Integrating Corpora

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Integrating corpora and word-focused tasks into a linguistics project:

A sound symbolism methodfor word growth

Shih-ping Wang

School of English Studies, University of NottinghamDepartment of Applied English, Ming Chuan University

[email protected]

Corpora have been used not only in language instruction and learning, but also in

teaching disciplinary content, e.g., linguistics. his study investigated the effectiveness of

integrating corpus!based approaches into a linguistics pro"ect concerned #ith #ord gro#th.

#o of four case studies #ill be reported, #hich have been e$plored for intentional

vocabulary learning %Case &' and incidental ac(uisition %Cases ) and *'. Specifically this

study aimed at finding out #hether students #ho participated in this corpus!based pro"ect

%the e$perimental group' ac(uired more incidental vocabulary than those #ho did not %the

control group'. Students in the e$perimental group #ere re(uested to base their pro"ects on

self!construction data related to sound symbolism %SS', mainly from English maga+ines,

#hich they had to analy+e using linguistic methods. SS served as the main #ord!focused

tass %-' employed to reinforce the shortcomings of other theories. SS #as integrated into

students/ one!year long pro"ect, including different categories of vocabulary %0,&10 le$ical

items' #ith e$ample sentences, #ord fre(uencies and percentages. 2oth a pretest and a

posttest #ere administered to evaluate their performance. ANC34A %Case )' indicated that

the e$perimental group significantly outperformed the control group in the vocabulary tests.

he findings confirmed that - favored higher level students to promote their #ord gains

%Case *'. he statistical MAN34A sho#ed that - plus reading #ith e$tracting sentences

#as better than - only %Case 0'.

Keywords:corpus-based, word-focused tasks, sound symbolism, SS-method, rimm!s "aw #

incidental $ocabulary ac%uisition

1. INT!"#$TI!Nhe aim of this paper is to use sound symbolism %SS' as the pro"ect topic for

vocabulary ac(uisition and instruction. his paper mainly e$plored the effect of

integrating corpus!based approaches %C2A' into a linguistics pro"ect %5ir &6607 cf.

-ilson and McEnery &660'. in relation to SS to promote learners/ #ord gro#th.

-hen doing their pro"ects, students #ere e$posed to authentic materials and ac(uired

both linguistics no#ledge and incidental vocabularies in terms of the principle8

teaching students how to teach themsel$es %Sternberg &619'. he corpus!based

approach motivated students to e$plore linguistics data and construct corpora through

e$tensive reading. :t has been confirmed that this course design could assist students
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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to learn both English and a special content course.

SS!method associates sound!meaning and sound!form concurrently, yielding

immediate perception and;or longer #ord retention. SS served as the main #ord!

focused tass %-' employed to reinforce or compensate for the shortcomings of

other theories such as #ord!formation, ey#ord method and rimm?s


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SS can be used to mae up for #ord part method %e.g. Schmitt and

Fimmerman )@@)'. SS is also an appropriate field to integrate keyword methodand

semantic processing techni%uesto mae up for 'he "e$els of *rocessing frame#or

%Crai and ulving &69'. he features of sound symbolism association can be

applied to avoid their insufficiency and reinforce the relevant sensory!semantic

model. he ey#ord method can be used in


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semantic layers. he processing of information transfers from the sensory level,

including visual or acoustical processing, to the semantic elaboration for the advanced

analysis of meaning. urther processing occurs #hen semantic elaboration strengthens

information retrieval.

Go#ever, the processing theory has been challenged for a long time %


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%. &earning through conte;t: incidental learning+ reading and )T

Gaving discussed SS and its relevance, this section turns to vocabulary

learning through conte$t, #ord!focused tass and the lie. :t is commonly assumed

that most vocabulary is learned from conte$t %Sternberg &619'. 1ncidental learning

through guessing from conte$t is considered the most important of all sources of

vocabulary learning. :ncidental vocabulary ac(uisition is defined as Bthe ac(uisition of

vocabulary as a HpositiveJ by!product of another activity or other language activities/

%Coady &6697 ass &666'. Although Sternberg

%ibid.' claims that most vocabulary is learned from conte$t, he also points out the

insufficiency of presenting #ords in conte$t. herefore, it is evident that theory!based

instruction is also needed concerning ho# to use the sills of learning through

conte$t, including presenting #ords in a series of sentences.

eading has long been considered the main source to increase vocabulary in


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important to e$plore #hich tass are more promising, leading to higher vocabulary

gains8 a' reading alone, b' sentence writingor c' reading with sentence writing. :n

other #ords, this research has been more concerned #ith the relevant approaches8

reading te(tbooks alone, W&' alone, or W&'plus reading with sentence e(traction

for each target word'. Sentence e$traction for the target #ords is considered

incidental learning here, because the target #ords of - are not used for pretest and

posttest.

