Individual Differences – Psychopathology (Abnormality)

Defining and explaining psychological abnormality

• Definitions of abnormality, including deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health, and limitations of these definitions of psychological abnormality The biological approach to psychopathology

• Psychological approaches to psychopathology including the psychodynamic, behavioural and cognitive approaches

deviation from social norms

One can be regarded as abnormal if they deviate from social norms, i.e. they do not do what is regarded to be socially acceptable.Weaknesses of deviation from social norms definition:1. Cultural relativism: social norms differ from culture to culture. E.g. the social norm in one culture (Muslim country) would be to fast. However this social norm does not apply to a Western culture.2. One may be independent or eccentric so that person does not follow the norm, so this does not make him abnormal because that person is different from others.

Failure to function adequately

If one cannot carry out basic tasks such as eating or sleeping – then they have failed to function adequately and they are abnormal. This is what this definition suggests.

Different in different cultures

Deviation from ideal mental health

Jahoda identified the main characteristics of the ideal mental health. These include:1. Managing stress effectively.2. Strong sense of identity.3. Actualisation of one’s potential.Jahoda suggested that if one does not have these attributes – then they do not have the ideal mental health and they are therefore abnormal.

Question

Identify one definition of abnormality and explain one limitation associated with this definition. 3

AnswerThe definitions on the specification are: • Deviation from social norms • Failure to function adequately • Deviation ideal mental health However, other definitions are also creditworthy (eg statistical infrequency).AO1 = 1 mark for correct identification of a definition of abnormality. The limitation must be appropriate to the definition given. • For example, one limitation of the deviation of social norms definition is that norms

can vary over time. This means that behaviour that would have been defined as abnormal in one era is no longer defined as abnormal in another.

• With failure to function adequately, there is a cultural limitation in that the definition does not take account that ‘adequate’ behaviour varies from one culture to another.

• The main limitation with ideal mental health is that the criteria are so demanding that very few people will be able to meet all the criteria.

AO2 = 1 mark for identifying the limitation and a further mark for elaboration.

Examiner’s comment

A very well answered question and one that was obviously popular with the candidates. Many wrote extensively on their chosen definition and it seemed that they could not resist using all the space on page 10. This however, wasted time and candidates need to understand that identification of a definition does not mean explain in great detail; especially when so few marks are available. The limitation was usually in terms of era dependency, context or cultural relativism.

The biological approach to psychopathology

• Abnormalities can be passed on by genetic inheritance – this approach states that if somebody has schizophrenia, then their children are more likely to have schizophrenia than children who have parents who do not have this disorder.

• Abnormalities can be caused by abnormalities in somebody’s neurochemistry. So low serotonin levels can cause abnormalities such as having a sleeping disorder.

• Abnormalities can be caused by abnormalities in somebody’s neuroanatomy such as having little brain tissue around the ventricles. This can cause schizophrenia.

Psychodynamic approach

FreudDistress is caused by conflict between the id (irrational part of a personality), ego (rational part of the personality) and superego (rational part of the personality which aims for perfection for the individual). Ego defences can be used to reduce the anxiety caused by the conflict between the id and the ego. Ego defences include repression (moving unwanted thoughts into the unconscious) and regression (behaving like a child when faced with a difficult situation). If ego defences are used too much – this can cause abnormalities.

Behavioural approach

Abnormalities can be caused by conditioning – we condition ourselves to have a phobia of something from before, sometimes without even realising it. So, we use classical conditioning to associate something to something that is negative and as a result, we have a phobia from it.

Cognitive approach

Abnormalities are caused by maladaptive thoughts and it is because of these maladaptive beliefs which cause the abnormality.Ellis’ ABC model:A: Action – something happens which would lead the individual to believe something.B: Belief – the individual could either think of the action in an adaptive manner or a maladaptive manner.C: Consequence – if the individual thinks maladaptively, then that person will be more likely to behave maladaptively and if the individual thinks adaptively, then that person will be more likely to behave adaptively.

Question

• ‘Freud’s views on the origins of abnormal behaviour and ways of treating it had a great impact on psychology.’ Outline and evaluate the psychodynamic approach to abnormality. 12

AnswerAO1 = 6 marks Knowledge and understanding of the psychodynamic approach to abnormality. AO2 = 6 marks Evaluation of the psychodynamic approach to abnormality. • Candidates can consider the main assumptions of this approach as well as the therapies that

are used. The main assumptions include Freud’s belief that abnormality came from the psychological causes rather than the physical causes, that unresolved conflicts between the id, ego and superego created anxiety, this could be dealt with by the ego’s use of defence mechanisms, early childhood experiences shaped later adult life and unconscious motivation were responsible for disorders.

• The techniques that are used to access the unconscious could include free association, dream analysis and the use of projective techniques. An answer that describes therapies alone cannot access the top bands (AO1).

• However, if the answer clearly demonstrates theoretical underpinning of therapy then it can access the full range of marks. The evaluation can include a consideration of the difficulty in supporting the existence of such abstract concepts such as the id, or repression. The lack of empirical evidence, although candidates may of course use Freud’s case studies as support. Candidates could also consider just how influential Freudian theory has been and they could examine the impact it has had on the way people think. An evaluation of the therapy could consider whether it is effective and for what disorders, as well as ethical issues.

