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ARL iSpark Series Optical Emission Spectrometers for quality foundry products Innovative OES CASTING TECHNOLOGIES Print Post Approved 100003910 CHINA INDIA TAIWAN SINGAPORE INDONESIA THAILAND PHILIPPINES MALAYSIA HONG KONG JAPAN EUROPE USA AUSTRALIA KOREA NEW ZEALAND ASIA PACIFIC Vol 59, No 2 June 2013

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Page 1: Innovative OES

ARL iSpark Series Optical Emission Spectrometers

for quality foundry productsInnovative OES

CASTING TECHNOLOGIES

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CHINA • INdIA • TAIwAN • SINGApOrE INdONESIA • THAILANd • pHILIppINES •

MALAySIA • HONG KONG • JApAN • EurOpE uSA • AuSTrALIA • KOrEA • NEw ZEALANd

A s i A P A c i f i cVol 59, No 2 June 2013

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METAL casting Technologies June 2013 1

CONTENTS

3214

Cost saving solutions from WES Omega Foundry Machinery

Getting The Most From Your Sand?

Thermal Reclamation•Maintenancefreeburnersystem• 24/7–3Yearliningwarranty• Integralheatexchangerensureslowgasconsumption• Plantsfrom0.25tphto12tph• Suitableforcontinuousorintermittentoperation• Patented‘DeadBed’design• Suitableforallorganicbindersystems•Over130unitsinoperationworldwide• Suitableforgreensandbacktocoreinconjunctionwith2-stagemechanicalscrubbing

Secondry Attrition• IdealforAlkalinePhenolicandSilicateapplications• Typically90%reclamationrateatthemixer• AlsosuitableforGreensandbacktocore

Chromite Recovery• Systemsavailablefrom1tphto20tph• Costeffectiveandmodularsystem• Greaterthan98%purity

WES OMEGA FOUNDRY MACHINERY PTY LTDPH: +613 9794 8400 FAx: +613 9794 7232 Email: [email protected]: 16 Lanyon St, Dandenong Vic 3175, Australia

TURN TO PAGE 37

04 EDiTORiAL

06 BRiEfiNGs

14 fEATUREs14 seeing the light: The challenges and opportunities of advancing light metal technology By Daniel Allen

22 Age hardening study of conventionally cast and semisolid processed A356 Al Alloy By Amporn Wiengmoon, Kissana P,

Torranin Chairuangsri, John Pearce

26 Microstructure and mechanical properties of Al alloy – silicon carbide – graphite hybrid particle composites By Pankaj Sadana, Lakhvir Singh, Dr PC Maity

30 EVENTs

32 BAcK TO BAsics Read the risers iron castings - Part 1 By J. F. Meredith

34 BAcK TO THE fLOOR chemical and physical testing of bronze castings By Prof John HD Bautista

37 fOUNDRY sUPPLiERs DiREcTORY

iBc sUBscRiPTiON fORM

contentsJune 2013 Volume 59, No 2 June 2013

BOOKING FORM PAGE 29

Page 3: Innovative OES

2 www.metals.rala.com.au

industry Associations

publisher & Managing Editor Barbara cail Email: [email protected]

Editorial Melinda cail Email: [email protected]

Advertising & production – Global Adam cail Email: [email protected]

Advertising & production – China Ms. Angela Jiang Tel: +86 15 801 748 090 Email: [email protected]

Subscriptions Joanna Lee Email: [email protected]

Accounts payable cheryl Welsh Email: [email protected]

production craig O’Neill Email: [email protected]

SubSCrIpTION rATESAustralia $AUD 104.65 (includes GsT) Overseas $AUD 132.40 (includes Mailing)

Published by RALA information servicesstreet: 1A/551 Mowbray Road, Lane cove

NsW 2066, AustraliaPhone: +61 2 9420 2080fax: +61 2 9420 5152Web: www.metals.rala.com.au

Metal casting Technologies is a technically based publication specifically for the Asia Pacific Region.The circulation reaches:• foundries• Diecasters• iron and steel mills• Testing labs• Planners & Designers – ciM-cAD-cAM

The Publisher reserves the right to alter or omit any article or advertisement submitted and requires indemnity from the advertisers and contributors against damages or liabilities that may arise from material published.

Copyright – No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without permission of the publisher.

Australian foundry Association

china foundry Association

Thai foundry Association

The institute of indian

foundrymen

The Korean foundrymen's

society

Metal working industry Association

of the Philippines

federation of Malaysian foundry & Engineering industries Association

south East Asian iron & steel

institute

Jimmy Loke yoon Chee Director, Yoonsteel Foundry Malaysia Representative of FOMFEIAMr Gopal ramaswami National Secretary of the Institute of Indian Foundrymen, India Email: [email protected] Frost World Consulting Specialist Foundry Process Engineer [email protected]

Mr Zhang Libo Executive Vice President China Foundry Association [email protected] Seksan Tangkoblab President Thai Foundrymen’s Societydr John pearce Metals Specialist MTEC National Metals and Materials Technology Centre, Thailand

Australian Foundry Institute south Australia: The Secretary, PO Box 288, North Adelaide SA 5006Western Australia: The Secretary, [email protected] south Wales: The Secretary, Locked Bag 30, Bankstown NSW 2200, [email protected]: C/- PO Box 89, Acacia Ridge QLD 4110Victoria: PO Box 4284, Dandenong South VIC 3164Casting Technology New Zealand Inc. PO Box 9, Tairua 3544, New Zealand Tel: +64 274 558 346, Email; [email protected] Foundry Association 3rd Floor, A-32 Zizhuyuan Rd Haidian District, Beijing 100048, CHINA Tel: +86 10 6841 8899 Fax: +86 10 6845 8356 Web: www.foundry-china.comFederation of Malaysia Foundry & Engineering Industries Association (FOMFEIA), 8 Jalan 1/77B, Off Jalan Changi at Thambi Dollah 55100, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Tel: +603 241 8843, Fax: +603 242 1384Institute of Indian Foundrymen IIF Center, 335 Rajdanga Main Road, East Kolkata Township P.O. Kolkata - 700107 India Tel: +91 33 2442 4489, +91 33 2442 6825 Fax: +91 33 2442 4491Japanese Association of Casting Technology Noboru Hatano, Technical Director, JACT, Nakamura Bldg, 9-13, 5-chome, Ginza,Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104 Japan Tel: +81 3 3572 6824, Fax: +81 3 3575 4818

Metalworking Industries Association of the philippines Inc. Pacificador Directo, National President, MIAP, No. 55 Kanlaon St, Mandaluyong, 1501 Metro Manila, Philippines Tel: +632 775 391, Fax: +632 700 413pakistan Foundry Association Abdul Rashid 93-B, Hali Road, Gulberg-II Lahore, Pakistan Tel: + 92 (0) 42 3575 3619, (0) 42 3502 3525 Email. [email protected]/[email protected] Web. www.pfa.org.pkphilippine Iron & Steel Institute (PISI), Room 518, 5th Floor, Ortigas Building, Ortigas Avenue, Pasig, Metro Manila Tel: +632 631 3065, Fax: +632 631 5781philippine Metalcasting Association Inc. (PMAI), 1135 EDSA, Balintawak, Quezon City Metro Manila, Philippines Tel: +632 352 287, Fax: +632 351 7590South East Asian Iron & Steel Institute 2E 5th Floor Block 2, Worldwide Business Park Jalan Tinju 13/50, 40675 Shah Alam, Selangor Malaysia Tel: +603 5519 1102, Fax: +603 5519 1159, Email: [email protected] Foundry Association Khun Wiboolyos Amatyakul President Thai Foundry Association 86/6 1st Floor BSID Building Bureau of Supporting Industries Development Soi Trimitr, Rama IV Road Klongtoey Bangkok 10110 Thailand www.thaifoundry.com Email: [email protected] Materials process Technology Center Japan. Kikai Shinko Bldg, 3-5-8 Shiba-Koen, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105 Japan Tel: +81 3 3434 3907, Fax: +81 3 3434 3698

ARL iSpark Series Optical Emission Spectrometers

for quality foundry productsInnovative OES

CASTING TECHNOLOGIES

Prin

t Pos

t App

rove

d 10

0003

910

CHINA • INdIA • TAIwAN • SINGApOrE INdONESIA • THAILANd • pHILIppINES •

MALAySIA • HONG KONG • JApAN • EurOpE uSA • AuSTrALIA • KOrEA • NEw ZEALANd

A s i A P A c i f i cVol 59, No 2 June 2013

FrONT COVEr: Thermo Fisher Scientific. For further information pleae see Cover Story page 7.

AdVErTISEr’S INdEXAFI WA DIVISION ....................................................................... 3BECKWITH MACBRO SANDS ................................................. 31CAST METAL SERVICES ............................................................ 9FOSECO ................................................................................. OBCIMF ............................................................................................... 11PACIFIC RIM FOUNDRY SERVICES ........................................ 13SPECTRO Analytical Instruments .......................................... 5SYNCHRO ERP ........................................................................... 33THERMO FISHER SCIENTIFIC ........................................ OFC, 7WES OMEGA FOUNDRY MACHINERY ............................... IFC

FOuNdry SuppLIErS dIrECTOryACCESS ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS .................................. 37BECKWITH MACBRO SANDS ................................................. 37CAST METAL SERVICES ........................................................... 37CASTING SOLUTIONS .............................................................. 37FINITE SOLUTIONS .................................................................. 37FOSECO .................................................................................... 38HAYES METALS ........................................................................ 38IMF ............................................................................................. 38MAGMA ENGINEERING ASIA PACIFIC ................................ 39OXFORD INSTRUMENTS ....................................................... 38PACIFIC RIM FOUNDRY SERVICES ....................................... 38SPECTRO Analytical ................................................................ 39SYNCHRO ERP .......................................................................... 39SIBELCO ..................................................................................... 40THERMO FISHER SCIENTIFIC ............................................... 40WES OMEGA FOUNDRY MACHINERY ............................... 40

The conference series is an effective peer discussion and practical forum bringing together Foundry Managers,

CEOs, suppliers, technologists and operating personnel, in a social yet informative forum.

Sunday, 20 October – Wednesday, 23 October 2013Perth, Western Australia

For more information visit: www.afi2013.org.au

WiTh ThE suppOrT OF FOundriEs and suppliErs all OvEr ausTralia and abrOad, aFi Wa is ExCiTEd TO bring yOu ThE 49Th ausTralian FOundry insTiTuTE naTiOnal COnFErEnCE

49th Australian Foundry Institute

National Conference

rEgisTraTiOns OpEn 15 JunE

Page 4: Innovative OES

More disruptive experiences to come

Barbara Cail

cON

TRiB

UTO

Rs EdITOrIAL

METAL casting Technologies June 2013 5

uzz words and phrases come and go. One phrase now enjoying high currency is “disruptive technologies”. The speed of the digital world carrying an offering of spectacular technologies and their applications is disrupting

the traditional business models of the 20th century. Many of them will not be seen ever again. This disruption is also slowly happening in the metal castings industry.

For the past five years, China has taken central position when talking about the rise in car manufacturers and the attendant supply line of metal castings. At the same time we contrasted this with the demise of the US car market- Detroit becoming a financial basket case. We lamented the export of skills and knowledge to Asia in the pursuit of profits through cheaper labor and construction costs. Now we see how the pursuit of cheaper labor with the mass migration of jobs and a skill bank created a vast disruption of the US car industry.

Emerging at a reasonable speed is the next disruptive phase. The US has started to redesign products and processes enabling less staff, employing robotics and as much automation as possible. This model leads to more cost effective cast products. The added bonus of this transformation is the saving from not paying shipping costs for Asian made products back to the US.

The timing chimes with the increasing wages in China and their subsequent need to increase outsourcing to African countries and other developing nations with lower wages.

The transformation will continue and be reinforced in the manufacturers market for metal castings by embracing the cost effectiveness of light metals. Strong demand from rapidly developing emerging nations has been driving up base metal prices in recent years with an emphasis on magnesium. There is a clear trend in automotive magnesium applications but so far only a handful of upscale carmakers such as Audi, BMW and Cadillac use magnesium parts in their cars. And, the development of magnesium auto parts will basically be non-safety related. But it has been dubbed “green metal of 21st century”.

reducing weight reduces fuel consumptionAuto makers around the world know they must explore the boundaries of fuel economy and commit to meeting an increasing focus on tough new standards. This century demands a focus on green technology and the automotive market is the chief target for fuel emissions. The

answer will come from creating light weight cars. The same focus is extremely strong in the aerospace

industry. Very light, very strong new metals and emerging manufacturing processes are set to usher in a new era of aerospace technology. Australia’s Monash University in Melbourne has a metallurgy laboratory so significant in what it is doing that it has attracted some of the biggest companies in the global aerospace industry from the other side of the world.

They are keeping close to the technology that could make this laboratory the genesis of the next generation of aerospace manufacturing. They are also keeping close to a scientist in whose hands their futures may well sit.

Professor Xinhua Wu is recognised internationally as a leader in advanced light metals research. The giants of European manufacturers are looking for new materials that are lighter yet stronger, cheaper to manufacture, reliably safe and which will also help them halve aviation’s overall carbon emissions by 2050.

For Professor Wu and her centre it means changing the very nature of metals such as titanium, aluminium and magnesium, modifying their fine-scale structures to give them new and improved characteristics. It requires advanced industrial research underpinned by fundamental science that is exploring new paradigms in metals and their properties.

The total weight of a car body reduced by up to 100 kg means lower manufacturing costs and greater fuel efficiency. And fuel efficiency is one of the most crucial aspects in the

automotive industry due to rising fuel costs and increasing regulations worldwide.

