28

Increasing Self-Esteem and Competency in Children

Margaret K. Sheridan!

This paper is an adaptation of a presentation made at the International Symposiumon Preschool Education held in Nanjing, China, in October, 1989. One hundredand forty scholars from eight countries gathered at this symposium which wassponsored by UNICEF and Nanjing Normal University to discuss the currenttrends and future directions in program design and curriculum for young children.This presentation focuses on the importance of self-esteem in the development ofpersonal competency. The role of the early childhood educator and the type ofeducational environment conducive to this developmental process are described.The importance of self-initiated learning and a personal locus of control are dis­cussed. The impact of self-esteem and competency are discussed in normaldevelopment and in children who have a developmental disability. A longitudinalcase study is presented to illustrate the positive impact of a well developed sense ofself-esteem and personal competency.

Ce travail est une adaptation d'une presentation faite au Symposium Internationald'Education Prescolaire tenu A Nanjing, Chine, en octobre 1989. Cent quaraateacademiciens provenant de huit pays se sont reunis A ce symposium qui futparraine par I'UNICEF et par I'Uuiversite Nonnale de Nanjing afin d'echanger surles tendances actuelles et les orientations futures dans la conception deprogrammes et de curriculum pour les jeunes enfants. Cette presentation porte surI'importance de l'estime de soi dans Ie developpement de la competence person­nelle. On decrit Ie rOle de l'educateur prescolaire et Ie type d'environnementeducatif qui menent A ce processus. Aussi sont analysees I'importance deI'apprentissage initit par soi-meme et I'importance du point personnel de contrOle.L'impact de l'estime de soi et de la competence est discute autant en fonction desenfants ayant un developpement normal qu'en fonction de ceux qui presentent uneincapacitt developpementale, Une ttude de cas de type longitudinal est presenteearm d'illustrer I'impact positif d'un sens bien developpe d'estime de soi etcompetence personnelle.

IDcpartment of Child Development, Connecticut College, New London. Connecticut.

SHERIDAN

Este trabajo es una adaptaci6n de una presentaci6 hecha en el Simposio Inter­nacional de Educaci6n Preescolar efectuado en Nanjing, China, en octubre, 1989.Ciento cuarentade ocho paises se reunieron en este simposio patrocinado por laUNICEF y la Universidad Normal de Nanjing, con el fin de discutir las tendenciasactuales y las orientaciones del futuro en la concepci6n de programas y decurriculum para los nifios pequenos, Esta presentaci6n enfoca en la importancia dela autoestimaci6n en el desarrollo de la competencia personal. Se describen elpapel del educador preescolar y el tipo de ambiente educativo conducente a esteproceso. Ademas, se describe la importancia del aprendizaje iniciado por si mismoy la importancia del lugar personal de control. El impacto de la autoestimaCi6n yde la competencia es discutido en el desarrollo normal de nines y en el desarrollode nines que tienen una incapacidad. Se presenta un estudio longitudinal de uncaso para ilustrar el impacto positive de un sentido bien desarrollado deautoestimaci6n y de competencia personal.

29

The early childhood professional hasmany opportunities to help children in theirpersonal and cognitive development. Adevelopmentally appropriate earlychildhood program focuses attention onseveral aspects of the overall developmentof each child. Although goals of increasingchildren's cognitive skills and supportingtheir acquisition, of factual knowledge arecrucial components in preschool cur­riculum. they are secondary to the moreprimary program goals of helping eachchild gain a positive self-concept, greaterself-esteem and a more developed sense ofcompetency. These key facets of per­sonality development are crucial tochildren's attitudes concerning learning andtheir sense of motivation for applying theirskills in learning situations throughout life.

As with many aspects of humandevelopment, a positive sense of self­esteem and competency are not equally ex­perienced by all children. Parents and tea-

chers of young children often observe thatinfants and young children have highly per­sonalized styles when approaching new andchallenging situations. Some children seemendowed with a willingness to attempt newtasks or activities without the need of adultencouragement. Other children are fre­quently hesitant and resistive when copingwith any new experience or learning situa­tion. They need a great deal of encourage­ment to risk trying something new. Oncethey initiate involvement with an activity,they remain dependent on a supportive adultfor repeated guidance and encouragementEven when they have completed the activitythese children may tum to the adult for as­sessment of their success at the activity.

What leads to these variations in tem­perament and personality observed whenchildren are trying to learn new skills? Itmight be suspected that variations inchildren's level of innate intelligence ortalents would be the source of these varia-

30

tions in behavior. But the solution is not sosimple. In early intervention work withhandicapped and special needs children it isobserved that there are some children whohave serious developmental handicaps, butwho show remarkable learning ability andexcellent personal adjustment. At the sametime we often witness children who arenaturally endowed with a healthy body andan able mind, but who do not learn andgrow at the anticipated rate of development.How well a child accepts himself and ex­pects to experience success greatly affectshow he will progress. His natural endow­ments of mind and body are important, butthey are not the only determinants of suc­cess. Equally as. important to learning is thechild's overall experience of self-esteemand competency.