Examiner commentsAs mentioned in the introduction, the answers to this question caused many examiners to wonder exactly what candidates are being taught about Freud. The language used was almost offensive (in a significant minority is was offensive) and the understanding of how Freud’s theory can be used to explain abnormality was often minimal. It would appear from candidates’ answers that this area of the specification is over-taught, but in a very general sense. It might be better to reduce the amount of psychoanalytic theory taught and focus more on the precise links to abnormality. Many candidates were able to describe each psychosexual stage in great detail, but with very little, if any, understanding of how the stages relate to abnormality. Extensively detailed descriptions of Little Hans were often given, without any explanation of how this case study supports Freudian theory. Therapies were described in detail, but without reference to the rational that underpins the therapy. A consequence of so much detailed description was that it often limited the time candidates had to develop an effective evaluation of the psychodynamic approach to abnormality. As has often been written in these reports, sometimes “less is more”.

Treating abnormality

• Biological therapies, including drugs and ECT • Psychological therapies, including

psychoanalysis, systematic de-sensitisation and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

Biological therapies, including drugs and ECT

Anti-psychotic drugs reduce the amount of dopamine going to the brain and this combats the symptoms of psychotic illnesses like schizophrenia.Anti-depressant drugsAnti-depressant drugs such as SSRIs block the mechanism which reabsorbs serotonin, so this means that less serotonin is absorbed so more is available. This combats the symptoms of depression because low levels of serotonin can cause depression.Anti-anxiety drugsBenzodiazepines and Beta-BlockersPsychological ways to approach psychopathology

ECT

Process:1. Patient is given a muscle relaxant and oxygen is administered before the therapy starts.2. A small current is then passed through the brain lasting around half a second.3. This causes a seizure.4. It changes the way that the neurotransmitters used to work.We are still unsure about exactly how the therapy works, however research has shown that it has worked on people who are severely depressed.

Psychological therapies, including Psychoanalysis

1. Free association – the patient talks about whatever is in his/her mind to the therapist and why they think that they have this abnormality.2. Dreams analysis is used – the therapist monitors the patient’s dreams to see if (s)he is having nightmares and nightmares about what to see how this could be linked to the abnormality.3. The patient associates certain things that the patient is going through with the abnormality and goes over these issues again and again with the patient until the therapist knows more about the patient’s abnormality source. The point of the psychoanalysis is for the patient to make the thoughts and feelings in the unconscious conscious.

Systematic de-sensitisation therapy

1. The patient is taught how to relax in stressful situations and taught how to recognise a stressful situation.2. The patient and therapist make a desensitisation hierarchy which consists of scenarios which cause more anxiety than the previous scenario and this scenarios involve the thing that the patient has a phobia of.3. The patient goes through each scene in the desensitisation hierarchy and relaxes during each scenario as well and when the patient is ready to move onto the next scene – the patient goes to the next scene which would cause more anxiety than the previous one.

Effective with Phobias

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

This therapy is based on the cognitive approach to psychopathology. The process is:1. The patient is taught that the abnormality is caused by faulty thinking and it is up to the patient whether or not the abnormality is going to remain.2. The therapist disputes with the patient about whether or not the current beliefs are adaptive for the patient or not. There are 3 types of disputing – logic, pragmatic and empirical disputing – these ways of disputing the patient’s current beliefs involve asked the patient whether it is logical to think like that, where the evidence for their belief came from and whether or not their beliefs will benefit them in any way.

Question

• Describe systematic de-sensitisation as a method of treating abnormality. 3

• Explain one weakness of systematic de-sensitisation. 2

Answer

(a) SD involves the client and therapist designing a list or hierarchy of frightening/stressful events or objects. The client is then taught deep muscle relaxation. Finally the therapist helps the client to work their way up the hierarchy while maintaining this deep relaxation. At each stage, if the client becomes upset they can return to an earlier stage and regain their relaxed state. 1 mark for a basic statement and a further 2 marks for elaboration.

(b) One weakness of SD is that it relies on the client’s ability to be able to imagine the fearful situation. Some people cannot create a vivid image and thus SD is not effective. Another weakness is that while SD might be effective in the therapeutic situation, it may not work in the real world. 1 mark for a basic statement and a further mark for elaboration.

Examiner comments(a) The advice to candidates is, just answer the question, there is no need

to waste time in writing out the question. Far too many answers started with “ systematic desensitisation is one method of treating abnormality” and often went on to explain that it was best suited to treating phobias. This is not was the question required and such answers often ran out of space before they started to describe what is involved. However, those candidates who read the question carefully often provided accurate and detailed answers.

(b) There seems to be some misconceptions about this therapy, especially with respect to ethical concerns. Some candidates argued that it is unethical making people face their worst fear, however the whole point of counter-conditioning is that the client is completely relaxed at the time. This type of behavioural therapy is considered one of the most ethical therapies.