%.< esearch =uestions

:n the study of our linguistics course, the students of a university and a "unior

college in ai#an #ere chosen as the participants. hey #ere e$pected to learn

linguistics no#ledge and ac(uire incidental vocabulary simultaneously. hey #ere

re(uested to finish their linguistics e$ercises or tass in their te$tboo together #ith

their one!year linguistics pro"ect. he specific research (uestions addressed in this

research #ere stipulated belo# to e$plore #hether or not students could e$pand

vocabulary in terms of three different case studies #ith four research (uestions8

esearch (uestion &8 Could the SS!method be applied to promote young

learners/ vocabulary gro#th in the traditional vocabulary and reading courseL

SS served as an early pilot study and e$plored the relevant topics from le$ical

to discourse level.

esearch (uestion )8 -hich group, Control or E$perimental group, performed

better for incidental vocabulary ac(uisitionL

%Control group8 reading the te(tbook only7 E$perimental group8 reading the

te(tbook plus W&' with e(tracting e(ample sentence for each target word.

esearch (uestion *8 Could SS-method or word-focused tasks alone help

different levels of students for incidental vocabulary ac(uisitionL

. /'T>!"his paper integrated hybrid approaches, as mentioned above, into an

academic sub"ect to compensate for the traditional isolation of linguistics and

language methods. he related theories #ere brought into the classroom to motivate

students ho# to learn an academic sub"ect %e.g. linguistics or reading' and receive the

positive Bby!product/ %i.e. incidental $ocabulary' at the same time or later on. 3ne of

the crucial points #as carried out in terms of learning by doingfor the purpose of

teaching students ho# to teach themselves %Sternberg &619'.

.1 articipants 5$ase studies 1 and %6


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As sho#n in able ), the participants of ase study 3%in relation to esearch

(uestion &' #ere younger students of non!native speaers %NNS', aged &!& %N

&&1' from Chin Min unior College in ai#an. hey had studied English only three

years and too the course, 4ocabulary and eading, in their first year program of

"unior college. he participants for ase study 2 %esearch (uestion )' #ere NNS

sophomores %N &@*' in an introductory course of linguistics at Ming Chuan

University in ai#an. hey #ere from t#o different classes, one as control group %n

09' and the other, e$perimental group %n '.

Table % articipants in % case studies

$ase

%students'

3rouping design

$ontrol ';perimental #pper &ower *tatus $ourse

$ase &

%N&&1'

Class &8 n 0

Class *8 n 09

Class 08 n @

Class )8 n 0 unior college

%Aged8 &!&'

4ocabulary

# eading

$ase )

%N&@*'n 09 n

Sophomore at

other university

%Aged8 &6!)@'

1ntroductio

n to

"inguistics

.% /aterials+ treatment and instruments

or ase study 3, students mainly ac(uired sills such as outline!#riting

practice for each essay, guessing meanings from conte$t and SS!method training

vocabulary learning. he activities are divided into reading and vocabulary parts.

Students #ere trained ho# to apply the reading sills of top-down, bottom-up and

their integration %Miulecy &66@'. eading tas can be divided into three steps8 &'

first reading %top!do#n' is to get the main idea7 )' second reading %bottom!up' is to

fill in the gaps7 *' third reading %integration;interaction' is to put the information

together %Marstein &660'. As for the vocabulary part, sound symbolism, >rimm/s


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RE$perimental group %intact'8 >& I %>&8 E$perimental >roup7 8 teaching treatment'