As the 21st century continues to gather speed through digital technology disrupting out of date business models, light weight metals will be star performers in the auto and aviation industries. The result will be a reduction in fuel emissions and a big contribution to the reduction in greenhouse gases. And with the new lighter automobiles they will contain enough Light metals technology which will also include the effective use of cast components.

In this edition of Metals magazine you can read more about light metals in the very informative feature by Daniel Allen, Seeing the Light - the challenges and opportunities of advancing light metal technology. There are also two very valuable technical papers, Age hardening study of conventionally cast and semi-solid processed A356 Al Alloy and Microstructure and mechanical properties of Al alloy- silicon carbide – graphite hybrid particle composites as well as our regular features Back to Basics and Back to the Floor. We continue to take pleasure in bringing you information and knowledge which may provide you with a more informed capability in your work with metal castings.

Barbara Cailb

JOHN HERMEs D. BAUTisTAPMAi Technical consultant

DR. P. c. MAiTY Metal casting and Materials Engineer

JEff f. MEREDiTHcasting solutions Pty Ltd

DANiEL ALLENBased in London and Beijing, award-winning writer and photographer Daniel Allen has journeyed widely across Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas. His work has featured in numerous publications, including the Guardian, National Geographic, Discovery channel magazine, Geographical, Esquire and cNN Traveller.

JOHN PEARcEMetals specialist, MTEc National Metals and Materials Technology centre, Thailand

4 www.metals.rala.com.au

On-site, at-line and in the laboratory

– from SPECTRO and its metal

analyzers you can expect:

– Perfect analysis solutions with innovative technologies – Fast and precise measurements, plus ease of use and reliability– Outstanding performance and flexibility– Comprehensive service and analytical expertise of the market leader– Unrivaled price-to-performance-ratio

Talk with SPECTRO and find out why SPECTRO‘s metal analyzers are an investment in better efficiency and higher profitability.

Tel. +852.2976.9162 Fax [email protected] www.spectro.com

Metal

Analysis

with SPECTRO

Analyzers

Page 5: Innovative OES

6 www.metals.rala.com.au

brIEFINGS

Australia’s first Industry Innovation precinct opensAustralia’s first Industry Innovation Precinct has been opened by Greg Combet the Minister for Climate Change, Industry and Innovation.

Mr Combet stated that “By bringing together our best research minds and our most innovative businesses, Industry Innovation Precincts will create Australian businesses and industries that can compete on the world stage.”

The Manufacturing Precinct is the first of up to 10 Precincts that will focus on areas of Australian competitive advantage or emerging opportunity.

“It will bring together businesses, research institutions, service providers and government agencies to support and create internationally-competitive manufacturing businesses and jobs,” said Mr Combet.

“The Manufacturing Precinct will help Australian manufacturers to improve skills and technologies, to tap into research expertise and to build collaborations.”

Chaired by experienced industry executive, Albert Goller, the Manufacturing Precinct will work closely with Australia’s best manufacturers and researchers who will come together as foundation members.

The Manufacturing Precinct will be headquartered in the New Horizons building at the Clayton Campus of Monash University in Melbourne’s south east. It will be situated alongside 400 staff from Monash and CSIRO, specialising in research into advanced manufacturing, biological engineering and renewable energy.

The Manufacturing Precinct will operate nationally through a network linking manufacturers and researchers. It will also have a presence in Adelaide focusing on defence-related manufacturing.

Businesses and other organisations will also be able to collaborate with the Manufacturing Precinct to apply for

funding under the Industry Collaboration Fund, the Industry Collaboration Fund will open later this year.

Mr Combet also announced that applications were now open for the remaining Industry Innovation Precincts. Further information and details about how to apply can be found at www.aussiejobs.innovation.gov.au/iip.

In addition, Mr Combet and Science and Research Minister Craig Emerson have announced that more than $23 million has been awarded under the first round of the Federal Government’s Industrial Transformation Research Program (ITRP).

The $236 million ITRP is an integral part of the Government’s Industry Innovation Precincts and will support important industry–research partnerships to improve competitiveness. It will fund projects in Precinct priority research areas; ensuring research is targeted to areas of existing industrial competitive advantage and emerging opportunities.

The second round of the ITRP will address research priority areas in manufacturing and defence manufacturing to match the initial two Industry Innovation Precincts being established.

Mr Combet stated that supporting advanced manufacturing in Australia remains a key Government priority, and that Industry Innovation Precincts are an important industry-led initiative that will accelerate this transformation and ensure highly skilled job opportunities into the future.”

Talking metals in Thailand – from TrIZ to NanoIn late March the Iron and Steel Institute of Thailand (ISIT) hosted the South East Asia Iron & Steel Institute (SEAISI) Travelling Seminar 2013 entitled “Problem solving tools for improvements in steel mill operation”, in Bangkok. During March, in addition to Bangkok, the travelling seminar also visited Shah Alam in Malaysia, Hanoi in Vietnam, Manilla in the Philippines and Cilegon in Indonesia. The following presentations were given: l “TPM method to solve problems in the

steel mill” by Mr. Wu Kai-Yu, Tung Ho Steel, Taiwan.

l “The use of six sigma improvement tools for optimization of steelmaking processes” by Mr. Michael Davies, Moly-Cop Australasia, Newcastle, Australia.

Michael davies answers questions about six sigma in steelmaking.

Innovative Metals Analyzers for Foundries

Thermo Scientific ARL iSpark Series Optical Emission Spectrometers

Thermo Scientific™ ARL iSpark™ is the most advanced arc/spark OES metals analyzer. It takes advantage of decades of our expertise in developing high quality OES instruments. It comes with innovative and integrated features which are extremely valuable for any foundry that wants to optimize process and product quality, while reducing operation costs.

The ARL iSpark spectrometer combines the latest CCD technology – the first CCD detector designed for OES – with the PMT optics of the most established OES spectrometer, the ARL 3460. The CCD ensures the high accuracy and precision that are necessary for the foundry to determine reliably major and minor alloying elements, while the PMT detectors offer unrivaled performance in the determination of critical and impurity elements. Thanks to this new optical concept, foundries will find ARL iSpark the most convenient analytical solution with uncompromising performance, elemental coverage, versatility and flexibility for future needs.

Furthermore, the instrument has been designed to work with the lowest operation costs. The argon consumption during analysis and stand-by has been minimized and the argon saving ECOmodes allow the foundry to make substantial additional savings when the instrument is idle. For short periods, the argon flow is reduced, while it can be completely turned off for periods of time ranging from hours to days or weeks.

With the ARL iSpark, maintenance operations are simplified and time to perform them is reduced, thus increasing instrument and operator availability.

Important contributions come from the Maintenance Management tool and the innovative analytical stand. The first makes these necessary maintenance tasks straightforward and as infrequent as possible, while ensuring highest instrument reliability. The stand can be dismantled and reassembled without tools in a few seconds.

Improved foundry image, products quality and process efficiencyAs a high performance OES metals analyzer based on the latest technologies, the ARL iSpark will assist you in optimizing quality, as well as various other aspects, by:

• giving a modern image and analytical credibility of the foundry to its customers, especially from automotive industry

• simplifying product acceptance by foundry customers, with easier accreditation of the instruments to the applied norms

• reducing internal metal scrap with better control of all the elements, resulting in better material and energy efficiency

• using an analytical solution enabling the foundry to help its customers in developing products

• being more competitive than foundries that use limited analytical solutions

The ARL iSpark has all the features allowing these improvements. It is delivered as a turn-key solution, fully calibrated in our factory and thoroughly tested for performance, accuracy and quality before delivery. It has also all the tools necessary to guarantee functionality and performance at the installation and over the years, as the iSpark Synoptics diagnostic tool and automated quality control tool IQ/OQ (Instrument Qualification/Operation Qualification).

For further details, please visit www.thermoscientific.com/ispark

Thermo Fisher Scientific  is the world leader in serving science. The company enables its customers to make the world healthier, cleaner and safer by providing analytical instruments, equipment, reagents and consumables, software and services for research, analysis, discovery and diagnostics.

For over 75 years, the ARL OES instruments have set the standard of quality for spectrochemical analysis of metals. Throughout these years, performance, stability, reliability and longevity have been the key attributes of our optical emission spectrometers. Today the OES installed base is larger than 14,000 with instruments used in all the metals markets.

Thermo Fisher ScientificChemin de Verney 2En Vallaire Ouest CCH-1024 Ecublens (Switzerland)Tel. +41 (0)21 694 71 11Fax +41 (0)21 694 71 [email protected]/oeswww.thermoscientific.com/xray

COVER STORY

METAL casting Technologies June 2013 7

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brIEFINGS

l “Trends and applications of computational mechanics/process modeling in steel mill operation” by Dr. Kazuto Yamamura, Nippon Steel and Sumitomo Metal Corporation, Japan.

l “Application of TRIZ to solve problems in the steel mill” by Mr. Lee Hee-Choon, TRIZ Research Centre, POSCO, Korea.To encourage the development

and growth of a sustainable iron and steel industry in the region, notably by technology transfer to developing countries from Australia, Japan, Korea and Taiwan, the travelling seminar programme is one of many SEAISI events organized across the South East Asia region.

In Bangkok the presentation on TRIZ (the theory of inventive problem solving first developed in the USSR by Genrich Altshuller) generated considerable discussion since this approach was not as familiar to many delegates as TPM and Six Sigma.

The SEAISI will visit Thailand again between 2-6 June 2013 to hold the 2013 SEAISI conference and exhibition at the Dusit Thai Hotel in Pattaya. Over 500 delegates are expected to attend the event which will examine “Developing a competitive steel industry in ASEAN – Technology, Policy and Products”. Further information is at www.seaisi.org

Later on in the year two metallurgical based conferences are being held in Thailand. The first, organized in Bangkok from 9-10 September 2013 by the Global Science and Technology Forum and Michigan Technological Institute, USA, is M3-2013 - the 3rd Annual International Conference on Materials Science, Metal and Manufacturing (www.m3-conference.org)

The second is the 7th in the series of the Thailand Metallurgy Conference (TMETC 7) which will be held from 24-25 October 2013 at the Peace Laguna Resort in Krabi. The theme for the event is “Metallurgy towards ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)” to include Structure

and Properties, Processing, Surface Engineering and Heat Treatment, Corrosion and Oxidation, and notably Nanoscience and Nanotechnology in Metallurgy since the number of research projects involving nano-sized aspects of metals and materials is increasing in Thailand. The conference is co-organized by Prince of Songkla University, the National Metals and Materials Technology Centre (MTEC), ISIT and MMRI – the Metals and Materials Science Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University.

More recycling opportunities for foundry wasteSashnee Moodley from engineeringnews.co.za reports that the foundry industry is one of the greatest recyclers; however, it generates many waste products that end up in landfills when, in fact, they can be used in several applications, says US Department of Agriculture research soil scientist Robert Dungan.

Speaking at the 2013 South African Metal Casting Conference, in March, he noted that there were solutions for waste, such as moulding sand, slag and furnace refractory, produced by the foundry sector.

Dungan noted that foundry sand was the most common waste in the industry and that it could be used in several geotechnical and agricultural applications.

Despite the challenges of conducting a business in the global economy because of the global economic downturns, he believes that there are initiatives that can be applied by the energy-intensive foundry industry to improve the bottom line.

The use of foundry waste will benefit the industry, as raw materials and energy are conserved, while disposal costs are lowered. The pollution of soil, water and air resources will be reduced and the competitiveness of foundries will be improved.

Waste foundry sand, in particular,

has many beneficial uses and can be incorporated into asphalt, concrete, construction fill, pipe bedding and road bases.

It also has agricultural and horticultural uses, such as potting and as speciality soils. In direct land applications it improves soil texture and, as topsoil, it is used in landscaping and turf grass.

Foundry sand can be used in manufactured soil and this mixture can be used to successfully grow vegetables that are safe for human consumption, grass and other plants.

When asked about the risks of foundry sand, Dungan said a risk assessment was conducted by the US Environmental Protection Agency in a home-garden scenario, which found that the metal concentrations in foundry sand were similar to the levels found in native soil.

Further, foundry sand has low dioxin, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and phenolic concentrations.

The assessment also revealed that most ferrous and aluminium-foundry sand is safe for use in soil-related applications.

The waste sand can also be used in green-building applications.

“Rooftop gardens are proven to save heating and cooling energy and costs, remediating stormwater and creating better environments for building occupants. Sandy loam mixed with foundry sand helps create a lightweight blend when combined with Haydite-expanded shale aggregate,” Dungan said.

Further, when used as a road base for embankments, foundry sand is not only an easy-to-handle and uniform material but is also not moisture sensitive or susceptible to freeze-thaw weathering.

Slag, which is the by-product of smelting ore, was another valuable waste material, noted Dungan.

Depending on the type, such as blast-furnace or steel slag, and whether it is pelletised, granulated or air cooled,

METAL casting Technologies March 2013 9

Products & servicesSORELMETAL High Purity Pig Iron: Australian agents for SorelMetal High Purity Pig Iron. Produced by Richards Bay Iron and Titanium Pty Ltd South AfricaRefractories:• CMS manufactures a selected range of

premium grade Castables, Ramming Materials, Mortars and Furnace Linings etc. developed to suit the customer’s Specifications and applications.

• Mayerton Refractories UK. Australasian Agent (Furnace & Ladle Refractory Bricks)

• CMS manufacture a complete range of Refractories and Pre-cast shapes

• Services include selection, installation auditing and supply for Foundry EAF. Induction and Heat Treatment Furnaces and Ladles.

