the French monarchy. (He is wrong. All one has to do is read thetreaty; the King of France is mentioned, but not the people or thenation of France as an entity severed from the King.)

b. Jefferson is an Anglophobe and a Francophile.c. Jefferson wished to play off the British and the French in order to

obtain major concessions from each.d. He opposed an actual proclamation of neutrality in order to keep

both sides guessing.e. Normally, Jefferson's approach is quite sound, if difficult of

execution, and is the only way a weak nation can make gains at theexpense of more powerful ones. It is the way we gained such afavorable treaty to end the Revolution.

4. Washington chose a course that pleased neither man entirely.a. The Proclamation of Neutrality is usually thought of as a victory

for Hamilton. That is not true.b. The decisions embodied in the Proclamation are in line with views

which Washington held throughout his life.c. As we shall see, it differed from the recommendations of both men.d. Hamilton drafted the Proclamation. Some historians therefore

jump to conclusions. Some of these people portray poor GeorgeWashington as a puppet in the hands of the MachiavellianHamilton. That would be hilarious if it weren't so serious.

e. Washington was personally grateful to the French for theirassistance in winning American independence.

f. He believed, however, that no alliance was to be trusted beyondmutual self-interest. (1) Washington's undserstanding of power, as Edmund S.

Morgan points out, is profound(2) US Presidents, diplomats, and voters would do well to

remember Washington's axiom. We have a naive beliefthat words on a papere will ensure solution of a problem,without looking at the power realities that might underliethat treaty.

(3) Washington's greatness in this respect is such that too manypeople following after him simply miss the point entirely.

g. He understood that US involvement in a European war would be acatastrophe for the US.

h. He was deeply concerned that pro-French sentiment, which ranquite high, would lead to spontaneous belligerent actions againstBritish vessels. He feared that the British would then seize uponsuch an incidnet as a pretext for going to war with the US.

i. Therefore, he chose to issue the Proclamation as a precautionarymeasure to defuse a dangerous situation.

j. The Proclamation does not, in fact, ever use the word "neutrality."(1) Diplomatic language, especially in the 18th century, is very


sophisticated indeed. This "old school" diplomacy weighedevery syllable of every word, and read as much into whatwas not said as in what was said. Again, in our era, withour relative carelessness about the precise meaning ofwords and of nuances (today, we tend to usesledgehammers to make our points), this is easy to miss.

(2) Washington pledged friednly relations with everyone, butdid not pledge "neutrality."

(3) Washington also pointedly did not repudiate the Treaty of1778.

(4) Washington is here laying the groundwork for the directionof American foreign policy from 1793 to December 7,1941. It is often spoken of as "isolationism." It would bebetter to describe it as "two worlds;" there is a Europeanworld and an American world, and we wish to stand aloof.(a) Washington saw that our first priority must be to

build our strength through internal development.E. Citizen Genêt

1. The French representative in the US was Citizen Edmund Genêt, aGirondin.

2. Genêt flagrantly violated the Proclamation by recruiting privateers andgranting letters of marque.a. A privateer is a legalized pirate. A pirate attacks the ships of every

nation, respecting on one's flag. He seizes a ship and cargo, andsells it for profit.

b. A privateer differs from a pirate only in that he is authorized toattack vessels of a specific flag(s). In this case, the French wereauthorizing American captains to attack the ships of nations at warwith France.

c. A Letter of Marque is the legal instrument that defines a privateer.d. Privateers were legal. Pirates were not. The penalty for piracy was

death.e. No self-respecting pirate would be foolish enough to set sail

without a letter of marque from someone. There was usually a wargoing on somewhere, and it was therefore usually possible to carrya letter of marque. At sea, if there are no surviving witnesses, whois to say which flag your prize flew???

f. This is exactly the kind of provocation that Washington wished toavoid. American privateers attacking British shipping would notbe a minor pretext for a British declaration of war at all.

3. Washington ordered Genêt to stop.4. Genêt foolishly tried to appeal to the people over the head of George-

Washington-Father-of-His Country-First-in-War-First-in-Peace-and-First-in-the-Hearts-of-His-Countrymen.

5. Washington declared Genêt persona non grata and demanded his


withdrawal.6. As a sidelight, in the meantime, the Girondins were overthrown (and

mostly executed) by the Jacobins.a. Genêt was ordered arrested upon his return to France.b. Genêt was no fool. He applied to Washington for political asylum.

Generously, Washington agreed. Genêt married a wealthyAmerican widow and lived out his life in comfort in New York.