RControl group %intact'8 >) I %>)8 Control group7 I8 test results'

here is apre-testandpost-testmeasure concerning vocabulary and reading at

3E< level. No fore#arning #as given about the tests #hose e$am (uestions #ere

not selected from their pro"ect %Case )'. ANC34A #as applied to compare the

performance of these t#o groups in different classes. he control group received

linguistics no#ledge of the regular course only. Students of the e$perimental group

#ere re(uested to find specific SS!vocabulary data from '16, 7ewsweek or

8usinessWeekand the lie %-ray et al &6618 &)*' through e$tensive reading, and

e$tracted an e$ample sentence for each chosen le$ical item %i.e. target #ord' to

construct their o#n corpus. =articipants decided their reading speed, but they #ould

read as fast as possible to search more related e$amples. :n addition, they #ere not

re(uested to fully understand te$ts #hich they read or searched. All groups submitted

their o#n Bproduct/ bound lie a boo at the end of the second semester.

Students #ere also encouraged to surf the #ebsites, using the B2NC Simple

Search/ for the fre(uency of occurrence in the 2NC for each le$ical item. or

e$ample, they used the Simple Search of 87-World to loo for the fre(uency of

Bpuff./ he esults ofyour search %see igure )' indicated that its fre(uency of

occurrence is )61 in the 2NC.


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Results of your search

Your query was

puff

Here is a random selection of 50 solutions from the 298found...

A0T397The blinking was a reflex which could equally well have been set off

by apuff of wind or a flash of light.

A641721A longpuffof rinted steam trailed over the title of the aer!

and this oular touch revailed through its ages.

A6C929"efore the cinema oened the men on the staff were given cigars to

puff! so that when you came into the foyer it had that smell of luxury.

T

igure % esults of *imple *earch of ?N$-)orld

:n addition to t#o or three tests, #ord lists, #or sheets, a (uestionnaire,

'16 %or '16 6(press', 7ewsweek, 8usinessWeek, 2NC, 2NC Simpler, #ebsites,

and >oogle search engine #ere employed %also see able *'.

Table *tatistical tests+ treatments and materials

$ase *tatistical testing

for ocabulary

e;ams

)ord-focused

tasks for groups

eading *entence

e;traction

"oing

project

/aterials@

"ata sources

& R!est %e$perimental'

%control'

Rtass only Re$tboos

) R3ne!-ay AN34A

RANC34A

%e$perimental'

%control'

Rling. tass

Rproduct

%Ba boo/'

R2NC

R2NConline

RMaga+ines

he control group in Case & did regular tass #hich #ere not their main focus in this class.

. Analysis of **-method

SS!method %9nset : ime' #ill be used to analy+e sound symbolism

vocabulary. :t is a Bthree!in!one/ approach %i.e.sound-form-meaning', #hich is simply

formulated as a concise rule8 O + R Word %Bthe meaningful onset and rime
http://sara.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/A0.html#A0Thttp://sara.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/A6.html#A64http://sara.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/A6.html#A6Chttp://sara.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/A0.html#A0Thttp://sara.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/A6.html#A64http://sara.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/A6.html#A6C


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becoming a #ord/'. :n other #ords, there is one #ay #ith t#o aspects to infer an

unno#n #ord %e.g.slapandslam' using SS!association method %see able 0'8

Sound-eaning ;nalysisnew word +Onset8sl-7Rime8-ap7

&orm-eaning ;ssociationnew word. %9:sl:apslap'.

he retention of SS!#ords turns out to be more impressive and effective

immediately after being heard or analy+ed as they entail no e$tra effort on

memori+ation. able 0 sho#s the integration of SS!method and a


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%lasses = and


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Class & !! 0.&0 !*.9 .@*1 0.@ &.) .)) 0.09 !. .9

$lass % !! 0.9) 0.00 .@)& *.@0 *.16 .@*@

Class * !! 0.@1 !).)* .&&)

Class 0 !!