Self-concept or self-image is a child'sown idea of herself, including her abilitiesand her future expectations of success.Self-esteem is defined as the way a childevaluates herself (Coopersmith, 1967); doesshe approve of herself, does she think ofherself as worthy and important? Self­concept and self-esteem have a direct im­pact on a child's sense of competency, herbelief that she will succeed in a particulartask. Belief in one's own competency is theresult of past experiences of being effectiveand being able to master new skills (White,1959). Harter (1983) describes that achild's self-esteem and feelings of com­petence increase her sense of personal con­trol. This sense of personal control is thekey component of an internal locus of con­trol. In the American culture a sense ofinternal locus of control has a positive im-

SELF-ESTEEM & COMPETENCY

pact on a child's self-esteem. In this culturehaving the opportunity to make develop­mentally appropriate choices and decisionsadds to a child's self-esteem and allows herto see how her behavior relates to cause andeffect and to behavioral consequences.

The process of a child's gaining asense of himself, and then making judg­ments about his self-image is heavily in­fluenced by the child's culture, and the wayadults relate to the child within that culture.Self-esteem directly reflects the standards ofthe child's culture (Mead, 1934). Beingbiologically endowed with qualities that aredesired in a given culture greatly enhances achild's positive experiences and, con­sequently, his self-concept But an innateskill that is not valued in a given culturewill not add to a child's self-esteem. In theearly years, parents and family are themajor sources of cultural judgment ex­perienced by a child. The child's uniquetemperament, physical appearance andgender may all play major roles in howparents react to the child and gradually helpthe child mold a sense of who he is, andhow much he is valued. The child's innatepotential can be fostered or stilted by earlyexperiences of success and failure and byexperiencing how the important people inhis life react to him.

During the early months of life the in­fant gains a sense of her personal power andimpact on the environment and on otherpeople. The infant repeatedly practises be­havior patterns that lead to consistent con­sequences. It is through the experience ofrepeated exploratory play that the infantgradually understands that her actions al-

SHERIDAN

ways lead to certain reactions. If the babypushes on the ball, the ball will roll away.If the baby kicks her foot off the side of thecrib, there will be a noise. The cumulativeeffect of these repeated experiences is thatthe child grows aware of personal powerand gains an awareness of internal locus ofcontrol. In the midst of this same processthe infant begins to be aware of herself in apersonal sense (Lewis & Brooks-Gunn,1979). The baby is fascinated by pictures ofinfants, and she gradually gains a sense ofpersonal recognition and becomes delightedby her own reflection in a mirror. Withinthe second year of life the child is able torecognize her own image and refers to her­self specifically through the use of her nameand appropriate personal pronouns. Theseare crucial roots to the development of posi­tive self-esteem and competency.

After the parents and other familymembers, the early childhood teacher is of­ten the individual who has a major impacton the developing self-esteem of children.In teaching young children it is essential toestablish a learning environment that fosterschildren's potential. The teacher has a veryimportant role in this type of child-centeredlearning environment. Key to the process isthe teacher's acceptance of the child with allhis individual strengths and vulnerabilities.The teacher must establish an environmentfor learning that allows for the children'sindividual differences and supports thechildren as they explore the experiencesavailable to them in the group. Activitiesneed to allow children of many skill levelsto work together and to experience in­dividual success. Experiencing repeated

31

success is basic in strengthening a child'smotivation for self-initiated learning.Repeated successful experiences are also es­sential in the building of a child's self­concept. The more a child feels competent,the more he will be willing to try new ac­tivities and to expand his world ofknowledge and understanding.

A child-eentered program allows thechild to experience appropriate control inmaking choices and in managing herself inher activities (Marshall, 1989). The child isexpected to be independent in her activitiesas much as it is developmentally ap­propriate. Self-management and self­control develop best through practice.Adults are available to help the children asthey make choices and learn, and theyrespect the children and their feelings. Tea­chers create a climate that is tolerant of mis­takes and regression, two aspects that arepart of the natural pattern of growth andlearning. Teachers spend a great deal oftheir time observing how individualchildren approach a new or unfamiliar task.They try to plan activities that allow thechildren to experience success. Initially ateacher may have to demonstrate an aspectof an activity, but' the goal is for thechildren to explore the materials and tocarry out activities independently. Some­times it is very useful to break activitiesdown into sequential steps so that childrenof various levels of skill can experience suc­cess in parts of, if not in all of, an activity.By being specific in her observations aboutwhat a child is doing well, and how thechild's behavior is helping her learn, theteacher directly supports the child'sdevelopment of strategies for learning.