F. The Seizure of American Merchant Ships1. In their struggle against each other, both the French and the British used

any weapon that came to hand.2. The US traded with both nations, particularly with colonies in the West

Indies.3. In 1793, the French and the British combined to seize 600 American

merchant vessels--quite a large figure.4. In December, British naval officers (who were paid quite handsomely in

prize money, thereby spurring their patriotism on to greater and greaterheights) abruptly seized 250 American ships in West Indian waterswithout any prior warning whatever.

G. Other British Provocations1. The British conspired from Florida with the leader of the Creek

Confederation, Alexander McGillivray (he was a halfbreed, and that is hisEuropean name) to attack the Southern frontier.

2. Creek depradations were bitter enough to cause the settlers in Tennesee tolaunch their own unauthorized (and unsuccessful) war against the Creeksin 1793-94.a. Don't forget about this when we get to the War of 1812.b. We are simultaneously having serious problems with Indians in the

Northwest Territory.3. The governor of Canada was actively wooing the Indians of the Northwest

Territory--what is today Ohio, Illinois, Michigan.a. These included the Shawnee, the largest and most powerful of the

tribes in the region, as well as the Mingo (a loose confederation ofvarious tribes) and the Miami (yes, you read that correctly) underLittle Turtle.

b. The British also began construction of a new fort on what eventhey agreed was US territory.

c. Between 1790 and 1794, the US sent 3 military expeditions intothe region to defeat the Indians. The first two (Harmer in 1790and St. Clair in 1791) were defeated by Little Turtle. In oneinstance, the Indians captured the commanding general of theAmerican army, and burned him slowly at the stake (they did a fewother things, too, but I do not really need to describe the techniquesIndians used to torture prisoners to death; suffice it to say that theywere very good at it).

d. In 1794, Washington sent one of his best Revolutionary


commanders, General "Mad" Anthony Wayne.(1) Wayne defeated the Indians at the battle of Fallen Timbers

(they made the mistake of standing and fighting aconventional battle)

(2) Fallen Timbers resulted in the Treaty of Greenville, whichceded most of Ohio to the US and forced the Indians towithdraw.

4. The cumulative effect of these British provocations was to lead to warhysteria in the US.

H. Jay's Treaty1. Washington was deeply concerned to defuse the situation with Britain.

The US was in no condition to fight a war with anyone.2. Britain's reasons for negotiating with the US

a. Extensive American debts owed British merchants. If the US andBritain went to war, the US would repudiate millions of dollarsowed the British.

b. The British feared an alliance of republics versus monarchies.(1) The British want to push as far as they can, but they have

no wish to push us too far. They would certainly beat us,but they have their hands full with the French; why make anew enemy?

c. The British knew that they could exploit our weakness and obtain afavorable treaty.

3. You will recall from the Treaty of Paris, the Gardoqui Treaty and yourDBQ that Jay was an experienced negotiator.a. Jay obtains a British promise to evacuate the military posts in the

Northwest Territory.(1) This is really the sole British concession.(2) I find it significant that they offer this concession only

when US military power in the person of Mad AnthonyWayne was present in the region with an army.

b. Britain would compensate "some" American shipowners (asdetermined by British Admiralty Courts).

c. The British flatly denied the US the right of "Freedom of theSeas." The US slogan was "Free Ships Make Free Men." Britain, as the pre-eminent naval power in the world, had nointention of conceding freedom of the seas, now or ever.

d. Instead, the US submits to the British "Rule of 1756"(1) This rule was intended to stop the re-export trade by

neutrals as a means of avoiding blockade.(2) It states that neutral vessels may not trade with a port in

time of war that they are forbidden to trade with in time ofpeace.

(3) Like the British, the French were mercantilist. Technically,US vessels were not permitted to trade with Saint


Domingue, Martinique, or Guadalupe.(a) Of course, in reality, the US trade was a vital cog in

the prosperity of these islands. All of it illegal.(4) The Rule of 1756 empowered the British to interdict US

trade with the French West Indies.e. The US agrees to pay pre-Revolutionary War debts owed British

merchants by US citizens.f. Some US trade with the British West Indies was allowed, but

hedged about with many restrictions.(1) The Senate cut this section out. They preferred no trade at

all to the complicated and demeaning restrictions in thetreaty.

g. Basically, the British took us to the cleaners.4. Washington signed the treaty only reluctantly.

a. The terms were humiliating.b. The Senate ratified it by one vote, 20-10.c. Public outrage was intense.d. Washington signed the treaty because his assessment was that it

was the best we could do given the relative power relationshipexisting between the US and Great Britain.(1) He is correct in that judgement. Washington does not

permit emotion to cloud his judgement.e. Washington wishes to give the US time to grow commercially and

to secure its own governmesntal institutions.5. Results of Jay's Treaty

a. There are three very positive results(1) War with Britain is avoided.