pW.@

B.% esults 5%6: *tatistics analysis for $ase %

Case ) aimed to investigate #hich approach, reading the te(tbook only or

reading with W&' and e(tracting sentences, #as more efficient for incidental

vocabulary ac(uisition. All students #ere given pre!test and post!tests concerning

vocabulary and reading, mainly measuring vocabulary ability. he control group

follo#ed the same curriculum, 1ntroduction to "inguistics, #ithout carrying out the

e$tra pro"ect and #ord!focused treatment. he data appear in igure * calculating the

summari+ed statistics. he split!half reliability #as conducted for estimating internal

consistency reliability using Spearman!2ro#n prophecy formula %reliability

coefficient .16, p W.@&'. 4ocabulary!reading test #as conducted for the concurrent

criterion-related $alidity%=earson correlation coefficient .1&, pW.@&'.

esting results for control and e$perimental groups

@

)@

0@

M@

Meanscores

control group *1.* *).& )).1 *9.6

e$perimental group *0.& A@ )9 *0.&

=retest %4&' =osttest %4)' =retest %N&' =osttest %N)'

igure The esults of Two tests for $ase study %

he control group in able 1 #as slightly better than the e$perimental group in

the vocabulary pre!test. Go#ever, the treatment reversed the situation in vocabulary

post!test. he e$perimental group outperformed the control one %mean difference

&9.6'.

Table 9 The descriptie results for control and e;perimental groups

3roups NF1G Testing /ean *" *' Testing /ean *" *'


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Control

E$perimental

09

4ocabulary

pretest

*1.*

*0.*

&).

&&.9

&.1

&.

eading

pretest

)).99

).6

&).&&

&).*

&.99

&.0

Control

E$perimental

09

4ocabulary

posttest

*).&

@.@

&9.0

&.0

).

).)

eading

posttest

*9.19

*0.&&

&&.91

&).@*

&.9)

&.&

3ne!-ay AN34A #as further employed, revealing that the e$perimental

group #as significantly better than the control group in vocabulary post!test %pW .

@@&' in able 6. he reading test sho#ed no significance for both groups %pO.@'.

Table 8 The results of !ne-)ay AN!(A

SS Sig.

4ocabulary pretest 0&&.*0 ).1@ .@69

(ocabulary posttest 1&).)1 )1.0 .@@@

eading pretest [email protected]@ *.@& .@1

eading posttest *).) ). .&&*

pW.@@&

urthermore, ANC34A #as applied to factor out the variance of pre!test and

others as sho#n in able &@. :f lass#as taen as the factor, it #as obvious that the

e$perimental group still performed better than the control group in post!test %&%&, &@@'

)0.6), pW.@@&'. he result ans#ers esearch (uestion )8 i.e. B-hich group,

Control or E$perimental group, performed better for incidental vocabulary

ac(uisitionL/ :t is e$perimental group #hich performs better for incidental vocabulary

learning. his demonstrates that SS-method is an efficient approach for $ocabulary

growth, but not for reading ability %see esearch (uestion *8 SS-method can help

different levels of students for incidental vocabulary ac(uisition'.

Table 1G AN$!(A testing for both groups in ocabulary tests

%Dependent variable8 4ocabulary posttest'

Source ype ::: SS df MS Sig.

Corrected Model *&1.96 ) &1)6.0@ )66.&6 .@@@

4ocabulary pretest %covariance' )*06.& & )*06.& 000.&& .@@@

Class %factor' &*@*.6 & &*@*.6 )0.6) .@@@

Error )[email protected]) &@@ ).6@9

Corrected total *606.) &@)

%pW.@@&'


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B. $orpus-based and discourse analysis

he previous sections mainly focused on %uantitati$estatistical analysis. his

section uses corpus!based analysis and discourse analysis %DA' to deal #ith

%ualitati$eanalysis, providing #ith descriptive statistical results. Gere DA is mainly

concerned #ith the le$ical cohesion. hat is, vocabulary items re!occur in different

forms across boundaries in te$ts %e.g. clause!boundary and sentence!boundary'.

B..1 Analysis for $ase 1

Case & demonstrated that NNS students at "unior college level could learn

reading and linguistics techni(ues. hey #ere trained in class, but #ere also

encouraged to train themselves at home. hese sills #ere applied to reading or

vocabulary tass to infer unno#n #ords. he e$perimental group employed more

#ord!focused tass, leading to better performance in terms of discourse analysis

%McCarthy &66@'.