Refractory Hollowware:• Mayerton Refractories UK.- Australasian

Distributors• Cooinda Ceramics - manufactures of the

EZY-FLO range of first quality Ceramic Hollowware

Foundry Equipment: • Omega Foundry Equipment UK. Australian

Agent• A1 Roper UK. Ladles and accessories –

Australian Distributors• Whiting Equipment Canada Inc. Electric

Arc Furnaces & metallurgical Equipment- Australian Agent

• PowerHammer Riser removal equipment – Australian Agent

• Equipois Inc. manufactures of the Zero Gravity Arm - Australasian agent

Ferro Alloys:• CMS can offer the largest, most

comprehensive, complete range of Ferro Alloys and Metal Powders

Nodulants & Inoculants:• Elkem a/s Norway. Exclusive Australian Agent• Services include Charge calculations, melting

procedures etc., for Grey and Nodular Irons. Nickel:• Stocks held in all Australian statesIndium:• Australian Agent for Indium Corporation of

AmericaRecarburiser:• Synthetic Graphite, Graphitised Petroeum

Coke & Gas Calcined AnthraciteOxy Lance Pipes:• Shinto Japan – Australian/NZ AgentFilters:• Exclusive distributors for the SQ range of

ceramic filters for all grades of ferrous and non-ferrous metals

Slag Coagulant:• Castkleen range of Slag Coagulants for all

applicationsSands:• Southern Pacific Sands. Exclusive Foundry

distribution of local Silica Moulding Sands• Premium grade Zircon Sand Australian

distributors for Sibelco• Chromite Sand - CMS are distributors for

Rand York Minerals Premium Foundry Grade Chromite Sand

• Olivine Sand Bentonite:• CMS Superior Bond High Performance

BentoniteMould and Core Binder Systems:• CMS are the exclusive agents for the full

range of SQ Resin Binders and Catalysts – including Furane, Alkaline Phenolic Co2 and liquid hardener cured, Air Setting Polyurethane Resin, Cold Box and Hot Box Resin Systems

Refractory Mould Coatings:• CMS manufacture a full range of Foundry

refractory Mould Coatings, in water and Solvent suspensions and dry powder blends based on Zircon, Graphite, Magnesite, Olivine and Alumina and a range of auxlilary products including adhesives, RIMS Anti Veining additive

Methoding Software & Service• CMS use and recommend NovaCast

Methoding Software - CMS are the exculsive agents for Australia and New Zealand for NovaCast AB Sweden

• CMS services include technical support in casting methoding, gating, and riser design / selection, 3D modeling filling / solidification simulation plus general technical support

FEEDING AIDS:• CMS insulating riser tiles – ISOtop hot topping

and insulating compounds. Pattern Making Supplies: • Ebalta pattern resins and tooling boards

Australian agents.• CB Vents, Dowels & Sockets etc.,Steel Shot: • TAIWANABRATOR Steel Shot – Australian

Distributors Abrasives:• CMS can offer a complete range of high

quality Abrasives especially formulated for the Foundry Industry

Welding wire:CMS offer a competitive range of Welding WireGrahite Electrodes:• Graphite Electrodes 6inch to 28inch all

lengths, HP, SHP, UHP CMS are exclusive agents for Fangda China

HEAD OFFICEPostal: PO Box 22 Northgate Qld 4013. Offices: 275-277 Toombul Road, Northgate Qld 4013

T: +61 7 3326 4800 F: +61 7 3266 6366 E: [email protected] Branches: Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide & Perth. NZ Distributors: Metcast Services Limited. Auckland NZ

Overseas Offices: UK, China & Malaysia

METAL casting Technologies June 2013 9

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brIEFINGS

slag can be used in asphalt aggregate, concrete masonry, soil cement and glass manufacture, as well as lightweight fill.

Dungan said it was important to market foundry wastes to end-users and recommended that a steering committee be established.

“Stakeholders need to be educated about metal casting. Existing regulations and focus efforts should be evaluated and those in industry should hold seminars, workshops and demonstration projects. Think of waste as a valuable by-product. Waste is not waste if it is beneficially used,” he concluded.Source: www.engineeringnews.co.za

Expansion in Thai auto industry continuesAlthough there are some concerns over the recent strengthening of the Thai Baht the auto industry in Thailand is continuing to invest in expanded production capacity. Mitsubishi is investing around 1 billion Baht to raise annual vehicle production capacity in Thailand from 460,000 to 510,000 by the end of the year. Having first started producing vehicles in Thailand in 1998, the company now has three production plants in Chonburi and, in February 2013, exported its 2 millionth Thai made auto. Mitsubishi is also moving some of its research and development to a new expanded Thai centre increasing the number of engineers involved in R&D in Thai operations from the present 40 up to 120 in two years time.

At a cost of around 17 billion Baht, Honda is building a new assembly and engine plant in Prachinburi province 120km east of Bangkok. Honda announced that, outside Japan, the plant will be the most advanced manufacturing facility in SE Asia with green production through reduced CO2 and the use of recycled water. The new plant, with around 2,000 employees, will start production in 2015 and will be capable of producing 120,000

vehicles per year. With production at its Ayutthaya plant boosted to 300,000 by a 3 billion Baht investment, Honda will have an annual Thai production capacity of 420,000 units.

At the March-April 2013 Bangkok Motor show Ford announced that, despite the strong baht, it had no plans to relocate manufacturing. Ford has been in Thailand for 15 years and during 2012 invested a further 14 billion baht into a second plant in Rayong to raise its Thai production capacity to 450,000 vehicles. Toyota expressed some concern over the baht strengthening further but was managing the situation by lowering production costs through co-operation with suppliers. The demand for new vehicles, especially pick-ups and small eco-cars, in Thailand is expected to remain high during 2013 in spite of the 2012 market record of 1.4 million units. Exhibitors at the Bangkok show included 36 auto-producers, 7 motor cycle companies and over 200 parts suppliers. The continued strength of the car industry is good news for foundries producing components whilst the strong baht could encourage them to update their technology with equipment from overseas and to then improve productivity by becoming less labour intensive.

According to the Thailand Automotive Institute (TAI) around 8 billion baht of investment is needed to fund a vehicle and component testing centre in Thailand since at present vehicles and parts have to be sent to India, Spain or Taiwan for testing. The Thai Strategic Committee for Reconstruction and Future Development (SCRF) has suggested that the planned centre could be part funded by contributions from car companies in Thailand based on the number of vehicles sold by each company. The TAI is to examine the SCRF plan and other sources of funding for the testing centre which is expected to be located on the eastern seaboard close to most of the car plants.

Meanwhile Denso, one of the world’s biggest manufacturer of auto parts with its headquarter in Japan, has invested 200 million baht to build a new climatic wind tunnel test facility in Thailand. Said to be the most advanced in ASEAN, the tunnel is designed to perform R&D on air conditioner and engine performance. Denso has over 200 affiliates worldwide, located in 35 countries. In Thailand, Denso has eight companies producing air conditioning systems, power train control systems and engine parts. In developing its Thai operation to be a world-class automotive part production base and to prepare for the upcoming AEC in 2015, Denso plans to expand its Thai testing house to cover engine performance and exhaust emission testing. Denso is also developing OEM production in Cambodia and Myanmar.

3d printing boom for small volume manufacturing, prototypes and modelingAs reported by Patrick Ponticel on www.sae.org, 3D printing will grow to an $8.4 billion market in 2025—up from $777 million in 2012, according to a recent report by Lux Research.

“3D printing offers design flexibility and rapid implementation, but development needs remain in materials performance and printer throughput,” said Anthony Vicari, a Research Associate at Lux Research and the lead author of the report titled “Building the Future: Assessing 3D Printing’s Opportunities and Challenges.”

“Over the longer term, 3D printing has potential to reshape the manufacturing ecosystem, but it will have the most impact in the near term for products that are made in small volumes, require high customization, and are more cost-tolerant,” he added.

Asked by Aerospace Engineering (AE) what constitutes “small volume,” Vicari said it varies by application.

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“But in many cases, traditional processes are more efficient for runs of hundreds of thousands of units, and metal injection molding may be more efficient for tens of thousands of units. 3D printing, because it does not require molds or custom tools, is often more cost-efficient for runs of one to several hundred or in some cases several thousand units. There are exceptions in extreme cases, such as shapes that simply cannot be made by traditional processes, where 3D printing can be viable even for larger scale production.”

The report notes that “while 3D printing is used largely for prototyping today, small-volume manufacturing will boom from a niche market of just $1 million in 2012 to $1.1 billion in 2025, led by aerospace engines and automotive components.”

In an e-mail exchange with AE, Vicari noted that there is great growth potential for 3D printing in all aspects of the aerospace industry, but engines represent the main growth area. And the demand will be not only for production parts but also prototypes.

Jet engines are promising because they “contain high-performance titanium and nickel alloy parts that are particularly difficult and expensive to machine and assemble,” said Vicari. “Moreover, they often involve machining away the majority of that expensive starting material. In contrast, 3D printing technologies can produce the final part structure in a single step with greater than 90% materials utilization.”

Vicari noted that there is no hard agreement as to what “3D printing” covers. The term is used more restrictively by some than it is by Vicari. In the Lux study, the term covers both production parts and prototypes, as well as the following technologies: fused deposition modeling, selective laser sintering, electron beam melting, powder bed inkjet printing, stereolithography, polyjet, digital

light processing, laminated object manufacturing, and selective heat sintering.

Definitions of additive manufacturing similarly vary. Lux defines additive manufacturing to include 3D printing, as well as other processes such as metal injection molding and other molding and casting methods that result in near net shape parts.

Companies involved in supplying 3D printing equipment and/or in making parts themselves with that equipment are looking at aerospace applications including and extending beyond jet engines.

One of them is EOS, which uses laser sintering technology that, it says, is a good fit for the fast-growing industry of unmanned aerial vehicles. Its plastic and metal materials are strong, durable, and able to be formed into complex shapes.

Laser sintering enables instant customization and redesign without tooling, making it inexpensive to repurpose an existing UAV from one mission to another. The technology has been used to make fuel tanks, engine housings, cowlings, nacelles, ducts, and even entire fuselages, EOS says.

Another major player is Stratasys, and it’s the job of Ryan Sybrant, Business Development Manager, Direct Digital Manufacturing, to find all variety of aerospace applications that are conducive to production via his company’s patented fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology. FDM is a plastics extrusion process that builds parts layer by layer.

“We’re focused on advancing both the technology and materials into higher-requirement applications for aerospace” and other industries, he told AE. “We’re talking about being able to take an additive-manufactured component off our machine and put it into service on an aircraft.”

Referring to Stratasys’s aerospace

customers, Sybrant noted that “many of them are innovators and early adopters. They’re the ones that are at the forefront of looking at ways to manufacture differently—more cost-effectively, with lower inventories, and lighter-weight components for fuel savings. When you think of aero, for the most part, it’s a low-volume-producing industry.”

“The real value in low volume is now you no longer have to keep an inventory,” he continued. “There are no more minimum-order quantity requirements from the supplier, because now you can build it on demand as needed. Let’s say you produce 40 units and now you want to make a slight performance change. Well, now you don’t have the high cost of refurbishing an injection-molding tool or starting from scratch with a new tool. All you have to do is update your 3D CAD file, upload it to the additive-manufacturing equipment—in our case the Fortus equipment that produced that part—and you’re back in production. We call it ‘production without the line.’”

Stratasys’s Fortus 900mc 3D Production Systems offer the company’s widest range of FDM modeling materials, including high-performance thermoplastics, for parts as large as 914 x 610 x 914 mm.Source: www.sae.org

Infrastructure development plans in ThailandThe Thai government plans to invest around two trillion baht over the next 7 years to improve transport systems with the aim of developing Thailand as a regional transportation hub and gateway to neighboring countries. The developments will include several high speed train routes and mass transit rail lines thereby reducing the present heavy reliance on road transport. The government will also spend 270 million

baht on water resource management and flood control systems to prevent any re-occurrence of the 2011 flooding. Both Japan and Germany have already expressed interest in taking part in these infrastructure projects.

With Myanmar, and with co-operation from Japan, Thailand is also to jointly develop Dawei Port in Myanmar as a trade route to the Indian Ocean as part of the Dawei Special Economic Zone. This zone is a possible location for the Petroleum Authority of Thailand (PTT) to build new plants for liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). PTT has already completed a seaport and LNG storage facility at the Map Ta Phut zone in Thailand to meet the growing demand for natural gas in Thailand.

In Thailand natural gas is currently used for nearly 70% of electrical power

generation. Unfortunately Thai natural gas production has peaked and will gradually decline leading to the need for increased usage of imported gas. Due to the rising price of natural gas the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) expects the costs of power to increase from the present 3.7 baht per kw-hr to around 5 baht per kw-hr over the next two years. This has raised concerns at the Federation of Thai Industries that some power hungry companies such as foundries could relocate to Indonesia or Vietnam where less natural gas is used for power generation. In response the Energy Ministry has said that Thailand will buy electricity from neighbouring countries, will attempt to reduce environmental opposition to clean coal technology and in particular will continue to support the development and use of biofuels.

Energy from non-food biomass is part of Thai government policy to produce 25% of energy in Thailand from alternative or renewable energy sources.

In April PTT announced a plan to develop the Rayong Institute of Science and Technology (RAIST) and the Rayong Science Academy (RASA) to offer M.Sc. programmes starting in 2015, followed by B.Sc. courses in 2018. The courses will focus on engineering in the chemical, biomolecular and material science fields in order to provide graduates to support PTT operations and the petrochemical and energy industry in general. RASA will be a high school as a feeder for RAIST. The development, on a 200 rai site (about 80 acres), will cost around 5 billion baht. Eventually research will developed to concentrate on practical aspects of science and technology. n

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14 www.metals.rala.com.au METAL casting Technologies June 2013 15

Market forcesoday, the light metals - notably aluminium and magnesium, and to a lesser extent titanium - are important for many applications. They are increasingly

critical in the automotive and aerospace industries, where the benefits of weight saving include reduced fuel consumption, higher speed and longer range, and improved performance and handleability.

