i m a g e s o f f a i t h

AnnaMaria Rossi Fabio Rossi

16 clifford street, london w1s 3rg

Telephone 020 7734 6487

info@rossirossi.com www.rossirossi.com

Images of Faitha p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n o f h i m a l a y a n a r t

ro s s i & ro s s il o n d o n

We should like to thank the following for writing the entries forthe catalogue:

Professor Erberto Lo Bue, Donald Stadtner, Professor Robert AF Thurman,DavidWeldon and Inne Broos.

Prudence Cuming Associates is responsible for the sensitive photographyand Philip Lewis has designed the elegant catalogue. Mauro Ribero andIlaria Rovatti have been of invaluable assistance throughout this project.

Last but not least, our thanks to the anonymous collector who hasassembled this remarkable collection of Himalayan sculpture and ritualobjects. Over the last fifteen years, we have greatly enjoyed helping hisachieve his goal.

anna maria rossi

fabio rossi

October 2008

Acknowledgements

Catalogue

elb Professor Erberto Lo Bue

ds Donald Stadtner

rt Professor Robert AF Thurman

dw DavidWeldon

ib Inne Broos

The bodhisattvaManjushri is a deity associated with wisdom in Buddhistliterature. He is commonly represented as a youth (kumara), his hair dividedinto three separate bunches (trishiki) and his necklacemade of tiger claws(vyagrha-nakha). Two of the long strands descend to the figure’s shoulders.The fingers on the right hand aremissing; the other hand rests on thefolded leg. A thin sash once encircled the figure; it is complete on the rightside but damaged in one section on the left. Nestled in the figure’s left armnext to the sash is a long, thin stem that once supported a lotus (a blue lotusin the texts). The eyes, lips and nipples are inlaid with copper. The richornaments, such as the heavy earrings, this sacred thread, and thearmbands are consistent with his princely associations. ds

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SeatedManjushriSilver alloy with copper inlayWestern Tibetc. 11th centuryHeight 9 cm / 3½in

i l l u s t r at e d b e l o wat a c t ua l s i z e

published

d. stadtner et al. Sculpture froma sacred realm (London, 1995,pp. 58–9, cat. no.24)

of Tibetanmonarchy. It should be added that, according to the Buddhistversion of a Tibetanmyth, the progenitors of the Tibetan people were afemale demon dwelling in a cave and amale disciple or else an emanationof the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, whomanifested himself to her in theguise of an ape. No wonder that Avalokiteshvara became themost popularbodhisattva in Tibet, its protector par excellence and one of its very symbols.In his four-armedmanifestation, Avalokiteshvara is known under the

epithet of Shadakshari with reference to the four syllablesmaking up thefamous invocation by which he was addressed since at least the 6th centuryin India: ‘ommani padme hum’. That invocation is characterised by afeminine vocative, padme, and is addressed to ‘her of the jewelled lotus’(not ‘lotus in the jewel’ as still commonly held), where ‘her’ refers toAvalokiteshvara’s knowledge (‘vidya’, feminine in Sanskrit) as personifiedby the bodhisattva’s female counterpart, the goddess Tara. Such invocation,as personified by the very iconography of this image, is therefore actuallydirected to the bodhisattva’s ‘wisdom’, as symbolised by Tara, which in atantric context was understood as the female coefficient of Avalokiteshvara,who represents instead the ‘means’ and ‘compassion’ corresponding tothemale coefficient.It is in this particularmanifestation that the compassionate Avalokitesh-

vara appears in the ‘Judgement of the Dead’ included in the Bardo thödröl(‘Liberation through hearing’, a text known also under themisleadingWestern nickname of ‘Tibetan Book of the Dead’). So it is possible thatthis image was commissioned on the occasion of the death of some ratherimportant person.The statue belongs to a group of images cast in brass by the lost-wax

process, and wearing similar garments and jewellery. Although such imageshave often been attributed to western Tibet, their stylistic features are notfound in Kashmiri, Ladakhi or western Tibetan statues, whether in clayormetal, found in Buddhist shrines of India or western Tibet. Indeed tallhairstyles with turbansmay be noticed, for example, in the representationof some bodhisattvas in southern Tibet, both in the wall paintings at themonastery of Drathang and in statues in themonastery of Kyangpu, nolonger extant. An interesting technical feature of this group of images isthat they often have a rather thin cast. elb

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Avalokiteshvara (the ‘Lord Looking Down’ with compassion towardssentient beings) is the spiritual son of the cosmic Buddha Amitabha, whorules over the western quarter of the universe and is portrayed above thebodhisattva’s tall chignon in this image. Avalokiteshvara holds a lotusflower, the emblem of his family, with his upper right hand, while in thecorresponding left he holds the rosary, an attribute derived from theHindugod Shiva in his capacity as Yogeshvara (‘Lord of Yoga’), upon whomBuddhistsmodelled also the name Avalokiteshvara. In fact Avalokiteshvarais also known as Padmapani, meaning ‘Hand with Lotus’, the name of anearlier Bodhisattva fromwhomhe presumably evolved as a particularmanifestation.The very name of this bodhisattvamay have contributed to the success

which his cult enjoyed in the Nepal Valley along with the royal cult of Shivaat least since the time of king Narendradeva, who spentmany years in exilein Tibet before returning to his country, where he ruled from about 643 to679. According to Newar historical sources, it was Narendradeva, whoinitiated the chariot festival of Lokeshvara of Bungamati in the Nepal Valley.It is conceivable that the Nepalese king was a devotee of Avalokiteshvarawell before he went into exile to Tibet and that he initiated his host, kingSongtsen Gampo, to the cult of that bodhisattva.According to Tibetan historical sources, Avalokiteshvara became Songtsen

