Individual Differences

PerceptionsAttributionsAttitudesValuesPersonalityMotivation

Why are they important?

They directly affect behavior. IDs Behavior

They indirectly affect behavior.

“X” Behavior

IDs

Perceptions

The process of making sense of one’s environment

The Process of Perceiving

Picking up of Stimuli(Selective Attention)

1. Stimulus Selectivity

2. Personal Selectivity

Interpretation of Stimuli

(Encoding)(Storage & Retention)(Retrieval)

Perceptions ≠ Reality: Why?

Picking up Stimuli(we notice things that aren’t there or miss things that are)•Selective perception•Contrast effect•Projection•Primacy/Recency Effects•Hierarchical Bias

Interpreting Stimuli(organization & recall)

•Schema•Negativity bias•Mood and emotions•Individual differences•Past Experience

Conclusions

Our perceptions may not accurately represent reality. Our perceptions of someone else are not just based on their characteristics, but also on our own.

Our behavior is a function of our perceptions (an ID)

Consequently, perceptions are more important than reality in terms of understanding human behavior in organizations.

We are not passive participants in this process of perceiving.

We are active participants.

In some cases, we may actually create what we “see”.

Implications for OB

Perceptions and First ImpressionsJob interviewsInitial interactions with others

Beyond first impressionsleadershipproblem solvingself-fulfilling propheciesperformance appraisalseveryday interactions

Superior-Subordinate Perceptual Differences

General Foreman’s Foreman’s

Worker Rating Foremen Rating Foreman’sSelf-Rating for Worker Self-Rating for Foremen Self-Rating

High Wages (Economics)

Getting Along with others (Social)

Chance to do interesting work

28%

36%

22%

17%

39%

38%

58%

22%

14%

11%

43%

43%

61%

17%

12%

Perceptual Differences: continued

Workers Foremen Foremen Top Mgmt. see say about see says aboutthemselves Workers themselves Foremen

Feel free to discuss important things about job with boss.

Always/nearly always tell subordinates about changes.

Always/nearly always get subordinate ideas.

Very often get a “pat on the back”for good ideas.

51% 85% 67% 90%

47% 92% 63% 100%

16% 73% 52% 70%

13% 82%

What do workers want?

Supervisors (about subordinates) Subordinates (about self)

1. Good wages 1. Appreciation of work done2. Job security 2. Feeling “in” on things3. Promotion/growth in co. 3. Help on personal problems4. Good working conditions 4. Job security5. Interesting work 5. Good Wages6. Personal loyalty to workers 6. Interesting work7. Tactful disciplining 7. Promotion/growth in company8. Appreciation of work done 8. Personal loyalty to workers9. Help on personal problems 9. Good working conditions10. Feeling “in” on things 10. Tactful disciplining

Attributions

•Are “perceptions” of causality

•Upon the occurrence of a behavior or event, we have the natural desire to explain what caused that event of

behavior.

•The “causes” we use to explain the event or behavior affecthow we feel about it and our expectations

Attributing the “Causes” of Behavior

Locus Dimension

StabilityDimension

Causes ofBehavior Internal External

Stable Ability Task Difficulty

Variable Effort Luck

Common Attributional Biases

•Self-Serving Bias (Ego-Defensive Bias)

•Actor-Observer Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error)

•Gender Linked Bias

•Severity Bias

•Empathy Bias

•Liking Bias

Impression Management Tactics

• Self-handicapping• Self-promotion• Ingratiation• Favors• Apologies• Excuses• Manipulation of information• Object Language

Attitudes

Mental state of readiness, predispositions to react to something in a certain way

Predispositions can be either Lightly held (changeable)Deep seated

Examples of Changeable Attitudes

Job Involvement – degree to which one psychologically identifies with his/her work

Organization Commitment – extent to which one identifies with an organization

Job Satisfaction – degree to which one likes his/her job

Others: Professionalism, union commitment, perceived organizational support

Values

More fundamental beliefs about conduct orexistence.

heavily influenced by culture, historical era

Mystery Value

Response Options:

1 2 3 4 5Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyDisagree Agree

1. Hard work makes a man or a woman a better person.2. Wasting time is as bad as wasting money.3. A good indication of a person’s worth is how well he or she

does on the job.4. If all other things are equal, it is better to have a job with a lot

of responsibility than one with little responsibility.

Perceptions, Attitudes & Values

Perceptions – affect our behavior via our sensory stimuli

Attitudes – affect our behavior via the predispositions we hold about things.

•Lightly held•Deep seated

Values – affect our behavior through our beliefs about right and wrong, good and bad.

Perceptions, attitudes & values: examples

ISU is a research institution. Perception

I like ISU. I like teaching.

Research is a more important activity than teaching.

Attitudes

Value

Questions surrounding personality

•Where does personality come from?

•Can personality change?

•How do we describe one’s personality?

Comprehensive measures – Big Five

Individual Traits

•How useful is information on personality?

Personality: Heredity vs. Environment

Personality is:

50% determined by Heredity/genetics

20-35% determined by the environment

15-30% transient states & measurement error

Based on data from identical twins raised together and apart

Big Five Personality Dimensions

Extraversion - IntraversionAgreeablenessConscientiousnessEmotional Stability – NeuroticismOpenness to experience

Some Individual Personality Traits

AuthoritarianismAscendent Tendency (Machiavellianism)DogmatismLocus of Control

Internals vs ExternalsJob Satisfaction Internals tend to be more satisfied than externals

Self control Internal tend to exhibit more self control

Risk Taking Internals tend to engage in less risky behavior

Absenteeism Internals are absent less than externals

Expectancies Internals see a stronger connection between whatthey do and what happens to them.

Leader Behavior Internals prefer participative leaders, externalsprefer directive leaders

Independence Internals are more independent, less susceptibleto others’ influence

Validity Issues & Personality

Predictive Validity

Construct Validity

Differential Validity

Handling Individual Differences

Less PermanentMore Situational More PermanentSubject to Influence Take as a given

Perceptions Attributions Attitudes Values Personality

Lightly- Deep- Held Seated

Highly Variable Influenced by Has a within & across Work group, biologicalindividuals peers component