32

Another key factor in supportingchildren's self-esteem is for teachers tocreate an environment that allows for andexpects some individual differences inchildren. Individual differences are as­swned if the group contains some childrenwho are known to be developmentallydelayed because of a diagnosed physical ormental problem. But the expectation of arange in behavior is also valid in a group ofsame-age mates who are presumed to bedevelopmentally normal. Individualstrengths and weaknesses, as well as pat­terns of personal preference for varioustypes of activities, will have a clear impacton individual children's performance andpersistence with activities. Allowingchildren some latitude in the expectationsconcerning performance in all activitiesconveys the teacher's understanding of thedevelopmental variation in children and al­lows children to gradually gain a personalawareness of, and respect for, their ownstrengths.

Teacher expectation can play anothersignificant role in the learning behavior ofyoung children. The assumption that achild is unable to carry out a task or to at­tempt a new intellectual challenge can besubtly and unintentionally conveyed by theteacher to the child. There is a real risk ofgeneralizing a child's delay and actuallylowering expectations below the child'slevel of competency. This type of infan­tilizing is a real risk when well meaning tea­chers do not allow delayed children orchildren who work at a slower than averagepace to carry out their play or to completeactivities independently. If the teacher steps

SELF-ESTEEM & COMPETENCY

in and completes work for a child, helps herbefore the child asks for help, or in otherways conveys that the child is not able forthe task, this is experienced as a failure bythe child. If this type of lowered expec­tations is experienced regularly, the childwill lose much of her won sense of motiva­tion, and find it easier to wait for the adultto step in and rescue her from tasks andactivities that are well within her skillrange.

In the same way, ignoring a child's in­itial attempts to take part in an activity, orharshly assessing a child's initial efforts asinadequate can easily dash a sensitivechild's willingness to try new activities ortasks. A teacher's setting developmentallyunrealistic standards can also erode achild's sense of self-esteem and com­petency. In the same way that we wouldnot criticize a 6-month-old for not beingable to walk, we should not criticize a 3­year-old who is delayed because he is notyet speaking in sentences. If he is able tocommunicate in single words, then the tea­cher needs to expect the use of those wordswhenever it is appropriate in interpersonalinteractions or group activities.

If not given a nurturing environment,delayed children are prone to develop alearning style that is counterproductive totheir ultimate development. Rather thanlearning to trust their own intellectualproblem-solving capabilities, they alwaystum to a peer or to the teacher for guidanceon how to approach a task. Even when theypossess the necessary skills for an activity,they do not trust themselves, so they look toanother for guidance and assistance.

SHERIDAN

Repeated experience of failure leads thedelayed children to be hesitant, to have alow sense of competency and to have a highexpectancy of failure. As a result, theydemonstrate a belief in an external locus ofcontrol instead of in an internal locus ofcontrol. They feel powerless to act success­fully and do not believe that their actionswill lead to the desired result. The develop­ment of low self-esteem and a poor sense ofcompetence continually compromises thedelayed child's potential for growth anddevelopment. The child's intellectual hand­icap is accentuated and the child becomesdepressed about her own ability to learn andgrow. It becomes very easy for a child whois caught in this type of cycle to stop trying,to retreat from anything that is remotelychallenging, and to become a passive stu­dent.

Teachers can use supportive teachingtechniques in an early childhood classroomthat promote the children's development ofself-esteem and competence. In most situa­tions, these techniques are similar for allyoung children whether they are develop­mentally normal, advanced or delayed.Most crucial in all teaching and learningsituations is the respect of the adult for theunique strengths and skills of each child andthe belief in the capacity of each child togrow and learn at his own pace. Enjoying achild's successes with him, and guiding himto gain strategies so that his learning can beself-motivated and successful will give thechild the best opportunity for gaining self­esteem and a sense of competency.

A brief case study of a young manwho was enrolled in an early intervention

33

program in the early 1970s is useful to il­lustrate some key points concerning the in­terrelationships of self-esteem and com­petency (Sheridan & Radlinski, 1988).Matt was enrolled in a preschool forchildren with special needs at age threeyears and eight months; at that time he hadjust begun to walk and had minimal expres­sive language. He was born with a rarechromosome disorder that affected his men­tal and physical development. All of themedical and developmental literature on thiscondition indicated that Matt's prognosiswas poor. All children with this conditionwere found to be intellectually limited withan IQ between 25 and 50, numerous physi­cal problems and personality adjustmentproblems.