Gampo’s tutelary deity and the king ordered Newar sculptors to fashion animage of that bodhisattva for the Trülnang (later Jokhang) at Rasa (laterLhasa). Eventually Songtsen Gampo himself came to be regarded as amanifestation of Avalokiteshvara and, according to traditional accounts,was absorbed into the statue’s heart at the time of his passing away.Over nine hundred years later also the Dalai Lamas came to be regarded

asmanifestations of the same bodhisattva and the RedHill upon which theyhad their palace built – anduponwhich a chapel devoted to Avalokiteshvarahadbeenapparently erected at the timeof SongtsenGampo–was calledPotala,the nameof amythicalmountain in southern Indiawhere Avalokiteshvaradwells according to Buddhist tradition. In that way the triumph of theDalai Lamas’ religious order over rival Tibetan orders, and against the laykingdoms of south-western and eastern Tibet, was sealed and warranted bya powerful religiousmyth tied up with the recollection of the glorious past

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ShadakshariAvalokiteshvaraBrass with silver and copper inlay,turquoise and pigmentTibet14th centuryHeight 44.4 cm / 17½in

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The features and garment of themaster portrayed in this statue are identicalto that of a brass portrait with silver and copper inlay published by RamonPrats in the exhibition catalogue,Monasterios y lamas del Tibet (Barcelona:La Caixa, 2000, p. 186, No. 138), dated 13th – 14th century and attributed towestern Tibet. In spite of dissimilarities in the facial features – of the chin,ears and hairline – Prats identifies thatmaster on the basis of anotherportrait, fashioned in the samematerials and with a garment showing anarmhole identical to the one in the portrait taken here into consideration,published in the previous page of the same catalogue and bearing theTibetan inscription ‘Grangs dkar pa’, pronounced ‘Trangkarpa’. That termrefers to the place of origin or residence of the lama: Trangkar is a placename, variously spelt in Tibetan, referring in particular to the capital ofSpiti, in Indian Tibet, which was a residence of the kings of western Tibetin the 11th century, as pointed out by Roberto Vitali (The Kingdoms ofGu.ge Pu.hrang, according tomNga’.ris rgyal.rabs by Gu.gemkhan.chenNgag.dbang.grags.pa, Dharamsala, 1996, p. 526, n. 896).In spite of being unable to identify thatmaster any further, Prats

includes Trangkarpa in the section of the catalogue devoted to portraits ofmasters of the Kagyü tradition of esoteric Buddhism, to which the schoolsof Drigung, Druk, Phagmotru and Taklung as well as Karmapa belong, thefirst one being particularly active inWestern Tibet from the 13th century.As argued in the catalogueHomage to the Holy (AnnaMaria and Fabio Rossi,London, 2003, nos. 24–25), a number of similar portraits, all related to theKagyü tradition, have recently come to light. It may be suggested that themaster portrayedwas an important Kagyümaster, either of the Taklung order,or perhaps of theDrigung school, which played an important religious rolein the kingdom of western Tibet.The provisional identification of this portrait has beenmade possible

thanks to the consistencywithwhich Tibetan sculptors portray the individualfeatures of their subjects, in this case a broad angular facewithwide squarejaws, as well as a straight hairline. Portraits of religiousmasters werecommissioned during their lifetime and even afterwards by pupils orfollowers, as a kind of live religious support, and they often reveal theartists’ talent in the reproduction of naturalistic or realistic details, as inthe case of this image. The importance of this artistic genre lies in the factthat each religiousmaster represents a link within an unbroken spirituallineage starting in India, in which oral teachings are at least as importantas texts in the transmission of the doctrine. The art of portraiture in Tibetdeveloped especially during the political and cultural hegemony of thereligious order of themonastery of Sakya in the 13th and 14th centuries,becoming very popular among the other religious orders too. elb

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LamaBrass with silver and copper inlayTibet13th – 14th centuryHeight 15 cm / 57/8 in

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The Great Adept (Mahasiddha) Virupa is portrayed here wearing a diademas well as jewelled and human bone accoutrements used by tantric yogins,while sitting on an antelope hide spread over a huge lotus flower, with budsat various stages of development, and displaying the teaching gesture.At least two important Bengalesemasters are known under the name

of Virupa and appear to have beenmixed up in Tibetan hagiographic andhistorical literature. Onewas a contemporary of kingDharmapala (c. 770–781)and amonk at the university of Nalanda, of which later he became theabbot. He was very learned in the yoga tantras, and received the empower-ment and oral teachings of the Chakrasamvara cycle. The other was bornin the province of Tripura during the early 9th century and was ordained asamonk at the Buddhist university of Somapuri, where he spent twenty-fiveyears. During his youth he was granted the initiation of Vajravarahi, thesow-faced Dakini upon whomhemeditated all his life. He belongs to thelineage of teachings of the ‘Six Treatises of Varahi’.As pointed out by Geoffrey Samuel (in Rob Linroth,HolyMadness:

Portraits of Tantric Siddhas, New York – Chicago, 2006, p. 43), Virupa is thearchetype of the unconventional and transgressive tantric yogin, but he isalso held to have created the basic structure of the ‘Path’ and ‘Fruit’ system,the first of the great synthetic schemes through which tantric beliefs andpractices integrated into a graded and progressive Buddhist path from thecomposite Buddhist and Shaiva environment in which they developed.Virupa is credited with having transmitted the ‘vajra hymns’ of the ‘Path’and ‘Fruit’ tradition to Krshnacharya, the author of theHevajra Tantra.From the iconographic context it appears that the Virupa portrayed in

this image should be identified with the Indianmaster who received theteachings of the ‘Path’ and ‘Fruit’ from the dakiniNairatmya,Hevajra’smaintantric consort, nearwhomhe is shownas thefirstmaster in the lineage of the‘Path’ and ‘Fruit’ temple (1425) in themainmonastic building at Gyantse,in south-western Tibet. The teaching gesture is found in other portraits ofVirupa (cf.HolyMadness, op. cit. pp. 312–313, n. 56), but in this statuette thepresence of the vajra and of the ritual bell on the two lotus buds at the sidesof themaster reinforces the notion that the ‘Path’ and ‘Fruit’ teachingswhichVirupa received fromNairatmya actually emanated from the primordialBuddha Vajradhara, whosemain emblems are the vajra and the ritual bell,symbols respectively of themale and female coefficients, which are necessaryto reach Enlightenment according to tantric tradition. elb

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VirupaGilt copperTibet14th – 15th centuryHeight 11.5 cm – 4½ in

i l l u s t r at e d at a c t ua l s i z e

Buddhists have always believed in a plurality of Buddhas having livedbefore Shakyamuni’s time and to appear in the future, but it was onlyduring the first centuries of the Christian era that they started to conceiveseveral Buddhas coexisting in various parts of the universe at the same time.They called them jina, meaning ‘Victor’, an epithet thatmay be actuallyused for other Buddhas, too; the expression ‘dhyani’, as applied to a set offive cosmic or transcendental Buddhas, is not found in Indian or TibetanBuddhist texts: aWesternmisunderstanding of the term jina, it appearedin theWest during the 19th century.The representation of the cosmic Buddha of the east, Akshobhya, was

modelled upon the iconography of Shakyamuni as portrayed at the verymoment of Enlightenment at Bodhgaya, east of the regions where theBuddha started to be portrayed in India. Touching the goddess Earth withhis right hand, he established his dominion over Her, while calling Herto witness his imperturbability in front of the assault of the demonMara(‘Death’), of the latter’s beautiful daughters and of the terrifying hostof demons that tried to distract him fromEnlightenment. It was withreference to that important episode that the cosmic Buddha of the eastwas called Akshobhya, meaning ‘Imperturbable’. Later the followers ofBuddhist esoteric schools (Vajrayana,meaning ‘Vajra Vehicle’) endowedhimwith their most important emblem, the vajra – originally the thunder-bolt sceptre of the king of Hindu gods, Indra, the Indo-European andVedic god of rain and thunderstorms akin to Zeus and Jupiter – whichthey interpreted as a symbol of adamantine purity, indestructibility andperfection of the Buddhist doctrine.It is that very emblem, held in Akshobhya’s right hand, that differentiates

him from Shakyamuni, otherwise identical in iconography and in turnloaded with esoteric symbolism by the followers of Vajrayana, who calledboth his posture and the seat upon which they supposed the Buddha satat the time of his Enlightenment at Bodhgaya with the name of ‘vajrasana’.The importance of Akshobhya, whose very emblem is used in esotericrituals and sacred dances in its own right, is reflected in the high numberof tantric deities belonging to his family, including the tutelary deities ofBuddha rank, such as Hevajra.The presence of pairs of holes on the buds at the sides of themain lotus

flower uponwhich this image sits suggests that Akshobhyawas flanked hereby two assistants, presumably standing bodhisattvas belonging to the vajrafamily over which he presides. The style of the statue, even in the featuresof the Buddha’s face, is Newar andmay be related to the activity of artistsfrom the Nepal Valley for Tibetan clients. elb

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AkshobhyaCopper, gilded and painted, withturquoiseTibet15th centuryHeight 45 cm – 17¾ in

and fat of the enemies of the doctrine symbolically killed – in her left hand,while she brandishes a ritual knife used for flaying in the right.The importance of this goddess beyond India is reflected by the circum-

stance that both Tibetans and Newars dwelling in Tibet worshipped hermanifestation in the person of a nun residing in amonastery near LakeYamdrok, in southern Tibet. The Tibetan incarnation of Vajravarahiattracted the attention ofmany travellers, from the CapuchinmissionaryCassiano fromMacerata, who left a vivid description of her in his veryinteresting Journal following their meeting in Lhasa in January 1741,to the scholar Giuseppe Tucci, who tells about hismeeting in 1948 withthe living goddess, then a pretty thirteen-year-old girl, in his To Lhasaand Beyond.During the Yuan domination of China and Tibet, the fame of Vajravarahi

reached theMongol imperial circles who protected Buddhism under theinfluence of their Tibetan religiousmasters as well as vassals, especiallyfrom themonastery of Sakya, who were particularly interested in tantricBuddhism and who commissioned Newar artists to produce related images.Thanks to Sakya interest, the famous Newar artist Anige was introducedto Qubilai Khan’s court, where he ended up playing a leading role in theimperial workshops. Stylistically speaking this imagemay be related to theproduction of gilded copper images in China towards the end of the Yuandynasty (1368) or else under theMing emperors who protected TibetanBuddhism from the early 15th century. elb