“The recent global financial crisis has seen a renewed emphasis on the need for improved fuel efficiency for both economic and environmental reasons,” says Mark Easton, CEO of the CAST Cooperative Research Centre at the University of Queensland. “It is in this area, known as lightweighting, where light metal alloys can and are making a significant contribution. Designing light alloys to reduce the weight of components used in motor vehicles and airplanes is now part of a concerted push for a more environmentally sustainable transportation sector.”

While light metals are increasingly being integrated into the design of many products and parts, there are still numerous barriers to their usage. These include a lack of manufacturability, deficiencies in mechanical properties, and increased material costs due to processing inefficiencies. Considering the enormous potential energy savings that light metal alloys promise, there is

a strong need for continued research and development (R & D) in the light metals sector. This includes casting techniques and associated technology.

The economic, not to mention environmental, imperatives of light metals R & D are clear. In order to reach the target of improving fleet fuel efficiency by 1.5 percent per annum between 2010 and 2020, the world’s airlines are now in the process of purchasing 12,000 new-generation aircraft at a cost of US$1.3 trillion. Across the globe, and especially in developing countries, the number of automobiles on the road is growing at whirlwind pace. The potential rewards for those foundries that can stay at the forefront of light metals technology are rich indeed.

Car consumptionAutomakers throughout the world are now redesigning and retooling to produce smaller, lighter vehicles that will cost less and use less fuel. When the weight of a vehicle is reduced by 10%, fuel consumption drops by 6-8%, which means that the strength-to-weight ratio of steel, plastic and aluminium for every car component is now intensely scrutinized.

Over the last 15 years the quantity of light metals used in automotive manufacturing has continued to increase, and the trend is projected to continue. A recent survey shows that the

amount of aluminium used in the average North American vehicle has grown from around 36kg in 1974, to 148kg in 2007, and will reach nearly 250kg by 2025.

“Automakers are now constrained by ever more stringent government regulations,” says Mark Easton. “For example, in the United States, recent changes to the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations are driving automakers to seek more aggressive methods for fuel consumption reductions.” With the ongoing development of alternative propulsion systems - such as plug-in hybrids and electric drive vehicles - the trend toward even more lightweight vehicles is set to continue.

With regard to light metal supply, today’s auto industry is extremely demanding. Vendors must provide their product with perfect quality, in complete orders, and on time, every time. Automotive design engineers are no longer constrained by the previously accepted limits of the light metal cold chamber die casting production process. They want die cast products that are larger, thinner, more complex, and stronger, than have ever been commercially produced before.

Vacuum assisted die castingToday cold chamber die casting remains the most commonly used method for casting aluminium alloys. However, the turbulence of the alloy as it is forced at high pressure into the die cavity, coupled with the complex shape of many casting molds, often causes air and other gases to become trapped in the metal. This results in undesirable porosity and frequent cast rejection.

Vacuum-assisted die casting is a developing technology that can go a long way to eliminating porosity. Before the injection shot occurs, a vacuum is created in both the shot sleeve and mold cavity. The vacuum is maintained until the injection cycle is completed, enabling the alloy to flow smoothly into all recesses. It also allows the fronts of the molten metal to merge freely without forming shuts.

Vacuum technology is continually improving, and today’s best systems are considerably more effective than those of only a few years ago. “Adding a vacuum system to the operating process benefits die casters in several ways,” says Mark Easton. “It reduces rates of rejection and increases the life of the die casting machine. Most importantly, it enables the die caster to produce thinner, stronger, and more complex castings, allowing the foundry to compete in markets it would otherwise be denied.”

Magnesium: the new contenderLargely overlooked until the early 1990s, magnesium and its alloys are now playing an increasingly important role in many industries. In 2008, 121,000 tonnes of magnesium castings were produced in the United States for all markets segments - this figure is projected to reach 166,000 tonnes by 2019.

Within the transportation industry, in particular, the latest casting and processing technologies have significantly raised the importance of magnesium as a metal with a low density and a very high strength-to-weight ratio. As with aluminium, magnesium alloys can effectively reduce vehicle weight which, in turn, reduces greenhouse gas emissions and increases fuel

Seeing the Light The challenges and opportunities of advancing light metal technology

By Daniel Allen

T

Aluminium car engine

MOsT iMPORTANTLY, iT ENABLEs THE DiE cAsTER TO PRODUcE THiNNER, sTRONGER, AND MORE cOMPLEx cAsTiNGs, ALLOWiNG THE fOUNDRY TO cOMPETE iN MARKETs iT WOULD OTHERWisE BE DENiED.”

Jaguar XJ aluminium body, road to Chinas west - 15th Chengdu Motor Show, September 2012 © Hupeng | Dreamstime.com

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economy. In 2008-9, motor vehicle components accounted for almost 70% of the cast magnesium market in the United States.

“With a weight 30% lighter than aluminium and 60% lighter than steel, magnesium is the lightest of the structural metals,” explains Mark Easton. “Magnesium alloy castings offer less weight but comparable strength when compared to aluminium alloy castings, and optimized casting designs can increase the weight difference further.”

High pressure die casting (HPDC) - characterized by rapid die filling and subsequent rapid cooling and solidification of the metal in the die - is a widely employed process for making complex mechanical parts out of light metals. Today the lion’s share of magnesium alloys are cast using HPDC.

In recent times the growth of magnesium HPDC has mirrored the growth of the automobile industry, where the demands of assembly line manufacture has driven demand for a quick, reliable way to make components. With the growth of JIT manufacturing, the automotive industry continues to be the dominant user of HPDC parts.

In addition to the automotive market, there is still a strong market for sand cast military and aerospace components, as well as growing markets for power tools, sporting goods and other commercial castings. A thriving casting prototype market also exists to produce sand cast prototype components that will ultimately be made by HPDC.

Looking to the future, the growth potential for magnesium is unprecedented in view of the accelerating demand for lightweighting in transportation and portable devices. However, the metal must become cost and environmentally competitive with other lightweight materials, particularly aluminium. Future growth will also require environmental competitiveness; magnesium producers need to utilize process technology that provides a much more attractive life cycle assessment than is currently achieved.

HpdC alternativesWhile magnesium castings are traditionally produced either by HPDC or precision sand casting, each of these processes has its disadvantages. These include constraints on casting design geometries and unacceptable levels of porosity. While precision

sand casting can produce a wide range of part shapes with high levels of soundness, the process is expensive and generally limited to high value, limited production run components such as those used in the aerospace industry.

With the increased emphasis on vehicle weight reduction, finding alternative casting processes has recently been a high priority for magnesium alloy researchers. Many R&D performers and design engineers are now examining the production of near-net shape components through the lost foam casting process.

“Some of the advantages of using a lost foam casting process for both aluminium and magnesium alloys are closer dimensional tolerance, higher casting yield, and the elimination of sand cores and binders,” explains Mark Easton. “The ability to create a single component that replaces multiple fabricated components means that the lost foam process has the potential to reduce manufacturing costs significantly.

“If you’re using lighter weight parts in vehicles, you’re improving the power-to-weight ratio, and the most obvious benefits will be enhanced fuel efficiency and reduced CO2 emissions.”

While the lost foam process is capable of making castings with extremely complicated shapes at high soundness levels and low manufacturing costs, several challenges arise as a result of the low heat content of magnesium alloys.

During conventional lost foam casting, the comparatively low heat content of the magnesium melt often means that patterns do not fully decompose. Mold filling is also obstructed because the magnesium melt, with a low specific weight, is held back by the pressure of gases occupying the empty spaces.

The low pressure lost foam casting process for magnesium alloys is an innovative technology which takes advantage of the benefits of both gravity lost foam casting and low-pressure casting. As a result of the applied pressure the molten metal rises up an ascension pipe to fill from below the binderless silica sand mold, the cavity of which is filled by a foam pattern. The pattern is vaporized by the casting heat and the molten metal takes up the place of the foam pattern. Throughout the casting process the mold is subjected to low pressure which removes casting gases and also stabilizes the mold.

16 www.metals.rala.com.au METAL casting Technologies June 2013 17

“if YOU’RE UsiNG LiGHTER WEiGHT PARTs iN VEHicLEs, YOU’RE iMPROViNG THE POWER-TO-WEiGHT RATiO, AND THE MOsT OBViOUs BENEfiTs WiLL BE ENHANcED fUEL EfficiENcY AND REDUcED cO2 EMissiONs.”

A High performance Magnesium wheel

The low-pressure lost foam casting process gives casters far more control over the casting process. Being able to vary the pressure means the gating system can be minimized without compromising casting quality, and lower metal temperatures means significant energy savings are possible. In contrast with other casting processes, the low-pressure lost foam technique also enables slag-free casting and prevents undesirable oxidation and gaseous emissions.

As new materials are developed, ongoing research will lead to a better understanding of the applicability of the lost foam process in magnesium casting, with the associated potential for lessening environmental impacts. To date lost foam casting has generally become accepted in the United States, and is also gaining traction within the Chinese casting industry.

T-MAGLost foam casting is not the only area of magnesium casting innovation. Established in 2007 with the goal of developing a new magnesium alloy casting system, the T-MAG project is a venture between three South Australian entities and the CSIRO, Australia’s national science agency. Steve Groat, Managing Director of T-Mag Casting Technology says “The T-Mag casting process offers foundries exciting opportunities to produce high quality magnesium alloy castings for the automotive and associated industries”.

The T-MAG process involves a specially developed casting machine, which can provide melting and casting operations in a single compact unit. The unit holds a furnace with an enclosed retort of molten magnesium alloy under a cover gas atmosphere, connected to a die via a steel transfer pipe.

With the machine resting in the horizontal position, the molten

magnesium alloy in the transfer tube lies just below the die. When casting, the machine rotates about a horizontal axis at a controlled speed, allowing molten magnesium to fill the die from the bottom. This process ensures a smoother flow of material into the die and greater casting integrity than traditional high-pressure methods. As the system is fully enclosed, cover gas consumption is also minimized.

T-MAG has the potential to extend the capability and reduce the cost of permanent mold casting for a wide range of high-performance magnesium components. The fact that the process can incorporate sand cores, for complex hollow features inside castings, is a major competitive advantage, and castings can also be heat treated and welded, unlike many castings produced through HPDC. “With a trend towards environmentally friendly products the T-Mag casting process offers manufacturers a cost effective and greener solution for casting magnesium alloys”, says Steve Groat.

Going greenThe growth of magnesium die casting has lead to an increase in the quantity of magnesium scrap, typically due to end-of-life vehicles and manufacturing by-products. Effectively recycling such scrap means regaining the original chemical composition and purity of the original alloys, while environmental considerations dictate the minimization the life cycle costs, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emission.

Magnesium in its molten state reacts and forms oxides when exposed to air. This rapid oxidative burning must be controlled in order to facilitate safe and efficient magnesium production, die casting, and recycling activities.

An intense white flame characterizes burning magnesium,

2013 Ford Fusion Titanium car © Andy1960 | Dreamstime.com

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with temperatures that can exceed 1300°C. For several decades the magnesium casting industry has traditionally used sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) to inhibit melt surface oxidation. While SF6 is an effective cover gas due to its ability to supply fluorine species to the melt surface, SF6 is also an extremely powerful greenhouse gas, with a 100-year global warming potential (GWP) estimated at 23,900 times that of carbon dioxide (CO2).

While recent research has shown that for hot chamber die casting 10 percent of the SF6 delivered to the melt is typically ‘‘consumed’’, the gas’s extreme GWP means researchers are now seeking substitutes. These include sulphuryl fluoride (SO2F2), boron trifluoride (BF3), HFC-134a, hydrofluoroethers, and a fluorinated ketone (Novec 612). Compared to the lowest estimated emission factor for SF6, both HFC-134a and Novec 612 have been found to reduce cover gas-related GHG emissions by more than 99 percent.

Energy saving innovationThe fact that metal casting is such an energy intensive process means there are opportunities for many light metal foundries to slash energy use by adopting new casting techniques.

Recently developed by the United Kingdom’s Birmingham University and a local company called N-Tec, the CRIMSON (Constrained Rapid Induction Melting Single Shot) process is an innovative method of casting aluminium that could save light metal foundries up to one third of their energy costs, while significantly improving casting quality.

The innovative CRIMSON process ensures that the exact amount of aluminium needed for a particular casting is melted rapidly in a crucible using induction heating. It is then squeezed upwards into a cast using a device like a toothpaste pump dispenser. The fully liquid metal is pushed up with a piston

controlled by hydraulic motors, linked back to computers that accurately control filling of the casting.

“There is no holding in the CRIMSON process,” explains Binxu Zeng, a researcher based at Cranfield University in the UK. “The molten metal is transferred to the casting directly after melting, which means at least a 30% energy saving over traditional processes. In addition, anti-gravity filling means less metal is required to make the actual casting.

“We calculate that if the traditional aluminium foundries participating in our research employed CRIMSON, their estimated energy savings would be in the order of 43 GJ per tonne for producing the A354 aluminium alloy,” continues Zeng. “This would reduce their production costs by about US$1400 per tonne.”