B..% Analysis for $ase %

As able && e$hibits, there are four larger categories of English vocabulary in

the collection of students/ corpus %Case )', including 0,&10 le$ical items in total #ith

e$ample sentences for each item. he total number of collected items is similar to

Magnus/ %)@@&' compilations, 0,)@@ items, but the data may be overlapped. Among

those, the largest category is ?sound symbolism? %&,*& entries, *6X'7 the ne$t largest

type is >rimm?s


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demonstrated in class %see later'. Students #ere not re(uested to memori+e targets

#ords #hich #ere analy+ed in terms of the above categories at discourse level. An

e$ample sentence in te$ts #as e$tracted for each highlighted le$ical item. igure 0

stipulated an SS!#ord,slapping, in a sentence of )) #ords #ith seven times of ;h;!

sound repetition %proportion> =3.?'. his target #ord %i.e.slapping' #as highlighted

and then its e$ample sentence #as e$tracted for corpus construction.

Reel War

Jul. 27, 1998 | By RICHARD SCHICKEL

:mmediately the soldier trying to protect her is illed. And #hen the child is hastily

handed bac to her father, she begins slapping him hysterically for his seeming

abandonment of her.

%###.time.com;time;archive; previe#;@,&@619,&&@&61@9)9!&*6*9,@@.html'

Figure 4 Sampling text for ear!"ing t"e target #or$

he article %N )*9& #ords' in igure displays Brepetition/ such as synonym

or antonym, from le$ical to discourse levels. he target SS!#ord, %uibble, collocates

#ith negative rhyming #ords, Bthe selfish or the churlishB left#ards, and #ith Bsuch

reasons/ right#ards, presenting an ironic concept contrasting #ith the title, 'he 9ne

and 9nly% peerless superstar' across the te$ts. Bhe 3ne and 3nly/ is a peerless

superstar %and e$pected to be indisputable', but could be argued #ith self!seeing and

boorish reasons.

The %neand %nl&

He a! peerle in t"e "ig" art of t"e mo$ern upertar'

Janua"y 2#, 1999

By J$EL STEI% and %ISID HAJARI

!nlythe selfish or the churlish could =uibble#ith such reasons, rightL

&http8;;###.time.com;time;asia;asia;maga+ine;&666;66@&);cover&.html'

igure < *ampling te;t and the target word at discourse leel

he statistical te$t analysis is given in able &) % 0&.11', including ),*9& #ords.

Table 1% *tatistical analysis for the selected article
http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,988798,00.htmlhttp://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990125/cover1.htmlhttp://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990125/cover1.htmlhttp://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,988798,00.htmlhttp://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990125/cover1.html


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oens )*9& Sentence length )@.0

ypes 66* sd. Sentence length &*.))

ype;oen atio %' 0&.11 =aragraph )

Ave. #ord length 0.* =aragraph length 9@.@@

Sentences &&0 sd. =aragraph length &@)1.&*

he concordance of %uibbleis presented in igure , indicating that the target #ord

appears t#ice in this e$cerpt.

igure D The concordance of H=uibble4

he target #ord, %uibble %fre(uency8 5


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%right collocation', (uibble #ith Preasons

igure E Target word analysis

he e$ample sentence #as thus e$tracted from the te$t in the chosen maga+ines as

sho#n in able &*, including le$ical entry, e$ample sentence, English synonym,

Chinese translation and analysis.

Table 1 *ample $orpus demonstrated in class

'ntries ';tracted e;ample sentences /eaning Analysis

groan -e could hear his desperate groaning from #ithin but ne#

there #as nothing #e could do to help. %'16 6A*6SS, 3ct. &661

%*0'8 .1'

moan

%'

gr!8emitting

lo# crying or

complaining

(uibble 3nly the selfish or the churlish could quibble#ith such reasons,

rightL %'16 6A*6SS, Mar. &666 % *6'8 *0'

argue

!CC!le8

?continuation?

shrinage he papers tell you e$actly #here the "ob shrinkage is most

severe8 construction, retailing, baning and manufacturing, to

name "ust four hard!hit sectors. %'16 6A*6SS, Nov., &661 %*'8 01'

constriction

shr!8

contracting

;i;8 small

slap And #hen the child is hastily handed bac to her father, she

begins slapping him hysterically for his seeming abandonment

of her. %'16 6A*6SS, 3ct. &661 %*0'8 1&'

smac

sl!8

!p8 short stop

trivial Gedged!fund managers call this Yevent ris,Z and it e$plains

#hy problems in a trivialeconomy lie ussia/s can spur sell!