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Vajravarahi (‘Adamantine Sow’) is an important Buddhist goddess belongingto the cycle of Hevajra, of whom shemay be the partner, just as shemay bethe partner of other tantric Buddhamanifestations, such as Samvara. Shebelongs to the category of dakinis, deified female practitioners of tantricyoga, often shownwhile performing ritual dances, wearing garlands ofsevered human heads and diadems of skulls, and holding bowls obtainedfrom skulls as well as knives for flaying.Tantric yogins resorted to such paraphernalia, loaded with esoteric

symbolism, in charnel grounds and cemeteries, where they used to testtheir ability to concentrate andmeditate while practising particular formsof esoteric yoga and liturgy, including the use ofmandalas andmantrasas well as ritual intercourse, which was conceived as the union ofmeansand compassion – as represented by themale element – with wisdom andemptiness – as represented by the female element. Tantric adepts believedthat such practices would allow them to reach Buddhahood within a singlelifetime, in spite of the fact that they appeared to be in contrast with themonastic discipline and doctrines taught by Shakyamuni as well as in theBuddhist monastic universities of India.Vajravarahi is characterised by the presence of a she-boar’smuzzle

protruding from the right side of her head, an iconography ultimatelyderiving from that of Varahi, themother goddess of the Hindu pantheonhaving a she-boar’s head. Dancing on an enemy of the Buddhist doctrine,Vajravarahi holds a bowl obtained from a human skull – full of the blood

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VajravarahiGilt copperTibet14th – 15th centuryHeight 15.5 cm / 61/8 in

i l l u s t r at e d at a c t ua l s i z e

The supreme dakini of all Buddhas, Vajravarahi, is dancing on a prostratefigure, wielding a kartrika in her right hand, a skull cup in her left handin front of her heart and a khatvanga crooked by her left arm. The dakiniis naked save for human bone jewellery, her skull crown, necklace andbracelets inset with gems. The head of a sow protrudes from the side ofher hair and a scarf billows below her falling to the lotus base, therebyserving as a support for the dancing figure. The sculpture would haveformed part of amandala structure attached bymeans of a lug beneaththe foliate base. ib

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VajravarahiGilt copper with inset gemsTibetc. 14th centuryHeight 31.1 cm – 12¼ in

OK to remove Sotheby’s label?Background needs extendingto give full bleed.

Parnashavari (‘Wild Leafy One’) is mentioned in theHevajra Tantra togetherwith four other great goddesses, with whom she forms a pentad of deitiescalled ‘Wisdoms’. The term refers to the role played in tantric Buddhismby the female element, corresponding toWisdom and Emptiness, whichhave to be joined with Compassion andMeans, as symbolised by themaleelement, in order to allow the practitioner to reach Enlightenment as wellas Buddhahood. The development and success of the late esoteric schoolsof Indian Buddhism –whose doctrines were taught in Tibet both by Tibetanteachers who had studied them in India and by Indianmasters that wereinvited to the Land of Snows – is reflected in the growing importance thatfemale deities acquired within the Buddhist pantheon.Like Hevajra, Parnashavari belongs to the family of the cosmic Buddha

Akshobhya, whose very emblem, the vajra, she holds in her upper righthand. The Sadhanamala, a collection of invocations addressed to Buddhistdeities, describes her as a splendid young girl dressed in leaves, butbedecked with all the ornaments befitting important goddesses: a crown,earrings, necklaces, armlets, bracelets and anklets in gold. Parnashavari isportrayed here in hermanifestation with three heads, each with three eyes,the expression on hermain face being neither peaceful nor wrathful, whileshe grins and chuckles with her two side faces. She stands on a lunar discsupported by a huge lotus flower in a threatening attitude, slightly bent onher right knee in amilitant posture, removing or tying up obstacles with theweapons and attributes she holds in her hands: the vajra, a bow, an arrow,a rope, an axe (whose elaborate handle is visible here) and a leafy branch.Parnashavari’s diadem, richly decoratedwith vegetablemotifs, the circlet

of leaves shewears aroundher neck, her thatched skirt of fresh leaves, as wellas her belly, slightly sagging, betray the origin of her iconography, whichshould be traced to the early pre-Buddhist Indian pantheon peopled withdeities symbolising the world of nature, including trees and rivers: yakshas,yakshis, nymphs and driads. Her representation follows Indian iconographyas well as aesthetics, according to which the human body reaches its perfectstage of development at the age of sixteen, when its energy, almost exploding,is just about contained within the surface, which appears almost plump,like a blooming flower, at its last stage of extension. Though this statue isstylistically related to the aesthetic environment of the Nepal Valley, it waspresumably fashionedbyNewar artists in Tibet, as suggested also by thepresence of turquoise in the earrings. Indeed itmay be related to the famousandfine statuary production at themonastery ofDensathil, in central Tibet,belonging to the Phagmotru order of theKagyü tradition.The ungilded copper rectangular ‘door’ in the back of the image, here

cast by the lost-wax process, seals the entrance throughwhich various kindsof relics, invocations written on tiny rolls of paper, barley seeds,medicinalplants, precious and semiprecious stones aswell as coinsmaybeplaced insidethe statue in accordance with precise criteria before consecration, withoutwhich the statue is lifeless and cannot fulfil its religious purposes. elb