Within his play group, teachersworked to help Matt to experience successand to communicate. He was excessivelyshy, withdrawn and passive. Initially hewould never demand attention, would notinitiate play with toys and would not at­tempt to communicate with peers and tea­chers. After much experimentation his tea­chers found that Matt was most comfortableand spontaneous in, movement activitiessuch as when dancing freely to music,bouncing balloons in a large open space,playing with long silk scarfs and usingrhythm instruments. With encouragementand support he gained confidence throughthis type of self-initiated and unstructuredplay and he gradually became more inter­ested in .his peers and teachers. As hegained a sense of control in his group hebecame more alert and self-aware. The nextgoal was to help him communicate more

34

successfully. Initially staff used sign lan­guage along with their verbal conununica­tion because of its visual and motoricqualities and because Matt showed so littleinterest in verbalizing and had a very weak.voice. After learning enough signs to makehis needs and wishes known, he graduallydropped the sign language and started tospeak in a whisper. To reach this level ofboth communication and group involvementtook two years, but when he moved on to anursery school setting he had developed astronger self-concept and showed signs ofgrowing self-esteem. He had gained a morepositive sense of self-esteem throughrepeated experiences of success. He wasbecoming more willing to initiate contactwith others and to explore his environmentThe teachers had provided him with a child­centered learning environment where mis­takes and regression were tolerated butwhere teachers worked to create a settingwhere each child could succeed and be anactive learner.

A follow-up study on Matt twelveyears later indicates that he has continued togrow in self-esteem and competence.(Sheridan. Radlinski & Kennedy, 1990).Although past literature would suggest thatthis boy would most likely face a verylimited life and perhaps be institutionalized,Matt continues to grow and function aboveexpectation. Matt, now eighteen years ofage, attends a special school where he hasbeen a student for the past nine years. Mattreceives intensive special education and isalso involved in vocational training. Hereads at the thiJd grade level and can domathematicsat the fifth grade level. His IQ

SELF-ESTEEM & COMPEIENCY

remains at 60. His social behavior is similarto a twelve year old's. Most importantly, heis a very proud young man living a full life.He enjoys sports; he downhill skis well inspite of his physical handicaps and has wonawards in local Special Olympics. He en­joys card games, jogging and being with hisfamily and friends. He has gained manypractical skills, can cook and is beginning tomanage his spending money independently;he can carry through on household and yardchores and he loves to work with mechani­cal equipment. Matt has a shy and gentlepersonality, but he is able to express hisideas and feelings.

This young man has a good sense ofself-esteem and has clearly grown farbeyond the medical expectations. Much ofhis success is due to the fact that his parentsaccepted him totally and were detennined togive him every chance to become a com­petent individual. They have workeddiligently to keep realistic but high expec­tations for their son. It would have beeneasy for parents and teachers to focus onMatt's passivity, to infantilize him and tostress his weaknesses. Instead there hasbeen a collaborative effort between hisparents and all involved professionals tostress his strengths and to support his con­tinually gaining more personal control in hislife. His life bas not always been easy, butbe has learned to make up his own mindabout many things and knows be must beresponsible for what hedoes. He is a youngman who will need some supervisionthroughout his life, but he will be able tohold a job and live away from bis parents.It is wonderful is to see this young mao's

SHERIDAN

pride in himself and his accomplishments.Appropriate parenting and teaching have al­lowed this highly vulnerable young man togain a solid sense of self-esteem and com­petency that have greatly improved hisquality of life and his future potential.

A positive sense of self-esteem willnot change innate ability, but it will allowpeople to function in a way that reflectsmore of their maxinuun potential. A personwith a well established sense of competencywill not be overwhelmed by the inevitablefailures and temporary setbacks in life.Early childhood programs will best servethe children in their care when the learningclimate and teaching style reflect an aware­ness and understanding of these facets ofpersonality development.

References

Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents ofself-esteem. San Francisco:Freeman.

Harter, S. (1983). Developmental perspec­tives on the self-system. InHetherington, E. M. (Ed.), Handbookof child psychology: Vol. 4.Socialization, personality and socialdevelopment (4th ed., pp. 275-386).New York: Wiley.

Lewis, M. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979).Social cognition and the acquisitionofself. New York: Plenwn.

Marshall, H. (1989). The development ofself-concept. Young children. 44-51.

Mead, G. (1934). Mind, self and society.Chicago: University of ChicagoPress.

35

Sheridan, M. K. & Radlinski, S. (1988).Brief report A case study of anadolescent male with XXXXYKlinefelter's Syndrome. Journal ofAutism and Developmental Dis­orders, 18. 449-456.

Sheridan, M. K., Radlinski, S. & Kennedy,M. D. (1990). Developmental out­come in 49, XXXXY Klinefelter'sSyndrome: Two longitudinal casestudies. Developmental Medicine andChild Neurology, 32. 532-539.

White, R. (1959). Motivation reconsidered:The concept of competence.Psychological Review, 66. 297-333.