HIp replacementWith more design opportunities arising every year for aluminium casting, commercial demand for engineered cast components continues to increase. However, a major limitation of aluminium castings for many automotive and aerospace applications is the potential presence of porosity, which occurs when the melt solidifies and contracts. Internal shrinkage porosity is a common life-limiting factor - this can be true for very small amounts of porosity in high-quality castings, and for more prevalent internal voids in lower quality castings.

Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is a form of heat treatment that uses high pressure to improve material properties. This pressure is applied by an inert gas, usually argon. HIP removes internal porosity, utilizing plastic yielding, creep and diffusional effects. Defects of considerable dimension may be removed by the process, as well as the more typical scattered shrinkage and hydrogen gas porosity.

Equipment used in the CrIMSON process

The improvements to micro-structural homogeneity and material properties that HIP can achieve mean that cast aluminium can now be used in more demanding, severe stress applications, such as automotive engines, structural aerospace parts, turbo impellers and other critical industrial components. Indeed, castings used in aircraft applications now represent a large portion of the market for HIP.

“Use of HIP extends the range of possible aluminium casting applications, with numerous advantages in comparison with wrought material,” says Mark Easton. “Recent advances in larger and faster cycling equipment have significantly lowered the per-unit costs for HIPped aluminium processing.”

Despite recent advances, however, HIP treatment of cast aluminium remains a costly and often inefficient process (the process cycle can last from 6 to 24 hours). Price limitations still make HIP treatment unfeasible for large volume production runs, such as those connected with the automotive industry.

To overcome the limitations of HIP, a new process has recently been developed, called liquid-phase hot isostatic pressing (LHIP). This process is a modification of the traditional HIP technique, which allows the use of a molten salt or low-melting-point alloy and conventional hydraulic presses for the treatment. Treatment time is typically reduced to three to five minutes, which has reduced cost and made LHIP suitable for the production of quality aluminium castings for car parts.

Light metals & lasersDirect metal laser sintering (DMLS) is an emerging technology for the rapid, additive manufacturing of metal parts. Among other applications, it is well suited to production of high-strength, low-weight components at low manufacturing volumes. As such, it has exciting potential for light metal usage in the aerospace industry.

Laser sintering prototypes and fixtures already achieve significant cost and time savings. More excitingly, the process offers the potential for design-driven manufacturing – the creation of a component based solely on its ultimate function, without the compromises imposed by process limitations.

Since DMLS is an additive technology, it dramatically reduces material waste when compared to traditional processes. Investment casting of titanium, for example, is difficult and often has a high scrap rate. Currently, many titanium aerospace components are machined from solid stock, which often means removing 90% or more of the original material – a time-consuming, costly operation that is completely obviated with DMLS.

The expanded use of laser-sintered titanium parts will follow the same route as composites are travelling now, and as aluminium did before. Today, aerospace companies are evaluating manufacturing applications for DMLS through proprietary projects and small-scale studies. As engineers become familiar with the technology, they start to fully

implement design-driven manufacturing to push the boundaries of innovation further. DMLS also has the potential for use in the manufacture of aluminium-based parts.

Early studies employing a laser sintering process have successfully melted aluminium and aluminium-magnesium alloys. Future studies will be required to further optimize processing parameters and investigate the mechanical properties of DMLS-fabricated parts.

Future focusLooking forward, aluminium, magnesium and titanium can all play significant roles enabling energy savings across a wide range of applications. With their high strength-to-weight ratios, these metals can enable lighter, fuel efficient vehicles and airplanes with no reduction in performance or safety.

The higher cost of light metals relative to steel and stainless steel is currently a barrier to adoption in many applications. In order to achieve the large energy reductions that are possible with their use, the primary processing of such metals must be radically rethought in order to reach parity with heavier metals on cost, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions.

The future of light metals and light metal alloy casting means changing the very nature of the metal itself - modifying the nano-structural composition of the material to endow it with new and improved characteristics. New processing techniques such as laser additive manufacturing and net-shape HIPping will continue to be at the forefront of light metal production, redefining the casting process and introducing new economies of scale.

In light of a rapidly evolving technological environment, light metal foundries can only be successful in the face of future competition if they have highly skilled staff. As workforces are reduced, competition for personnel will be fierce, but even more so between light metal foundries and alternative production processes. Training and education remain key, and the complexity of the casting process and alloys being handled must not be underestimated.

Today, thanks to pioneering research and development, new pathways for light metal processing are being conceived, realized and implemented on an industrial scale. As the need for increased fuel efficiency, lower greenhouse gas emissions and metals that can withstand extreme conditions intensifies, the drivers for such development will only become more pressing. n

iN LiGHT Of A RAPiDLY EVOLViNG TEcHNOLOGicAL ENViRONMENT, LiGHT METAL fOUNDRiEs cAN ONLY BE sUccEssfUL iN THE fAcE Of fUTURE cOMPETiTiON if THEY HAVE HiGHLY sKiLLED sTAff.

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Introductionast Al – 7%Si – 0.3%Mg alloy (A356) is commonly used for automotive parts such as cylinder heads and engine blocks and for structural components in the aerospace

and general engineering industries due to its excellent casting characteristics, corrosion resistance and high strength-to-weight ratio in the heat-treated condition [1,2]. However, in comparison to wrought alloys, cast alloys tend to have lower reliability due to the presence of discontinuities such as fine porosity, oxides and other inclusions that can occur during the casting process [2]. Casting process developments and better control of heat treatments have been used to improve the reliability and properties of cast aluminum alloys. However the present conventional casting processes such die casting, permanent mold and sand casting that are usually employed for producing aluminum alloys parts have some disadvantages. For example, without use of vacuum high pressure die-casting tends to give entrapped gas bubbles limiting subsequent heat treatment and properties, while permanent mold casting is limited to relatively uncomplicated designs. Other than the Cosworth process and its variants, sand casting cannot meet the demands of dimensional accuracy and surface roughness for aluminum alloy precision components [3]

All of the conventional casting processes give relatively coarse dendritic structures hence there is considerable interest in the use of semi-solid casting processes which can provide finer and more uniform microstructures with improved properties. There are two common techniques in semi-solid casting: thixocasting and rheocasting. Thixocasting utilizes a pre-cast billet with non-dendritic structure which is reheated to the semi-solid temperature range, and then the semi-solid material is forced into a die. The main two disadvantages are that special billets that must be used and scrap cannot be directly re-used. Rheocasting involves forming in the semi-solid state direct from a cooling melt without the need for pre-cast stock with a globular structure. This is a major advantage over thixocasting because less expensive feedstock, in the form of conventional ingot of typical die casting alloys is used allowing direct recycling [4-6]. One method of rheocasting is the sloped cooling plate method in which molten metal is poured via an inclined plate or tube. During processing the partially solidified primary phase becomes rounded such that the semi-

solid state consists of near spheroidal solid particles dispersed in lower melting point liquid. The resultant primary microstructure has a finer, less dendrite form than that produced in conventional castings leading to improved mechanical properties [7-8]. A356 alloy is a hypoeutectic Al-Si alloy with two main solidification stages: the formation of primary aluminum rich (Al) dendrites followed by Al-Si eutectic. However, the presence of additional alloying or impurity elements such as Mg and Fe leads to other intermetallic phases such as Mg2Si and Al5FeSi. Strengthening of this alloy depends on precipitation from supersaturated solid solution during suitable aging treatments. Research has continued to determine how variations to T5 and T6 age hardening treatments, and semi-solid processing might be used to improve mechanical properties [5,6,9,10]. However, the effect of age hardening of A356 prepared by the sloped cooling plate method has received little attention. The aim of the present work, therefore, was to compare the effect of age hardening on microstructure and hardness of A356 aluminum alloy produced by permanent mold casting and by semi-solid processing.

Experimental detailsCommercial A356 alloy foundry ingot was melted in a graphite clay crucible in an electric furnace at a temperature of 800°C, and part of the melt was conventionally cast by pouring at 660°C into a metal mould to provide cylindrical bars 15 cm long by 2.50 cm in diameter. The semi-solid processed sample was produced by pouring some of the remaining liquid metal over a semi-circular cooling plate, made from copper, 10 cm in diameter and 25 cm in length, inclined at 50o, into a metal mold as for the conventional casting. Each bar was sectioned transversely to give cylindrical specimens with an approximate thickness of 1.50 cm. The specimens were then heat-treated to T6 condition via solution treatment for 2, 4, 6, 8 hours at 540°C in an air furnace followed by quenching into hot water at 80°C and then artificial ageing at 140, 160, 180°C for 6-54 hours followed by hot water quenching. The shortest solution treatment time that gave maximum hardness was selected for the aging studies. The chemical composition of the cast alloy is given in Table 1. The casting and heat treatment conditions are listed in Table 2.

Specimens for examination by optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were ground on silicon

carbide papers to 1000 grit, and then progressively polished with 1 and 0.3 µm Al2O3. The etchant used was 5 ml of HF in 100 ml in distilled water. The area fraction of eutectic structure present was determined from optical micrographs using Image J software. The mean values quoted are based on ten different areas. Macro-hardness testing was performed on un-etched specimens with a Rockwell hardness tester using the B scale (HRB) with steel ball, 100 kgf load and 15 seconds indenting time. The mean values are based on ten different areas on each specimen.

results and discussionThe as-cast microstructure in the conventionally cast alloy (sample C1) consisted of primary α-Al dendrites with interdendritic eutectic Si and intermetallic phases. In the semi-solid cast alloy (sample S1), the primary α-Al was non-dendritic and had a globular form. The conventional and semi-solid cast microstructures can be compared in Figure 1(a) and (b). The eutectic structure in both cases had a flake-like morphology with sharp edges, but it was slightly finer in sample S1 compared to sample C1 as shown in the SEM views of deep etched microstructures in Figure 1(c) and (d). As illustrated in Figure 2(a-c) with respect to the semi-sold cast material the microstructures after solution treatment are similar to those of the as-cast condition, except that some spheroidisation of the eutectic Si has occurred and some intermetallic phases have been taken into solution. The area fraction of eutectic constituents was decreased from the as-cast condition as shown in Figure 3, the decrease being greater at higher aging temperature or longer time. The SEM view in Figure 2(d) of a deep etched specimen reveals the rounded edges of the residual eutectic Si phase. SEM-EDS analysis confirmed that the phases present in A356 alloy are α-Al-rich phase containing Si, eutectic Si-rich phase and intermetallics comprising mainly of plate-like Al5FeSi.

Figure 4(a-c) shows the levels of macro-hardness in conventional and semi-solid castings in the as-cast condition and after solution treatment at 540°C for 6 hours plus aging at 140, 160, 180°C for 6-54 hours. The mean macro-hardness of the conventionally and semi-solid cast alloy in the as-cast condition was 11 and 12 HRB, respectively. The peak macro-hardness of conventionally and semi-solid cast alloy was increased up to 43 HRB and 47 HRB, respectively after T6 solution treatment plus aging at 160°C for 30 hours. At higher aging temperature the peak macro-hardness was achieved after a shorter aging time. At low ageing temperature or shorter times, the hardness was lower due to

Age hardening study of conventionally cast and semi-solid processed A356 Al AlloyBy Amporn Wiengmoon, Kissana P, Torranin Chairuangsri, John Pearce

C

TEcHNicAL fEATURE

Chemical composition (wt. %)Si Mg Fe Mn Cu Ti Zn Al7.1 0.32 0.11 0.02 0.01 0.13 0.01 Bal.

Table 1. Chemical composition of the alloy

Casting method Heat treatment conditions SampleConventional casting As-cast C1

Solution treated C2Solution treated at 540°C for 6 hours + aging

C3

Semi-solid casting As-cast S1Solution treated S2Solution treated at 540°C for 6 hours + aging

S3

Table 2. Casting and heat treatment conditions of the alloy

Figure 1. OM and SEM images of as-cast microstructure: (a) dendritic structure in sample C1 (b) globular structure in sample S1 (c-d) deep etched views to compare morphology of eutectic structure in sample C1 and S1.

A

b

C

d

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incomplete precipitation. While at higher ageing temperature or longer times, the hardness was reduced from the peak level most probably due to precipitate coarsening and loss in coherency effects. Fine scale microstructural aspects of precipitation stages and growth in both conventional and semi-solid cast A356 and A319 are being studied by high resolution TEM work [10,11].

Conclusions1. In the as-cast A356 alloy, the dendritic form of primary Al produced by

conventional casting is changed to near spheroid by semi-solid casting.2. T6 age hardening decreased the area fraction of eutectic structure and

produced some rounding of the angular shape of the eutectic Si. 3. The macro-hardness in the as-cast condition is not different for

conventionally cast and semi-solid cast A356. 4. After T6 heat treatment, the macro-hardness in semi-solid casting alloy

was slightly higher than that of the conventionally casting alloy. Peak aging for both cast routes was obtained at the aging temperature 160oC for 30 hour.

METAL casting Technologies June 2013 25

Figure 3. Effect of T6 aged hardening on area fraction of eutectic structure: (a) solution treated at 540oC for different times in sample S2 (b) solution treated at 540oC for 6 hour and aged at 140, 160 , 180oC for different times for both CV and SS material.

Figure 4. Effect of T6 aged hardening on macro-hardness in the as-cast, after solution treated at 540oC for 6 hour, solu-tion treated at 540oC for 6 hour plus aging at 140, 160, 180oC for difference times; (a) conventional casting (b) semi-solid casting (c) conventionally casting (CV) and semi-solid casting (SS).

References1. Miller W.S., Zhuang L., Bottema J., Wittebrood A.J., Smet P. De, Haszler A.,

Vieregge A. Recent development in aluminium alloys for the automotive industry. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2000; A280: 37-49.

2. Wang Q.G. Microstructural effects on the tensile and fracture behavior of aluminum casting alloys A356/357. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2003, 34: 2887-2899.