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ParnashavariGilt copper with semiprecious stonesTibet15th centuryHeight 28 cm / 11 in

This richly gilded statue of Vajravarahi or the Adamantine Sow, an arche-typal female Buddha deity who embodies wisdom (hermale counterpartsymbolises compassion), is depicted holding her symbolic implements.In her right hand she holds a vajra chopper; in her left hand a skull cup;and a long khatvanga staff is crooked in her left arm. Vajravarahi is depictedatop a large lotus base with beaded upper rim. She is naked but lavishlyornamented with jewellery and wears a long garland of skulls framed bybillowing sashes. Vajravarahi has the three eyes of the wrathful deities; sheis dancing in ardhaparyankasana and with her left foot she tramples theprostrate body of the deity of delusion; and a sow’s head emerges from theupper right side of her head. In Buddhism, the pig is a symbol of delusion;the imagery symbolises that wisdom’s conquest of delusion doesn’tsuppress or destroy a part of the self: delusion is tamed by wisdom. ib

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VajravarahiGilt copper and gemsTibetc. 14th centuryHeight 29.5 cm / 115/8 in

The inscription in Newari engraved on the base of this imagemay betranslated as follows: ‘On the third day of the bright half of themonth ofShravana in the (Newar) year 681, this image of SaptadashatmakaHevajrawas consecrated on the occasion of the first offering ceremony for theanniversary of Shakya Ja(ya)sim(ha) Raja’s death. The donors are the sonsof the deceased, Shakya Bhikshu Shri Guna and his brother Bhasimka,enabling the deceased, by themerit of this act, to attain the paradise ofSukhavati and enabling the donors to have a long life and good health.May this be well and for all time!’.Since the development of esoteric Buddhism in India, an important

role has been played by tutelary deities, with whom the devotee entertainsa personal relationship. In a tantric context, they are epiphanies orhypostases of specific Buddhasmanifesting themselves in a terrifyingmanner in order to defeat and tame the enemies of the Buddhist doctrine,includingHindu gods. Their iconography derives from that of the Hindugod Shiva in his wrathfulmanifestation as Bhairava, whose Buddhistequivalent isMahakala, one of whose forms bears the epithet ofSaptadashatmaka found in the inscription on this image. The iconographyof tutelary deities is described in the tantras which are dedicated to themandwhich they sometimes personify.One of themost important tutelary deities is Hevajra, who personifies

an important tantra, one of the few to have been translated into English.He belongs to the family of the cosmic Buddha Akshobhya, of whomhe isthe tantricmanifestation, and ismainly represented in two triumphantforms, with eight heads and sixteen arms. His very name,meaning ‘Oh,Vajra!’, is an invocation to the emblem of Akshobhya’s family, the vajrabeing a symbol of the perfection and indestructibility of Buddhist tantricdoctrines. Here the god appears in hismanifestation as Shastradhara,meaning ‘Holder ofWeapons’, in spite of the fact that not all theattributes he holds are weapons.According to the description preserved theNishpannayogavali,

Shastradhara Hevajra’s right hands hold a hook, a trident, a staff, a bowl,a wheel, an arrow, a sword and a vajra, while his right hands hold a rope,

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Shastradhara HevajraGilt copper and pigmentNepalJuly–August 1531Height 29 cm / 113/8 in

a jewel, a bowl obtained from a skull, amagic sceptre, a bow, a lotus and aritual bell, the remaining right hand performing the gesture of threat. As isoften the case in the iconography of complex deities such as this one, someofthe itemsaswell as their sequencemaybe at variancewith knowndescriptions,being presumably basedupon slightly different tantric traditions.Wearing a tiger hide, a crownwith human skulls and a garland of severed

heads,Hevajra tramples twoHindu gods, Brahma and Shiva, with two of hislegs, dancingwith the other two in unionwith his chief consort, Nairatmya(‘Selflessness’), dressedwith a ritual garment, their embrace being regardedas the equivalent of Enlightenment. Vishnu, holding a flaming chakra anda staff in his capacity as preserver of the cosmic order, supports one ofHevajra’s feet, while Indra, the king of the gods, supports another. Thepresence of those twoHindu deitiesmay be related to the circumstancethat the clients of this image were Newars, whose rulers have alwaysbeen regarded asmanifestations of Vishnu, while Indra, the god of rainresponsible for the fertility of the Nepal Valley, is worshipped during avery important festival there.Like the secret doctrines related to other tutelary deities, the esoteric

teachings of the Hevajra tradition have been greatly appreciated by Indian,Newar and Tibetan tantric practitioners. The lay TibetanmasterMarpatravelled to India via the Nepal Valley to get its teachings, which later hisfamous pupil Milarepa asked him for. It was in a Newar social, cultural andaesthetic environment, and in particular within the Shakya caste to whichartists and traders belong, that this imagewas commissioned and fashionedin the Nepal Valley for themonk (bhikshu) Shri Gunamentioned in theinscription, and for his brother.Religious imagesmay be commissioned for one’s own religious

practice, but above all to acquiremerits for oneself or for relatives in thecase of disease, troubles or death in the family, and ultimately to ensureEnlightenment for all living beings. Their production is inspired by a desireto avoid suffering, to gain happiness and longevity, and to ensure a happystate of existence following death, in this case in Amitabha’s paradise,Sukhavati. elb