offs that #ipe trillions of dollars from the value of global

marets. %'16 6A*6SS, Nov., &661 %*'8 0'

trifling

tri!8 three

tBth

!via8 #ay

$Bw

;i;8 small

< $!N$*I!N

Corpora have been used not only in language instruction and learning, but also

in teaching academic disciplinary content, e.g. linguistics. his research has

demonstrated the effect of integrating corpus!based approaches %C2A' into a

linguistics pro"ect related to SS vocabulary to promote learners/ #ord gro#th.


18/21

vocabulary learning. he study of Case ) particularly aimed at e$ploring that students

of the e$perimental group participating in this corpus!based pro"ect ac(uired more

incidental vocabulary than the control group #ho did not. Students in the

e$perimental group based their pro"ects on self!construction corpora related to SS,

#hich #as integrated into students/ one!year long pro"ect, including different

categories of vocabulary #ith e$ample sentences, #ord fre(uencies and percentages.

:t has been confirmed that students #ere able to use different linguistic methods to

analy+e the collected data mainly from English maga+ines.

2oth a pre!test and one or t#o more post!tests #ere administered to evaluate

students/ performance. he ma"or findings are recapitulated as follo#s8

he treatment of SS!method and relevant trainings favoured e$perimental

groups in Cases & and ) for their intentional %Case &' and incidental

vocabulary gro#th %Cases )'.

ANC34A %Case )' indicated that the e$perimental group significantly

outperformed the control group in the vocabulary tests. Case ) also covered all

of the follo#ing positive by!products.

his research integrated C2A and SS!method, also resulting in some positive

by!products8

Students learned linguistics no#ledge %e.g. etymology and >rimm/s


19/21

considerations for lo#er level of students to yield better results #ith the time and

resource allocation of any particular course design. or more efficient results, SS!

method can serve as the main #ord!focused activities. SS #ords are very useful for


20/21

associations, submorphemic units and morphological segmentation. Word, 0* %)',

&69!)&.

Ellis, . and Ge, I. %&666' he roles of modified input and out in the incidental

ac(uisition of #ord meanings. Studies in second language ac%uisition, )&, )1!

*@&.

romin, 4., and odman, . %&661';n introduction to language. %thedition'.

%3rlando, ; selection of

papers from 'alcD


21/21

;pplied "inguistics, &, *!1@.

Nation, :.S.=. %)@@&'"earning $ocabulary in another language. %Cambridge8

Cambridge University =ress'.

Nation, :.S.=. and -aring, . %&669' B4ocabulary si+e, te$t coverage and #ord lists.

:n N. Schmitt and M. McCarthy %eds.' 4ocabulary> descriptions, ac%uisition and

*edagogy%Cambridge8 Cambridge University =ress', !&6.

=arault, S. and Sch#anenflugel, =. %)@@*' Sound!symbolism8 A possible piece of

the pu++le of #ord learning. =resentation to the American Educational esearch

Association %AEA', Chicago, :< %http8;;###.aera.net;meeting;am)@@*;abVprogram;Monday*.pdf'.

=aribaht, . and -esche, M. %&669' 4ocabulary enhancement activities and reading

for meaning in second language vocabulary ac(uisition. :n . Coady and .

Gucin %eds.' Second language $ocabulary ac%uisition%Cambridge8 Cambridge

University =ress', &90!)@@.

Schmitt, N. and Fimmerman, C. %)@@)' Derivative #ord forms8 -hat do learners

no#L '6S9" Fuarterly, *, &0!&9&.

SKmen, A. %&669' Current trends in teaching second language vocabulary. :n

N. Schmitt and M. McCarthy %eds.' 4ocabulary> descriptions, ac%uisition and

pedagogy %Cambridge8 Cambridge University =ress', )*9!)9.

Sternberg, . %&619' Most vocabulary is learned from conte$t. :n M. Mc5eo#n and

M. Curtis %eds.' 'he nature of $ocabulary ac%uisition %Gillsdale, N8 ; selection of papers from 'alcD

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Integrating Corpora