3. Jiang W., Fan Z., Liao D., Liu D., Zhao Z., Dong X. Investigation of microstructures and mechanical properties of A356 aluminum alloy produced by expendable pattern shell casting process with vacuum. Materials and Design, 2011, 32: 926-934.

4. Cavaliere P., Cerri E., Leo P. Effect of heat treatments on mechanical properties and fracture behavior of a thixocast A356 aluminum alloy. Journal of Materials Science, 2004, 39: 1653-1658.

5. Robert M.H., Zoqui E.J., Tanabe F., Motegi T. Producing thixotropic semi-solid A356 alloy: microstructure formation & forming behavior. Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, 2007, 20: 19-26.

6. BoChao L., YoungKoo P., HongSheng D. Effect of rheocasting and treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of A356 alloy. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2011, 528: 986-995.

7. Haga T., Nakamura R., Tago R., Wateri H. Effects of casting factors of cooling slope on semisolid condition. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2010, 20: 968−972.

8. Jorstad J.L., Pan Q.Y., Apelian D. Solidification microstructure affecting ductility in semi-solid-cast products. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2005, 413-414: 189-191.

9. Ji-Hua P., Xiao-long T., Jian-ting H.E., De-ying X.U. Effect of heat treatment on microstructure and tensile properties of A356 alloys. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2011, 21: 1950-1956.

10. Chomsaeng N., Haruta M., Chairuangsri T., Kurata H., Isoda S., Shiojiri M. HRTEM and ADF-STEM of precipitates at peak ageing in cast A356 aluminium alloy. Journal of Alloys & Compounds 2010, 46: 478-487.

11. Wiengmoon A., Pearce J.T.H., Chairuangsri T., Isoda S., Saito H., Kurata H. HRTEM and HAADF-STEM of precipitates at peak ageing of cast A319 aluminium alloy. Micron 2013, 45: 32-36.

dr. Amporn wiengmoon Dr. Amporn Wiengmoon obtained her Ph.D. from Chiang Mai University for work on electron microscopy of high chromium cast iron. She was a visiting researcher at Division of Electron Microscopy and Crystal Chemistry, Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Japan where she concentrated on HRTEM and HAADF-STEM of cast aluminum alloy. She is currently a lecturer in the Dept. of Physics in Naresuan University, becoming an assistant professor of material science in 2011.

Ms.Krisana poolsawat Ms.Krisana Poolsawat obtained a B.Eng. in Industrial Engineering from Naresuan University. She then obtained her M.Eng. in Materials Technology from King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi for work on semi-solid metal processing. She is currently a lecturer in the Dept. of Industrial Engineering in Naresuan University.

dr. Torranin ChairuangsriDr. Torranin Chairuangsri obtained his Ph.D. from the Leeds University, UK for work on transmission electron microscopy of steels. He began his career at Chiang Mai University in 1993 as a lecturer in the Dept. of Industrial Chemistry, becoming an assistant professor in 1998, and then in 2006 associate professor of metallurgy and acting head of the Industrial Chemistry Department. n

Figure 2. The effect of heat treatment on eutectic structure of semi-solid A356: (a) as-cast condition; sample S1 (b) solution treated; sample S2 (c) solution treated and aged; sample S3 (d) deep etched structure shows spheroidisation of the eutectic Si after solution treatment.

A

b

C

d

About the authors

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METAL casting Technologies June 2013 27

TENsiLE TEsTs WERE cARRiED OUT iN A UNiVERsAL TENsiLE TEsTiNG MAcHiNE WiTH sPEciMENs Of 12.5 MM GAUGE DiA. AND 75 MM GAUGE LENGTH AT A cROssHEAD sPEED Of 2.0 MM/MiN.

IntroductionAluminium alloys reinforced with ceramic particles such as SiC, Al2O3, Si3N4, TiB2, B4C and graphite

have been studied extensively in the past few decades due to their improved hardness, yield and tensile strength at room temperature and elevated temperature, elastic modulus and wear resistance compared to monolithic alloys [1-3]. Hence these materials are being considered for various automotive and aerospace applications. The ceramic particles can be classified into two groups, namely, hard particles and solid lubricants. The hard ceramic particles are SiC, Al2O3, Si3N4, TiB2 and B4C, whereas graphite is soft and a well known solid lubricant. It has been reported that addition of hard ceramic particles such as SiC to Al alloys improve hardness, tensile strength, elastic modulus and wear resistance [1-3], whereas incorporation of graphite particles into Al alloys improve wear resistance and seizure resistance and reduce co-efficient of friction [4,5]. Hence the concept of addition of both hard ceramic particles and graphite solid lubricant developed to improve the wear resistance of Al alloy – hard ceramic particle composites further and to reduce co-efficient of friction of composites. However, the soft graphite particles should reduce some of the mechanical properties of the composites. So far, limited work has been carried out on the properties of Al alloy-SiC-graphite composites [6-9] that needs to be extended to establish more applications of this class of materials. Hence the objective of the present work is to study the microstructure and mechanical properties of Al alloy matrix SiC and graphite particle reinforced hybrid composites. The size of the graphite particles has been varied to study its effect on the properties of the hybrid composites.

ExperimentsTo prepare the Al alloy matrix SiC and graphite hybrid composites, the following materials were used:1. Al alloy: LM6 alloy having nominal composition Al-12% Si2. SiC : SiC particles of 50 – 100 µm size3. Graphite: Three different size of graphite particles, 106-150 µm,

212 -300 µm and 300-425 µm.Al alloy of about 1 kg was melted in a crucible and the molten

metal was stirred with a graphite impeller revolving at 800 rpm. 2wt% Mg was added to the molten metal before addition of the ceramic particles to improve the wettability of the particles by the liquid metal. The required amount of ceramic particles were preheated at around 300°C and added into the vortex formed in the liquid metal slowly. After complete addition of the particles, the composite melt was stirred further for about 2 minutes to distribute the particles uniformly in the liquid metal. Subsequently the composite melt was poured into preheated cast iron moulds of 25 mm internal diameter. The compositions of the composites thus produced are shown in Table-1.

Specimens of suitable sizes for optical microscopy and measurement of density, hardness and tensile strength were taken from the cast composite samples. Samples for optical microscopy were polished in emery papers and cloth in a conventional manner and etched with Keller’s reagent. The polished and etched specimens were observed under an optical microscope at 100×. Density of the Al alloy and the composites were measured by water displacement method. Hardness of the polished specimens was measured in a Brinell hardness testing machine at 500 kg load with 10 mm dia. steel ball as indenter. Tensile tests were carried out in a Universal tensile testing machine with specimens of 12.5 mm gauge dia. and 75 mm gauge length at a crosshead speed of 2.0 mm/min.

results and discussion10 wt% SiC particles and 4 wt% graphite particle of three different sizes could be incorporated successfully into the Al alloy by vortex method. It has been reported that ceramic particles are rejected by liquid Al when incorporated into Al alloy by vortex method without Mg. Addition of 1-2 wt% Mg into Al alloy prior to addition of ceramic particles improves wettability of the ceramic particles by liquid Al by reducing surface tension of the liquid metal. Since 2 wt% Mg was added prior to incorporation of SiC and graphite particles into the molten Al alloy in the present work, no rejection of particles were observed and the SiC and graphite particles could be incorporated into liquid Al successfully.

Generally the fluidity of liquid Al is adversely affected in presence of ceramic particles in it. However in the present study, the alloy used was a eutectic alloy that has excellent fluidity. Hence in spite of incorporation of SiC and graphite particles into the Al alloy, the fluidity of the liquid composites was sufficient at the temperature of pouring and the composites melts could be cast successfully into metal moulds.

The microstructures of the base Al alloy and the composites are shown in Figure 1.

The micrograph of the base alloy shows the eutectic dendritic structure containing α-Al and Si phases. In the composites, the SiC and graphite particles are observed with clustering of SiC particles at some locations. Since the solidification of the eutectic alloy is instantaneous compared to off-eutectic alloys, the clustering of the SiC particles is attributed to the gravity segregation to some extent just after pouring of the liquid composites and before its solidification.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of Al alloy – silicon carbide – graphite hybrid particle compositesPankaj Sadana1, Lakhvir Singh2 and P. C. Maity3 1Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engg., DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar, India, 2Professor, Mechanical Engg., Baba Banda Singh Bahadur Engineering College, Fatehgarh Sahib, India, 3Metal Casting and Materials Engineer

A

Sample No.

Matrix SiC (wt%) Size of graphite particles

(µm)

Graphite (wt%)

1 LM6 - - -2 LM6 10 - -3 LM6 10 106-150 44 LM6 10 212-300 45 LM6 10 300-425 4Table 1. details of compositions of the composites

Figure 1. Optical Micrographs of (a) Al alloy (b) Al alloy – 10 wt% SiC (c) Al alloy – 10 wt% SiC – 4 wt% Graphite (106-150 µm) (d) Al alloy – 10 wt% SiC – 4 wt% Graphite (212-300 µm) and (e) Al alloy – 10 wt% SiC – 4 wt% Graphite (300-425 µm) composites in etched condition.

A b C

d E

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The density of the Al alloy and the composites are presented in Table-2. Minor increase in density is observed in Al alloy – SiC composite in comparison to the base alloy. On the other hand, addition of graphite particles has reduced the density of the composites to some extent. The theoretical density of Al is 2.7 g/cc and that of SiC and graphite are 3.2 g/cc and 2.4 g/cc respectively at room temperature. Hence the increase in density of Al-SiC composite and reduction of density of graphite added composites are observed. It has been reported that due to agitation of liquid Al alloy during its processing by vortex method induces air into it and reduction of density is possible due to the presence of resultant porosity in the matrix of the composites. Therefore the density of the composites could be slightly higher than the measured values when free from voids. Coarser graphite particles results in higher density probably due to lesser porosity in the composites associated with incorporation of air in liquid Al along with ceramic particles.

The hardness of the composite containing 10 wt% SiC particles has improved significantly compared to the base Al alloy. The hardness of SiC particles is much higher than that of Al alloys. Hence the improvement of the hardness of the composite containing SiC particles is observed. With the addition of graphite particles, the hardness of the composites has reduced to extent, since the graphite particles are much softer than Al alloys. At the same level of 4 wt% of graphite particles with increasing size, the hardness increase slightly, probably due to increase in average inter-particle distance and less porosity in the matrix, when the particles are coarser.

The tensile strength of the base alloy is 127 MPa (Table 2) and it has reduced to 118 MPa in case of Al alloy with 10 wt% SiC particles. Generally the tensile strength of Al matrix composites with SiC particle reinforcement is higher than the same of the base alloy when the composite is free from porosity. The strength of the composites increases due to load transfer from the matrix to particles of higher strength and higher dislocation density around SiC particles resulted from lower co-efficient of thermal expansion of the ceramic particles than that of the matrix. The type of particle-matrix interface also dictates the tensile strength of the composites, as poor bonding between the particles and the matrix affects load transfer from matrix

to particles. On the other hand, in presence of porosity, the strength of the composites decreases. Hence the net strength of the composites depends upon the type of the reinforcement particles and its vol% and the porosity% in the matrix of the composite. In the present work, the composites have been prepared by vortex method which incorporates air into the molten Al along with the particles. Hence the presence of porosity is attributed to the lower tensile strength of the composite with 10 wt% SiC particles. The addition of graphite particles into the composite with 10 wt% SiC reduces further, as the graphite particles are softer than the Al matrix.

Conclusion1. 10 wt% SiC and 4 wt% graphite particles of different sizes

could be incorporated into Al alloy matrix successfully by vortex method.

2. The particles are distributed in the Al alloy matrix uniformly, although clustering of SiC particles were observed at some locations.

3. The density of the composite with SiC only is slightly higher than that of the Al alloy due to higher density of SiC than Al alloy. Graphite particles reduce the density of the composites. Coarse graphite particles results in higher density than finer particles.

4. The hardness of Al matrix composite with SiC particles has considerably higher hardness. Addition of graphite particles reduces the hardness of the composites with SiC particles. The size of graphite particles has negligible effect on the hardness of the composites.

5. The tensile strength of the composites is lower than that of the Al alloy. Addition of graphite particles further reduces the tensile strength of the composites in comparison to that of the composite with SiC only.

6. Coarser graphite particles results in higher density and hardness of the composites.

7. The ductility of the composites is practically same as that of the Al alloy. n

References1) R. A. Saravanan, Jung-Moo Lee and Suk-Bong Kang, Metallurgical and Materials

Transactions A, Vol. 30A (1999), pp. 2523-2538.2) Manchang Gui, Suk Bong Kang and Jung Moo Lee, Journal of Materials Science,

Vol.35 (2000), pp.4749-4762.3) Liu Yao-hui, Du Jun, Yu Si-rong and Wang Wei, Wear, Vol.256 (2004), pp.275-285.4) S. Das, S. V. Prasad and T. R. Ramachandran, Materials Science and Engineering,

Vol. A138 (1991), pp.123-132.5) B. K. Prasad, Journal of Materials Science Letters, Vol.10 (1991), pp.867-869.6) W. Ames and A. T. Alpas, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, Vol. 26A,

(1995), pp. 85-98.7) S. Suresha and B. K. Sridhara, Composite Science and Technology, Vol.70, (2010),

pp.1652-1659.8) S. Suresha and B. K. Sridhara, Materials and Design, Vol.34, (2012), pp.576-583. 9) Pankaj Kumar, Surya P. Prabhakar and P. C. Maity, Metal Casting Technologies,

Vol.58, No.1 (2012), pp.28-31.