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The inscription on the back of this portrait pays homage to the ‘fullyaccomplished Buddha’Wangchuk Dorje (rDzogs pa’i Sangs rgyas dBangphyug rdo rje la namo), the 9th Black Hat Karmapa incarnation (1556–1603),who belonged to the Black Hat lineage of the Kagyü tradition, stemmingfrom four Indian tantric lineages which included that of Hevajra. The termKagyü is the contraction of a long expressionmeaning ‘Lineages of the FourCommissioned Ones’ with reference to those four lineages, although it isoften translatedmisleadingly as ‘oral transmission’, which overlooks itsoriginal and actualmeaning.Wangchuk Dorje spent the greater part of his childhood travelling

with hismonastic encampment, a common practice in the Kagyü school,especially after it had to suffer persecution from the Gheluk religious order.In his nomadicmonastery he received a strict training, especially in theMahamudra (‘Great Seal’) tradition, from scholars who concentrated onthe study of theHevajra Tantra and other tantric texts. The 9th Karmapatravelled extensively, especially in central and southern Tibet, and visitedalso Bhutan and outerMongolia. Of his various pupils, belonging chiefly tolineages and schools of the Kagyü tradition, one of themost famous oneswas the great scholar and historian Taranatha. Two of the 9th Karmapa’sworks, both concerned with theMahamudra practice and liturgy, arestill in use today.Wangchuk Dorje was very active in the religious as well as social sphere,

helping people and contributing funds for the upkeep, restoration andrenovation of Kagyümonasteries. He also tried to inculcate a respectfulattitude towards animals by discouraging hunting and fishing. He wasinterested in art and executed sketches for several murals at his homemonastery, Tsurpu, but he was amediocre painter and on account of thathe was teased by artists at his court (David Jackson, AHistory of TibetanPainting, Wien, 1996, pp. 169, 176 and 247). He arranged for a largeappliqué silk banner of the Buddha to bemade for themonastery ofTsurpu and supported Tibetan painters as well as Newarmetal workers,whomight have been responsible for fashioning this very image,perhaps for a pupil of his. elb

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The 9th Karmapa,Wangchuk DorjeGilt copperTibet17th centuryHeight 22 cm / 85/8 in

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Red Amitayus is a special form of Amitayus, the longevity principal ofAmitabha, Buddha of theWestern Paradise. He is presented in this standingsculpture as a bodhisattva, standing with his hands in the dhyanamudra,holding a patra or alms bowl. His scarf, which is draped aroundhis shouldersand arms, and his dhoti, which has a decorated hem, flay out sideways. RedAmitayus is adorned with jewellery, he wears a five-pointed crown, earrings,necklaces, a girdle, armbands and anklets. Traces of paint are still visibleon his face and hair. His ushnisha is topped with a jewel. His blue hairfalls down to the ground (it is visible in between his feet) as a sign of hislongevity. A rectangular consecration plate is inserted in the back of thestatue and is decorated to blend in with the rest of the figure. The facialfeatures of the statue are characteristic of Zanabazar and his school: a sharpnose, full lips and tilted eyes with eyelids gently curving in a shallow S. Verylittle is known about the worship of Amitayus, although it is likely that allBuddhists would have venerated this deity to promote health and long life.The subject of Red Amitayus is incredibly rare and its iconography notwell-known. ib

12

Ayusi (Skt. Amitayus)Gilt copper with painted detailsMongolia, school of ZanabazarLate 17th – early 18th centuryHeight 29.5 cm / 115/8 in

published

d. dinwiddie (ed.) Treasures fromMongolia – Buddhist sculpture from theschool of Zanabazar (London, 2005,cat. no. 12)

This sculpture depicts an eleven-headed, eight armed Avalokiteshvara, thebodhisattva of Compassion. The two upper heads are a rather fierce headand the head of the Buddha Amitabha. The attribute in his top right handismissing; in his upper left hand he holds a lotus bud. Twomore hands onthe right hold a prayer wheel and display the varadamudra or the gesture ofgiving. In his two other hands on the left he holds the elixir of immortalityand one implement ismissing. He holds the two hands in front of him inthe namaskaramudra. Themissing attributes are probably a bow and arrow.The sculpture features elegant proportions, elaborate princely jewellery,

traces of blue paint in the hair and flowing garments with attention totextile patterns. The facial features are distinguished by highly archedeyebrows, tilted eyes with eyelids curving in a shallow S-shape, sharp noseand full lips – all trademark characteristics of the Zanabazar sculpturalstyle. ib

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13

Qomsim Bodi Sadva(Skt. Avalokiteshvara)Gilt copperMongoliaLate 17th – early 18th centuryHeight 39 cm / 153/8 in

published

d. dinwiddie (ed.) Treasures fromMongolia – Buddhist sculpture from theschool of Zanabazar (London, 2005,cat. no. 9)