(a) This was Washington's primary goal, let us notforget.

(2) Trade with Great Britain in fact increased with thediminution of tension.(a) This contributed substantially to Washington's long-

range goal.(3) It led directly to Pinckney's Treaty, which was unintended.

I. Pinckney's Treaty 17961. Spain still has disputes with the US over the right of deposit and the

borders of the US along the Southwestern frontier. In addition, they (likethe British) are encouraging Indian attacks along the Southern frontier.

2. The Spanish are alarmed at Jay's Treaty.a. Spain was currently an ally of Great Britain and at war with France.b. They had already decided to switch sides and go to war with Great

Britain and ally themselves with France.c. They feared that the Jay Treaty masked secret clauses creating an

Anglo-American alliance. Such an alliance would make their holdon Louisiana untenable.


d. Therefore, they were eager to reduce friction with the US3. Terms of the treaty

a. The US is granted the right to navigate the Mississippi.b. The US is granted the right of deposit at New Orleansc. The US interpretation of the border of Florida (along the 31st

parallel) is accepted.d. Spain agreed to curb Creek attacks on US settlers.e. Please compare the terms of this treaty with the Gardoqui Treaty.

VIII. Whiskey Rebellion 1794A. Hamilton wanted to obtain revenue for the government and also to place a tax that

would cause frontiersmen to feel the authority of the national government.B. The Whiskey Tax was an excise tax on home grown whiskey.

1. The best way to transport a corn crop was to condense it into whiskey forsale.

C. Frontiersmen in Pennsylvania rose up in rebellion. These were men who had nogreat love for any government.

D. Hamilton wanted to lead the army in person to suppress it. He had dreams ofmilitary glory and wanted to use the expedition as a springboard for furtherpolitical office.

E. Washington regarded Hamilton like a son, but he over-ruled him here.1. Washington would not tolerate another Shays' Rebelllion.2. The difference between the Whiskey Rebellion and the Boston Tea Party

is that the Whiskey Tax had been laid on by the duly electedrepresentatives of th people of Pennsylavia. Against such duly constitutedauthority, where the rights of individuals were protected, Washingtonwould not countenance a refusal to bow to the law.

3. Washington also had no wish for a civil war, or for bloodshed.4. Washington therefore raised an army of 13,000 men (very large in

comparison with the forces he led in battle in the Revolution). In otherwords, he mustered overwhelming force.

5. Washington chose to lead the army in person.a. This is not vainglory. Washington was well aware of the respect

and love he commanded. He believed that the frontiersmen,however angry, would not shoot him.

b. This is also an example of cold courage. Those men could shootthe eye out of a squirrel at 50 yards, and kill consistently at 300yards, where a standard musket was useless beyond 100 yards, andsoldiers did not even bother to aim at 50 yards. Since Washingtonmade a point of riding in front and in conspicuous uniform, asingle angry man could have killed him easily.

c. Washington was right. They refused to fire upon him.d. The Whiskey Rebellion collapsed without bloodshed, and federal

authority was restored.e. Washington pardoned the ringleaders.

6. Personally, I am filled with admiration at Washington's handling of this


crisis.IX. National Growth

A. The American population continued to grow rapidly, and we add states.1. The Ohio Valley is opened to settlement by the Trreaty of Greenville2. Kentucky is added as a state in 1792, on an equal basis with the original

13, using the procedure laid down by the Northwest Ordinance.3. Tennessee is added in 1796.

B. An irresistable tide of American migration has broken the crest of theAppalachians and is sweeping west, spearheaded by restless, land-hungry,individualistic and tough pioneers.1. The Indian tribes in their path, among them the Shawnee, the Choctaw, the

Creek, the Sac and Fox, the Pawnee, the Arapahoe, the Kiowa, the Sioux,the Cheyenne, the Comanche, Shoshone, the Nez Percé, the Modoc, theApache, the Navajo will struggle heroically and tragically.

2. Against the sheer numbers of the settlers, and against their superiortechnology, their struggle is hopeless.

3. It is a part of our history replete with drama, courage, endurance, suffering,tragedy, cruelty and nobility. It is an intensely human story. This storyhas also entered deeply into the American view of ourselves, into ourmythology, which helps explain who we think we are and what ourdeepest values are, and even how others see us (I knew no Germans whowould have recognized a scene from Pickett's Charge, but every childwould understood the symbolism of "High Noon." Reading a cowboystory in German is quite an experience; ever try to render Western dialectinto German?)