Sample No.

density (g/cc)

Hardness (bHN)

Tensile Strength

(MpA)

Elongation (%)

1 2.56 64 127 4.39

2 2.57 100 118 4.60

3 2.50 94 120 3.79

4 2.55 87 105 4.01

5 2.56 90 112 4.32Table 2. physical and mechanical properties of Al alloy and its composites

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Aluminium China 2013when: 2-4 July 2013where: Shanghai New Int’l Expo Centre, Shanghai – ChinaSummary: ALUMINIUM CHINA 2013 is Asia’s leading aluminium industry platform, annually held in Shanghai. By presenting new customized matchmaking programs and product related tours for international visitors from different industry sectors as well as a world class conference program, ALUMINIUM China 2013 sets new standards in terms of sourcing and networking opportunities in Asia. Over 450 international exhibitors from 30 countries representing the entire aluminium production chain - from Aluminium raw materials, semi-finished and finished products to production and processing machinery and accessories - will meet with 15,000 qualified professionals and buyer delegates from China, all the key Asian markets and other global emerging markets.E: [email protected] w: www.aluminiumchina.com

ITpS - International Therm process Summit 2013when: 9-10 July 2013where: Düsseldorf Congress Centre, Düsseldorf – GermanySummary: This B2B-forum for executives and top management offers a complementary platform for information interchange as well as for meetings between industry specialists. Executives from plant manufacturers and customers’ sectors have an opportunity to discuss relevant strategic topics. In addition to the high-level information supplied, the ITPS will also have a networking function. Contacts between high-ranking representatives of the participating companies are established and maintained.E: [email protected]: www.itps-online.com/

Casting Technology New Zealand Inc. 2013 Foundry Conference when: 16-18 August 2013where: Monaco Resort (The Grand Mercure), Nelson – New ZealandSummary: Casting Technology’s Annual Conference, promises to provide a unique forum to share the latest international and national technological developments driving competitive advantage in the foundry industry, as well as a wonderful opportunity to network and socialise with foundry experts. The event will provide a platform to compare with others, and to seek solutions to the challenges confronted by the industry. This year we have been successful in securing Bob Puhakka (www.castdifferently.com) as Keynote speaker. Discussion will focus on modern methoding and gating practices and will be taken further with ‘hands on’ computer modelling of some of our conference attendees more difficult challenges. Bob Puhakka is a world renowned foundry engineering professional specialising in metal casting technology and processing metallurgy. He will be joined with an interesting mix of other national and international speakers. The social events will include a Banquet dinner set amongst the Classic Cars at the WOW Museum (World of Wearable Art & Classic Cars Museum). For those that like to get out and about, we have a site tour organised. The conference will be a rewarding, fulfilling and value adding experience for all who attend. For more information on submitting a paper to the

Casting Technology NZ Conference contact Bill Lovell, Industry Champion or view on our website.E: [email protected]: www.castingtechnologynz.org

6th philippine die & Mold Machineries and Equip-ment Exhibition - pdMEX 2013when: 28-31 August 2013where: Venue World Trade Center Metro Manila, PhilippinesSummary: VISITORS’ PROFILE: Aerospace Manufacturer, Automotive Manufacturer, Building Constructions, Product Design, Die & Mold Manufacturer, Electronics & Electrical Manufacturer• Electroplating • Furniture Manufacturer, Foundry, Machinery & Equipment Manufacturer, Machining Services, Metal Parts & Component Manufacturer, OEM and Sub Contractor Manufacturer, Lubricants, Metalcasting • Plastics and Packaging Manufacturers, Semiconductor & Precision Engineers, Storage and Material Handling, Associations & Government Agency, Distributors / Agents, Education and Training Institutions and other related industries.E: [email protected]: www.pdmaec.brinkster.net/index2.html

ALuMINIuM India 2013when: 12-14 September 2013where: Bombay Exhibition Centre, Mumbai – IndiaSummary: India’s leading B2B trade event for the aluminium eco-system and its application industries, ALUMINIUM India brings together producers, processors, technology suppliers and consumers along the entire value chain - i.e. from raw materials through to semi-finished and finished products. We look forward to welcoming you make your mark on the aluminium landscape of the future.E: [email protected]: www.aluminium-india.com/

3rd Annual International Conference on Materials Science, Metal and Manufacturingwhen: 9-10 September 2013where: Chatrium Hotel Riverside, Bangkok - ThailandSummary: Materials science has been pushed to the forefront of research and development not only in universities but in industries as well. With the planet’s resources being mined each day in order to supply the growing demands of industrialization, one major task of materials science is to revolutionize the manufacturing industry with the best materials for manufacture that are sustainable for the long term. Materials science is also paving the way for new theoretical and empirical research in areas of physics, engineering and chemistry. This conference will provide the venue to discuss these recent developments.E: [email protected]: www.m3-conference.org

13th Global Foundry Sourcing Conferencewhen: 12 September 2013where: Grand Regency Hotel, Qingdao – ChinaSummary: The semi-annual Global Foundry Sourcing Conference is sponsored by the China Foundry Suppliers Union (CFSU) and organized by Suppliers China Co., Ltd. (SC), and co-sponsored by the National Technical Committee 54 on

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32 www.metals.rala.com.au METAL casting Technologies June 2013 33

Back to B a s i c s

olving porosity problems in graphitic cast irons can seem a complex problem as almost every process parameter will affect how an iron solidifies and the

volume changes that occur on freezing.In order to consistently produce porosity free iron castings

it is necessary to have a basic understanding of the unique solidification mechanisms and volume changes that occur.

Porosity defects in graphitic cast irons are invariably caused by a failure to adequately control pressure on the liquid within the mould cavity. Positive pressure must act on the liquid throughout the solidification process. Initially, atmospheric pressure must be allowed to act on the liquid within the risers in order for feed metal to flow to the casting to compensate for the volume reduction caused by the temperature drop from the pouring temperature.

Secondly, pressure associated with the eutectic expansion phase must be converted to internal liquid pressure. Expansion must be controlled within manageable levels and remain on the liquid until solidification is complete. Manageable expansion is primarily determined by the rigidity of the mould material, or more particularly, the ability of the mould material to withstand the pressure of expansion without dilating.

Risers used on graphitic iron castings will often reflect these volume changes and as such can be a valuable diagnostic tool for solving porosity problems. Figure 1 shows a selection of risers from grey iron castings. The initial shrinkage as the liquid cools from the pouring temperature can be seen as the “piping” from the upper surface whilst the exuded metal at the bottom of the pipe is evidence of the expansion phase.

Solidification mechanismsGrey ironsThe majority of commercial flake graphite (grey) cast irons are of hypo-eutectic composition (CEV less than 4.25). In such alloys, solidification begins at the liquidus temperature with the nucleation and growth of primary austenite dendrites at the mould wall. Austenite growth causes the remaining liquid to be enriched with carbon until it reaches eutectic composition at which point the eutectic of austenite and graphite begins to solidify with both the austenite and graphite growing in direct contact with the eutectic liquid. Freezing progresses by the growth of eutectic cells of austenite and graphite at the expense of the liquid until the solidification process is complete.

The precipitation of the graphite phase in direct contact with liquid has a strong “self-feeding” affect. Indeed, when the cooling rate is low such as with heavy section castings, there may be a net volume gain during solidification which potentially negates the need to add risers to compensate for shrinkage.

In the case of smaller castings which have a higher cooling rate, solidification will generally result in shrinkage which needs to be fed with appropriately positioned risers. In these cases it is necessary for risers to show piping as evidence of atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid. It is also often desirable that there is some indication of metal exuding into the riser pipe. Figure 2 shows such a riser from a small grey iron casting.

ductile ironsDuctile irons are generally of hypereutectic composition (CEV value greater than 4.25). In these alloys, graphite precipitation commences in the liquid, that is, at a temperature above the liquidus. The remaining liquid is subsequently depleted in carbon until it reaches eutectic composition. At this point, austenite cells begin to solidify around the graphite nodules so that only one phase, austenite, is in direct contact with the liquid and the graphite spheroids continue to grow by diffusion of carbon from the liquid through the solid austenite shells.

As the eutectic graphite is growing within a shell of solid austenite, and not in direct contact with liquid as is the case with grey irons, the self-feeding affect is not as significant and generally ductile irons will require more feeding than grey irons.

Again the risers need to show pipe as an indication that atmospheric pressure is acting on the liquid. Ductile iron risers will not show the exuded metal at the bottom of the pipe as the graphite is not growing in direct contact with liquid. Evidence of expansion as a result of eutectic graphite growth can, however, be seen as the “eruptions” on the pipe surface. Figure 3 shows these features.

Consideration of the differences in solidification mechanisms between flake graphite and ductile irons helps to explain the different feeding requirements of the two alloys. For instance, it is generally acknowledged that ductile iron castings are more prone to shrinkage porosity defects than flake graphite iron castings. This

is despite the fact that ductile irons are generally of higher CEV than those of flake graphite irons. With flake graphite irons, the solid austenite shell that generally forms on the mould wall, particularly when cooling rate is relatively high, is more capable of withstanding the pressure of eutectic expansion and transmitting that pressure back to the liquid. When eutectic expansion occurs in ductile irons, the skin is more easily deformed which can result in dilation of the mould wall and loss of pressure on the liquid. Also, as graphite flakes grow in direct contact with the liquid, they have a more powerful effect in forcing feed metal along inter-dendritic channels. n

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Figure 1. Selection of risers from grey iron castings Figure 2. riser from grey iron casting showing pipe and exuded metal Figure 3. riser from ductile iron casting showing pipe and surface “eruptions”

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34 www.metals.rala.com.au METAL casting Technologies June 2013 35

aving come to an understanding regarding the elementary principles involved in the inner life of metals in the article entitled “Romancing the Metal of

the Virtual Bronze Foundry” (December 2012 McT issue) and the article entitled “Raw Materials for the Virtual Bronze Foundry” (March 2013 McT issue), we are now able to appreciate the chemical and physical tests generally required by the customer, after which we will be in a better position to deal with the various foundry precautions concerning individual alloys that are commonly purchased and used in the foundry.

For chemical analysisIn chemical analysis, the method of taking the sample, or the form and method of casting the test bar in the case of physical testing are of basic importance. If the sample or test bar does not truly represent the average condition of the metal tested, then the results are useless.

Turning to the matter of chemical analysis and supposing that a shipment of ingot bronze of the composition copper 85%, tin 5%, lead 5%, zinc 5% is to be tested. A number of ingots should be taken at random, and suitably sampled by drilling. (A detailed description of the sampling method for good results will be discussed in my next article in MCT.)

To put the process of chemical analysis in simple terms: A small weighed quantity of the sample is digested in acid which leaves the tin behind as a white paste that is filtered off. Another acid is added to the clear solution which precipitates the lead, which is also filtered off. The copper is then precipitated from the filtrate by the gas sulphuretted hydrogen and so removed and later estimated. Any iron impurity is then removed by the addition of ammonia solution and filtered off, and finally the zinc in the remaining solution is determined.

An alternate method is to submit the solution, after the tin has been removed, to an electric current which deposits the copper on one suitable platinum cylinder and lead (as an oxide) on another platinum cylinder. This is known as the electrolytic method. Spectrographic methods are also available, especially where one is dealing with very small amounts.

If it is desired to analyze the metal in a casting, suitable drillings are taken and a procedure similar to the analysis of ingot is adopted.

Sufficient samples should be retained by the foundry so that the customer or seller can have a portion for their own tests and still enough be left for an umpire’s test, if necessary.

For physical testingTurning to physical testing, the so-called keel-block gives the best all-around test bar. The mold material is prepared as follows:

Sand. Silica sand that is washed and graded having an AFS Fineness Number between 60 and 80, with less than 1% clay and 98.5% or more silica, and not more than 3% of water as purchased is used.

Amount of this sand 95.5% by weight

Corn flour binder 0.2%

Western bentonite, ground, foundry grade

3.0%

Dextrine 1.3%

TOTAL 100%

Mix dry in a sand muller for one minute and then add water to give 3% moisture in the final product. Mix for five minutes more and use for the mold. Bake the mold between 400 and 4500 F (205 and 2320 C).

This keel block is shown in Figure. 1 which gives three closely agreeing bars in all bronzes that are cast. These include tin bronze, leaded tin bronze, aluminum bronze, manganese bronze, silicon bronze, phosphor bronze, and leaded phosphor bronze. It is not suitable for the light metals such as aluminium and magnesium alloys. The amount of metal involved is some 45 lbs. (20.5 kgs.), including the gate and sprue. This may be considered objectionable by some because it takes too much metal. Of course, where large castings are concerned it would be a poor founder who only had 50 lbs. (22.7 kgs.) over when the main casting was poured, and 45 lbs. (20.5 kgs.) of this

reserve metal is more useful in the form of a keel block than as foundry ingots. Another objection that may be raised is that it takes too long to remove the test bars from the block. With the modern pliable, high-speed emery disks, the bars can be cut off in 3 minutes, and the time required for a good power saw to do the work is quite reasonable. Only by using one kind of test bar made in the same type of mold, of the same material, in the same manner, all the time, can the foundry operator get the full value out of the test bar results. This is especially true of the fracture tests.

The keel block is used as follows: The keel bar, that is, the large bar K which is at the bottom of the block (Figure. 1), is sawn two-thirds of the way through and then broken off with a sledge hammer and wedge. This exposes the fracture. It is the most important single test the foundryman can make. When the foundry uses the same test bar all the time, those interested get thoroughly acquainted with what is a good, fair, and/or bad fracture of any particular alloy. A portion of the keel bar is used for the specimen for the Brinell test for hardness, another for the compression cylinder for the deformation test, another for the metallographic investigation, if such is required, and what is left, for drillings for analysis. One of the side bars is used for the tensile test and the other for the shock resistance or Izod test. If the tensile test only is called for, then all three bars can be used for this – one for the customer, one for the foundry, and one held in reserve for purposes of checking.