The sword is one of the twomain symbolic implements ofManjushri, thetranscendent Buddha ofWisdom (alwaysmanifesting as a bodhisattvawith the role of asking deep questions to other Buddhas), the otherbeing a volume of the TranscendentWisdom Sutra, the ultimate text ofthe profound teaching of voidness. Originally an instrument of death, thevajra sword symbolises wisdom’s capacity to kill ignorance, particularlythe delusion of the absolute, independent existence of the self, which isthe root of all the negative emotions thatmotivate all the bad actions thatcreate all the suffering of beings in the world.Tibetan weremaster ironworkers and this command of themedium is

displayed in the subtlety of the design of this sword. Superb arabesquesdecorate the hilt: the eyes and the teeth of the kirtimukhamask that holdsthe blade are silvered and the inside of hismouth is depicted in copper.Silver also once covered the horns of themonstermask, and his hair is inalternating strands of gold and silver. rt & dw

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Vajra SwordIron with gold, silver and copperTibetc. 1400Height 44 cm / 173/8 in

published

n. bazin (ed.) Rituels tibétains.Visions secrètes du Ve Dalaï Lama.(Paris, 2002, p.145, cat. no. 104)

r.a.f thurman & d. weldonSacred symbols. The ritual art ofTibet. (New York, 1999, pp.128–9,cat. no. 58)

Background needs extendingto give full bleed.

This exquisite instrument has similar qualities to the previous sword.The eyes, teeth, and horns of themakara head are in silver, and the wispygold flame design on both blades has the samemovement. The intricatearabesque in gold on the handle is a feature that takes shape in the Yuandynasty that was so inextricably linked with Tibet. The vajra finals of bothimplements have an identical pattern and are without themakara headsthat are ubiquitous in the Yongle period ironwork. It may be surmised that,because the design is so linked to classic Yuan and earlyMing patterns,it may be dated to circa 1400.The vajra goad hook (dorjey chagkyu) is an important implement in the

rituals of domination, fascination, and the gaining of power wielded by theBuddha deities designed to transmute lust and attachment into generosityand solidarity, such as the Buddha goddess Vajrayogini, Kurukulla, themale or female Vajraganesha, in general any of the ruby-coloured Buddhaarchetype deities. The goadhookhas its origin in India being the implementthat controls the elephant, the largest andmost powerful of the beasts. Theanimal is often portrayed in Tibet to symbolise ignorance ormisknowledge(witness, the fresh-flayed elephant hides worn as a cloak bymany of thefierce deities). rt & dw

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15

Vajra Goad HookIron with gold and silverTibetc. 1400Height 27.5 cm / 107/8 in

published

n. bazin (ed.) Rituels tibétains.Visions secrètes du Ve Dalaï Lama.(Paris, 2002, p.147, cat. no. 108)

r.a.f thurman & d. weldonSacred symbols. The ritual art ofTibet. (New York, 1999, pp.130–1,cat. no. 59)

Background needs extendingto give full bleed.

This chopper has the samemakara face type with the short snout curlingdownward and the same silver eye and horn design as the previous hook.The dorje is of the same plain form and the implement has the samedelightfully delicate flame design on the curved blade.The vajra chopper (Skt. Katrika Tbt. Triguk) is a common implement

of the fiercest deities and often paired with the skull bowl (kapala) whichcontains the blood and liquefied brains of demons, transmuted into theelixir of immortality. As with all symbolic blades, the blade itself symbolisesthewisdomof voidness that cuts through the knots and fetters of delusionsand ignorance. It emerges from themouth of themakara sea-monster,symbolising the force of nature itself as giving forth its deepest reality oftranscendent wisdom. Its handle is a five-pronged vajra, symbolising onone level that the blade itself is nothing but the vajra strong force of theuniversal selfless love and compassion, and on another level that theultimate subjectivity that wields the wisdom is the extremely subtlesuperbliss of ecstatic union with the clear light of voidness, themostpowerful energy of life. rt & dw

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16

Vajra Chopper KnifeIron with gold and silverTibetc. 1400Height 19 cm / 7½ in

published

n. bazin (ed.) Rituels tibétains.Visions secrètes du Ve Dalaï Lama.(Paris, 2002, p.140, cat. no. 94)

r.a.f thurman & d. weldonSacred symbols. The ritual art ofTibet. (New York, 1999, pp.132–3,cat. no. 60)

The ‘water-knife’ is so called because its wavy blade resembles flowingwater. Themakara sea-monster emerges from the depths portrayed in thechurning scroll finial. Waves are depicted in silver and gold along the topedge of the water blade that issues from hismouth, and a burst of flameslicks down either side. As a weapon formundane fighting, it was doubtlesscrafted with such a blade tomake a wound that would bemore devastatingto the victim,more tearing and harder to close, to causemore loss of bloodand weakness, perhaps for disembowelling. It is not clear just what specialaspect of the critical wisdom that destroys ignorance this shape of knife ismeant to symbolise. Corresponding to its designed function of tearing upthe insides of the opponent, it may symbolise wisdom’s profound capacityto expose and excoriate the subconscious, instinctual levels of negative-world-constructing ignorance.The strength of line and quality of work suggest a 14th century date for

thismasterpiece of Tibetan ironwork. rt & dw

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17

Vajra Water Knife(dorje chutri )Iron with gold and silverTibetc. 1400Height 24 cm / 9½ in

published

r.a.f thurman & d. weldonSacred symbols. The ritual art ofTibet. (New York, 1999, pp.142–3,cat. no. 65)

Background needs extendingto give full bleed.