X. Emergence of Political PartiesA. The clash between Hamilton and Jefferson, on the assumption bill, the bank, on

policy towards France and England, hastened the development of two distinctpolitical parties, the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, or Republicans(who are, however, the direct ancestor of the modern Democratic party, acircumstance deliberately calculated to confuse future history students.)

B. Thomas Jefferson's View of Man1. Man is basically selfish2. He believed, however, in his unlimited capacity for improvement.3. Looks to the "dictates of reason" as a liberating force4. Believed democracy a practical necessity.5. Government, at best, is a necessary evil because its actions tend to limit

freedom.6. He desired a nation of small, yeoman farmers

a. Feared the growth of cities as a result of commercial growthbecause of its adverse effect on the nation's moral fiber.

b. At some future date, I hope to develop the line of anti-urbansentiment that runs strongly through U.S. history. Jefferson is animportant figure in that ideology, and the equation of vice with thecity is a key component.


7. Jefferson is an Anglophobe and a Francophile.a. Hamilton, of course, is an Anglophile and a Francophobe.

8. Jefferson actively joined the opposition to Hamilton over the Bank of theUS and the Whiskey Tax, which tended to milk the farmers for the benefitof capitalists.

9. Joins with James Madison to found the Democratic-Republican Party.a. Arranges for Philip Freneau to found the National Gazette as a

propaganda arm.b. Hamilton counters with John Fenno and The Gazette of the United

States10. One result of the clash between Jefferson and Hamilton is that both men

agree that the reluctant Washington must serve a second term.XI. Federalists and Republicans

A. The development of parties is the result of the need to solve national problems ona national level.

B. Development of parties to provide a mechanism for nominating candidates C. Originally the parties were alliances of local and state groupsD. No clear-cut social or economic alignments appeared, although the Federalists are

supposed to represent the wealthy and commercial interests and the Republicansthe artisans and farmers.

E. Personal leadership stressed:1. Remember: we are an experiment and our survival is by no means certain2. Republicans were accused of desiring a Jacobin dictatorship of mob rule.3. Federalists accused of trying to establish a monarchy.4. Passions became extraordinarily heated.5. Even Washington himself came under bitter attack. He wanted very much

to go home to Mount Vernon, but one of the few things Jefferson andHamilton could agree on was the need for Washington to serve a secondterm, which he did reluctantly.

6. After two terms, Washington determined to retire to private life, thusestablishing the two term precedent in American history, an unwritten rulethat was not violated until 1940, and then only under the threat of worldwar.

XII. Washington's Farewell AddressA. Actually written largely by HamiltonB. Has been viewed as an example of a Hamiltonian attack on Jefferson.

1. Such a view ignores Washington's habit of consultation.2. Washington's use of independent judgement is also ignored.3. The views expressed by the Farewell Address are consistent with his

lifelong attitudes.C. Washington warned of the baneful effects of party, or "faction" in the terminology

of the day.1. He believed that the nation needed unity above all else in order to develop

our strength.D. Washington warned against "permanent alliances" since Americans were


becoming so inflamed that they forget true American interests.1. Washington's admonition becomes the most important influence on US

foreign policy until Dec. 7, 1941. It was a position entirely compatiblewith our relative strength and national priorities in 1796.


Works Cited


Padover, Saul.


Works ConsultedBailey, Thomas A., Kennedy, David M. The American Pageant. 7th Ed. Lexington,

Massachusetts: D.C.Heath, 1983.

Bailyn, Bernard, Dallek, Robert, Davis, David Brion, Donald, David Herbert, Thomas, JohnL., Wood, Gordon S. TheGreat Republic: A History ofthe American People. 4th Ed.Lexington, MA: D.C. Heathand Co., 1992.

Blum, John M., Morgan, Edmund S., McFeely, William S., Schlesinger, Jr.,Arthur M., Stampp,Kenneth M., andWoodward,C. Vann. The NationalExperience: AHistory of the UnitedStates. 6th ed. NewYork: Harcourt BraceJovanovich, 1985.

Boyer, Paul S.; Clark, Clifford Jr.; Kett, Joseph F.; Purvis, Thomas; Sitkoff, Harvard; Woloch,Nancy. The Enduring Vision: AHistory of the American People. New York: D.C. Heath. 1990.

Current, Richard N., Williams, T. Harry, Freidel, Frank, and Brinkley, Alan. AmericanHistory: A Survey. 6th Ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,1983.


Morgan, Edmund S. The Birth of the Republic 1763-89. Rev. Ed. Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press,1977.


Documents

IB HL History Mr. Blackmonteachers.dadeschools.net/dblackmon/IB World History/11...AP/IB American History Mr. Blackmon Origins of American Revolution Page 3 Discuss how far this claim