The fact that the bar is about 1 sq. inch in cross section means that it more truly represents a heavy casting than would a cast-to-size bar. Further, as only the center of any of the three bars is used for the test, only the poorest metal, if there be such, goes into the critical part of the test bar, so the results are certainly in favor of the customer rather than the foundry. Engineers soon see the truth of this argument.

Considering the foregoing, the keel block is still the best one to use both for the foundry and the customer. It could be claimed that other shaped bars are more sensitive to the weaknesses introduced by occluded gases; but this is not quite true. If the metal is poured too hot or too cold, or gassed, or oxidized, the fracture of the keel bar will indicate it and the other tests will support the findings of the fracture.

For testing melt qualityThere is a “melt quality test” which, while not providing regular test bars as does the keel block, is possibly even more suitable for evaluating “melt quality” only. This is described as a V-test block that can be used for ascertaining the “melt quality” of molten metal in regard to gassing.

The essential features are a mold to provide a wedge of metal of about 4-inches high, ¼-inch wide at the point, 2½-inches wide at the top (b) and 3-inches long, the same having as an integral part a rectangular riser 3-inches wide (d) by 3-inches long by 3-inches high – this riser being a continuation of the broad base of the wedge, as shown in Figure 2. The wedge itself is in the drag of the green-sand mold while the riser is surrounded by a gypsum insulating sleeve ½-inch thick, itself surrounded by the green-sand mold. The casting is poured through the riser, and when filled, the surface of the molten metal is covered with gypsum insulating powder. Under these circumstances it is believed (and tests have been made which confirm this belief) that the wedge is perfectly fed. This being the case, no porosity due to the shrinkage areas should be present. Furthermore, as the molten metal does not traverse the green-sand mold prior to entering the casting area, it should not pick up any gas during its transfer from the melting unit to the casting cavity. Consequently, any porosity developing in the wedge may be assumed to be due to gas acquired by the metal before or during the melting operation.

By slicing up the wedge, as shown in the lower part of the figure, specimens can be obtained for the fracture, density, radiograph, and macro-etch tests. Tests have been conducted which showed, by all these tests, that the metal could be

chemical and physical testing of bronze castings

H

By Prof. John H. D. Bautista, PEE, RMetE, MBA; Technical consultant, Phil. Metalcasting Association., inc.

Figure 1. Keel block for Specimens for the physical Testing of bronzes.

THERE is A “MELT QUALiTY TEsT” WHicH, WHiLE NOT PROViDiNG REGULAR TEsT BARs As DOEs THE KEEL BLOcK, is POssiBLY EVEN MORE sUiTABLE fOR EVALUATiNG “MELT QUALiTY” ONLY.

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36 www.metals.rala.com.au

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obtained of a density of 8.87 (8.92 is taken as 100% of the possible density), which by calculation gives only 0.56% of the voids.

The gypsum sleeves were made by mixing a slurry of 16 parts by weight of water with 10 parts of plaster of Paris, forming the sleeves in a suitable mold. The pre-formed sleeves were baked for 8 hours at 4500F (2320C).

The alloy used for the laboratory tests was copper 88%, tin 10%, zinc 2%, and the casting temperature was 20750F (11350C). The alloy was made from virgin metal by first melting the copper under a pre-fused flux consisting of 5 parts by weight of silica sand, 3 parts of borax, and 2 parts of cupric oxide. One ounce of this flux was used for each pound of melt. The tin was added after the copper was molten. The melt was then heated to approximately 22000F (12040C), the flux thickened with dry sharp sand and then removed, and the zinc then plunged into the melt. Three ounces of 15% phosphor-copper per 100 lbs. of metal were used for deoxidation.

The time for casting, fracture, and inspection is less than 5 minutes.

The greater measure of standardization would prevail if dry synthetic sand molds were used for the mold in the melt quality test (in lieu of green sand) of a composition consisting of a washed silica sand having an AFS Fineness Number between 60 and 80, with less than 1% of clay and 98.5% or more of silica, and having less than 3% of water as purchased, with actual proportions as mentioned before under the heading “For Physical Testing” in this article. The essential thing, however, is that each foundry standardize its own procedure exactly, and that having done so, no deviation from such standard be permitted.

It is strongly recommended that this wedge test be thoroughly tried out, believing that it is a decided advance in “melt quality” testing.

About test barsReturning to the question of test bars, there used to be a very widespread misunderstanding as to the role of the test bar played, and even now there are those who fail to appreciate the limitations of its use in the bronze foundry. It was this lack of appreciation of the real duty of the test bar that lead to the insistence of having the test bar made as an integral part of the casting. This serves no useful purpose and in many instances defeats the very objective desired. The trouble came about by thinking that the test bar was to be a measure of the physical properties of the casting.

The fact is that by making the test bars as an integral part of the casting, many factors contribute to a not so representative test bars. To wit:l The host casting may be so complicated that it would be

difficult to locate and attach the test bar.l A host casting that has different section thicknesses likewise

makes the test bar not so reliable due to differences in metal temperature as it passes and reaches the various sections.

l Being attached to the casting, the test bar may draw on the casting to the latter’s detriment.What, then, is the role of the test bar? One thing, and only

one thing, namely, to assure the customer that the quality of the metal entering the mold is satisfactory. It then follows that the test bar should be so cast that all the conditions favor optimum physical characteristics. This means pouring the test bar, the “keel block” in this case, at a fixed temperature for each alloy. Other conditions regarding the casting of the test bar must also be made as constant as possible. n

Figure 2. Making the specimen for “Melt quality tests” with the mold and the specimen shown

THERE is A “MELT QUALiTY TEsT” WHicH, WHiLE NOT PROViDiNG REGULAR TEsT BARs As DOEs THE KEEL BLOcK, is POssiBLY EVEN MORE sUiTABLE fOR EVALUATiNG “MELT QUALiTY” ONLY.

References(a) Harold J. Roast, Cast Bronze(b) American Society for Metals, Metals Handbook, Desk Edition, 1985

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METAL casting Technologies June 2013 37

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METAL casting Technologies June 2013 3938 www.metals.rala.com.au

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Phone: + (61) 2 9914 5500 Fax: + (61) 2 9914 5547www.foseco.com.au

* COVERAL and ALSPEK are trade marks of the Vesuvius Group, registered in certain countries, used under licence.

COATINGS

FILTRATION

FEEDING SYSTEMS

MELT SHOP REFRACTORIES

METAL TREATMENT

BINDERS

CRUCIBLES

COVERAL* I FDU I MTS I ALSPEK*

Metal Treatment_NF_au_September_2012.indd 1 9/13/2012 9:15:58 AM

Foseco has been associated with the global metallurgical industry for more than 70 years,

and is an innovative and progressive organisation. Foseco supply a wide range of products to the

metal casting industry including:Refractory Coatings isomol and holcote

Mould and Core Binders Fenotec, Furotec, Politec and ecolotec

Insulating exothermic Sleeves kalmin and kalminex

Filtration for Iron and Steel Stelex, Sedex, and Sivex

Ferrous and Non ferrous treatment products inocluin carbonin, nodulant and coveral,

Furnaces and ladle refractories crucibles, stoppers and nozzles.

FOSeCO Pty ltDNo 7, Stuart Street Padstow NSW 2211 Australia Phone: +61 2 9914 5500 Fax: +61 2 9914 5547

www.foseco.com.au www.vesuvius.com

adv IMF_9x6,5.indd 2 01/03/13 10:33First Choice in Metals AnalysisFast and reliable XRF and OES

METAL • Perfect mobility when you

need to take the analysis to the sample

• Flexibility through long life battery - power up to 12 hours

• Quick and simple touch-screen operation

• Easy to use

For more information and to arrange a demonstration please contact us on: +65 6337 6848 or email: [email protected] www.oxford-instruments.com/industrial

PMI-MASTER PROX-MET7500Scrap Metal Analyser

FOUNDRY-MASTER Xpert

•Precise and stable analysis of all alloys

•Unbeatably low ownership costs

•Unique Jet-Stream technology

PACIFIC RIM FOUNDRY SERVICESBuying and Selling Second hand and Remanufactured Foundry Equipment

large Selection of equipment, competitive pricingWE AlSO DO FOUNDRY EqUIPMENt ASSEt EVAlUAtIONS AND lIqUIDAtIONS

www.pacrim.com.auPhone: 61 2 8883 2997 Fax: 61 2 8883 2895 Mobile 0419 433 238 Email: [email protected]

AMETEK, Inc. SPECTRO Analytical Instruments (Asia-Pacific) Ltd.Unit 1603, 16/F., Tower III, Enterprise Square

No. 9 Sheung Yuet Road, Kowloon Bay, Kowloon, Hong KongTel: +852.2976.9162, Fax:+852.2976.9542

[email protected], www.spectro.com

A member of the AMETEK Materials Analysis Division, SPECTRO is one of the worldwide leading suppliers of analytical instruments, employing optical emission and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry technology, used for the elemental analysis of materials in industry, research and academia.

Synchro ERP can tell you.

What eats awayAt your profits?

Cast Metal Specific Software

SynchroERP.comAUS 61 3 9018 7568

[email protected]

Latest ReleasesLeast Cost Mix

CRM – Customer Relationship Management

Page 22: Innovative OES

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Tel: +613 9586 5400Fax: +613 9586 5411

[email protected]

WeS Omega Foundry Machinery Pty ltd 16 Lanyon St, dandenong, Victoria australia 3175 contact: Les craig / Bob dorsett / Peter dimopoulos

WES OMEGA FOUNDrY MACHINErY PTY lTDA new Joint Venture to Benfit the Foundry Industry Warill engineering Sales (Aust) Pty ltd, (WeS) as of August 1st 2012 has formed a joint venture with Omega Foundry Machinery ltd based in the UK.

the new company will be known as WeS Omega Foundry Machinery Pty ltd, which will be based at the existing weS premises located in dandenong. the company will be headed by Les craig (Managing director) and Peter dimopoulos (technical director).

Ph: +613 9794 8400 Email: [email protected] Web: www.wesomega.com.au

METAL casting Technologies March 2013 4140 www.metals.rala.com.au

foundry

Suppliers

RALA INFORMATION SERVICES PTY LTD ABN: 3700 384 9483 | AUSTRALIA | 1A/551 Mowbray Road West, Lane Cove North NSW 2066 AUSTRALIA | T: +61 2 9420 2080 | F: +61 2 9420 5152 |Editorial: [email protected] | Advertising [email protected]

AN ABSOLUTE MUST READ!MCT is the only magazine that is totally dedicated to the foundry and metal casting industries throughout the Asia Pacific Region.

Please complete the details below and fax to us on:

Australia – AUD$104.65 (includes GST, postage & handling)

Overseas – AUD$132.40 (includes postage & handling) +61 2 9420 5152Name: .................................................................................................................................................................................................

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Please let us know your industry and interests:

Industry Interest Automotive components Who’s Who of Metals Coremaking Annual Buyer’s Guide Die casting Aluminium Education and research Furnaces and refractories Equipment and suppliers Neat treatment Ferrous Magnesium Furnaces and refractories Mould and Coremaking Heat treatment OH&S Industry groups Pattern making/tooling/rapid prototyping Investment castings Sand and binders Light alloys Software Non ferrous Testing Equipment OH&S Zinc Pattern making Other (please specify): Software Tools Other ((please specify):

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Subscription to METALS magazine to be sent within Australia – AUD$104.65 (includes GST, P+H) Subscription to METALS magazine to be sent overseas – AUD$132.40 (includes P+H) Back issues $15 each except Annual Who’s Who at $25.00 each (plus postage P+H).

Please list back copies required: ........................................................................................................................................................

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*CCV: We ask for this information for your security, as it verifies for us that a credit card is in the physical possession of the person attempting to use it. Your card security code for your MasterCard or Visa card is a three-digit number on the back of your credit card, immediately following your main card number

Featured Thermo Scientific products for metals analysis include:

Thermo Fisher ScientificChemin de Verney 2CH-1024 Ecublens, SwitzerlandTel. +41 (0)21 694 71 11Fax +41 (0)21 694 71 [email protected]/elemental

Thermo Fisher Scientific is the world leader in serving science. The company enables its customers to make the world healthier, cleaner and safer by providing analytical instruments, equipment, reagents and consumables, software and services for research, analysis, discovery and diagnostics.

Thermo Scientific™ ARL iSpark™ Series Optical Emission Spectrometers for outstanding analytical performance on a wide range of elements with dual CCD/PMT optics

Optical Emission Metal Analyzers offering rapid and complete elemental analysis of solid metallic samples from trace up to major elements

X-Ray Material Analyzers enabling elemental and phase analysis of a wide variety of materials through X-ray fluorescence and X-ray diffraction systems

Page 23: Innovative OES

Just add Foseco+ Partnership

+ Global Technology - Locally Delivered

+ Creative, Innovative Solutions

+ Expert Advice

+ Reliability

+ Knowledge Leadership

Phone +(61) 2 9914 5500

Fax +(61) 2 9914 5547

www.foseco.com.au

Responding to the increasing challenges you face, Foseco simplifi es your operations, providing innovative solutions that deliver real world results.

For over eight decades we’ve sustained an unrivalled reputation for game-changing ideas, adding new value to almost everything you do. And, by consistently ensuring premium quality results, we’re now the partner of choice for foundries worldwide.

So, release your true potential: just add Foseco.