Like other similar implements, this knife is related to two categories ofitems of Indian origin: butchery tools such as the well-known kartrika, aknifemeant for flaying – not for chopping, in spite of its being often referredto as ‘chopper’; and surgical instruments, such as the so-called ‘water knife’,a straight-bladed tool similar to a lancet, which ismeant to excise headwounds, as illustrated in the Tibetanmateriamedica. The border-linebetween butchery and surgery is thin, and tools like the one taken here intoconsideration have been used in order to fashion tantric ritual instrumentslike bowls and drums from skulls, flutes from thigh-bones, aprons andornaments from other human bones found in charnel grounds andcemeteries, in conformity with Buddhist esoteric practices, as clearlyshown by the images portraying tantric yogins.Such tools took over a strong symbolicmeaning by themselves and are

used also for ritual purposes, as shown by the threefold Sankritmantra ‘oma hum’ damascened in an ornamental writing of Indian derivation on bothsides of the blade of this knife. Along withmandalas,mantras – generallyof Hindu origin and never translated into Tibetan because of the verysacredness of the sounds they represent – are essential in tantric practice.The shape of the blade of this knife, hooked at both ends, suggests that itsoriginal functionmay have been to cut skins or hides open before flayingcarcasses with the kartrika. Its handle ismade up of half a vajra, the chiefemblem of the esoteric schools of Buddhism that borrowed their name –Vajrayana – from it, and of amakara, a sea-monster dwelling in the oceansaccording to Indian pre-Buddhist mythology. elb

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Vajra water knifeGilt copper alloy andiron damascenedTibet15th centuryHeight 19 cm / 7½ in

The vajra chopper is a common attribute ofmany wrathful deities, whichis usually held in their right hand and often paired with the skull bowlor kapala, containing the elixir of immortality. The crescent-shapedblade symbolises the wisdom of voidness that cuts through delusion andignorance. The gold-letteredmantra in Ranjana script reads ‘om shri ma haka la ya humhumphat phat sva ha’ and is devoted to PanjaraMahakala, themain protector of the Sakya Buddhist sect. The upper border of the blade isworked in relief with flames in silver and gold and filigree scrollwork alongthe rim. The blade emerges from themouth of themakara seamonster,which symbolises the force of nature and deepest reality of transcendentwisdom. The handle is surmounted by a half-vajrafinial with prongs issuingfrom smallermakaras, who are all alternatingly damascened in silver andgold. The vajra symbolises the strong force of universal selfless love andcompassion. ib

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Vajra water knifeSilver and gold damascened ironTibet15th centuryHeight 22.1 cm / 8¾ in

Background needs extendingto give full bleed. Deletehanging support.

These vases are for holding blessedwater used in initiations and subsequentrituals. They are ‘action vases’ (laybum) since they have spouts, and theysometimes havemetal stoppers that hold peacock feathers. They have astupa-like shape, with earth-representing lotus petal bases, then roundwater-representing vase shapes, then a fire-representing tapering shaft,and a wind-representing flat rim that provides a handle. The spouts emergefrommakara seamonstermouths, the necks have hanging jewel patternslike on the eaves of amandala palace, and the rims have lucky signs incisedwith ornamental scrollwork. In ritual use, these vases have actual vestmentsof rainbow-colored silk appliqué.Each of these elegant vases has a specific ritual use and is distinguished

by the emblems that decorate its rim. The action vase for ritual activitiesbears the symbols of the five Buddha-clans, the wheel, jewel, lotus, sword,and the vajra. The Vajra-master’s action vase bears the seed syllables, inLantsa Sanskrit characters, of the same five transcendent Buddhas: om,hum, tram, hrir, ah . The vases are used in purification and otherrituals. While the lama recites from the text, his assistant sprinkles amixture of holy water and saffron from the action vase over either a personor a place that requires purification. At other times, the vases remain on thealtar as the palace of the transcendent Buddhas, the sources of purification.The stylisticmotifs employed on the gilt copper repoussé work of the

vases are typical of the 17th century and suggest an atelier schooled in theNewari metalworking tradition. However, Tibetan taste is indicated inthe form of the silver bodies that echo the shape of begging bowls (patra),and particularly in the use of contrastingmetal colours, a feature oftenencountered in Tibetan sculpture. rt & dw

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A pair of BumpaSilver and gilt copperTibetc. 17th centuryHeight 21 cm / 8¼ in

published

n. bazin (ed.) Rituels tibétains.Visions secrètes du Ve Dalaï Lama.(Paris, 2002, pp.134–5, cat. no. 84)

r.a.f thurman & d. weldonSacred symbols. The ritual art of Tibet.(New York, 1999, pp.36–7, cat. no. 13)

First published to accompany the exhibition

Images of Faith4 –7 October 2008held atHong Kong International Arts and Antiques Fair (HKIAAF)Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition CentreHall 31 Expo DriveWanchaiHong Kong

Published byRossi & Rossi Ltd16 Clifford StreetLondonw1s 3rg

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cover images SeatedManjushri, c. 11th century, (cat. no. 1, page 6)frontispiece Shadakshari Avalokiteshavra, 14th century,(detail, cat. no. 2, page 10)