8
Germany A Hu ¨ fner and K Hu ¨ fner, Berlin, Germany ã 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. General Background Since the unification of the two German states on 3 October 1990 which marked the end of over 40years of division, the new Federal Republic of Germany covers a total of 357 thousand square kilometers. It lies at the heart of the European Union (EU) and shares its borders with nine neighboring countries. Except Switzerland, all of them are also members of the EU. With a population of over 82 million, Germany is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe. In 2005, 6.8 million were of foreign nationality, of which the Turks represented with 26% the largest group. It continues to be a major challenge for the educational system to integrate the children of migrant workers and to offer them adequate opportunities for study, training, and work. Germany is a democratic and social federal state made up of 16 La ¨nder (states) since 1990. The political, eco- nomic, social, and cultural integration process of the former two states takes longer than originally anticipated; the necessary changes from a socialist planned economy of the former German Democratic Republic toward a new type of social market economyare still underway. For the people living in the five new La ¨nder of the eastern part of Germany, these transition processes from security with- out freedom toward freedom without security implied big problems of adjustment toward unknown market-oriented demands of flexibility. In the areas of culture, education, and science, the Unification Treaty (Einigungsvertrag) of 31 August 1990 contained basic provisions in order to establish a common and comparable basic structure in the school system and a common, though differentiated, higher education and research system in the 16 La ¨nder of the new Federal Republic of Germany, primarily according to the model of the former Federal Republic of Germany. Germany is not rich in natural resources. Therefore, the country is heavily dependent on imported goods (40% of gross national product (GNP) in 2006) and the export of finished products and services (45% of GNP in 2006). GNP per capita reached US$35000. Two percent of the 39 million employed work in agriculture, 26% in industry, and 72% in the service sector. Between 2005 and 2007, the unemployment rate went down from over 10.0% to 8.4% remaining high by Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) standards. Until 2007, Germany enjoyed economic recovery after a long phase of stagnation since the end of 2004. In its most recent economic survey of 2008, OECD has included a special chapter on educational policy stressing that improving education outcomes is important for the country’s long-term economic performance and social cohesion. This analysis must also be seen in the light of the Lisbon goal of 2000 when the EU heads of state declared their ambition to make the EU ‘‘the most com- petitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world by 2010, capable of sustainable economic growth, with more and better jobs and greater cohesion.’’ Institutions at the National Level According to the Basic Law (Grundgesetz), the cultural sovereignty (Kulturhoheit) implies the predominant respon- sibility of each of the La ¨nder for education, science, and culture. Each Land is responsible for its educational and cultural policy. Educational and cultural legislation is pri- marily, the administration of education and culture almost entirely the responsibility of the 16 La ¨nder. Therefore, one could also argue that Germany consists of 16 educational systems which can be characterized as highly differen- tiated systems (cf. Figure 1 and especially the annotations as published by the Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the La ¨nder in the Federal Republic of Germany). However, within the Federal Government (Bundesre- gierung), it is the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) that is responsible for policy, legislation, and coor- dination with regard to out-of-school vocational training and continuing education, financial assistance for students, admission to higher education institutions and the degrees they confer. Furthermore, the BMBF shares with the La ¨nder, joint tasks (Zusammenwirken) according to Article 91 b of the Basic Law. In order to coordinate cooperation among the La ¨nder and with the Bund, the La ¨nder established in 1948 the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (Sta ¨ndige Konferenz der Kultusminister der La ¨nder; Kultusministerkonferenz; KMK). The General Structure of the Education System Although German is the normal language of instruction and training at general education and vocational schools as well as higher education institutions, some exception must be mentioned. Those include bilingual schools and 582

International Encyclopedia of Education || Germany

  • Upload
    a

  • View
    217

  • Download
    0

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

GermanyA Hufner and K Hufner, Berlin, Germany

ã 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

General Background

Since the unification of the two German states on 3October 1990 which marked the end of over 40 years ofdivision, the new Federal Republic of Germany covers atotal of 357 thousand square kilometers. It lies at the heartof the European Union (EU) and shares its borders withnine neighboring countries. Except Switzerland, all ofthem are also members of the EU. With a population ofover 82million, Germany is one of the most denselypopulated countries in Europe. In 2005, 6.8 million wereof foreign nationality, of which the Turks representedwith 26% the largest group. It continues to be a majorchallenge for the educational system to integrate thechildren of migrant workers and to offer them adequateopportunities for study, training, and work.

Germany is a democratic and social federal state madeup of 16 Lander (states) since 1990. The political, eco-nomic, social, and cultural integration process of theformer two states takes longer than originally anticipated;the necessary changes from a socialist planned economyof the former German Democratic Republic toward a newtype of social market economy are still underway. For thepeople living in the five new Lander of the eastern part ofGermany, these transition processes from security with-out freedom toward freedom without security implied bigproblems of adjustment toward unknown market-orienteddemands of flexibility. In the areas of culture, education,and science, the Unification Treaty (Einigungsvertrag) of31 August 1990 contained basic provisions in order toestablish a common and comparable basic structure inthe school system and a common, though differentiated,higher education and research system in the 16 Landerof the new Federal Republic of Germany, primarilyaccording to the model of the former Federal Republicof Germany.

Germany is not rich in natural resources. Therefore,the country is heavily dependent on imported goods(40% of gross national product (GNP) in 2006) and theexport of finished products and services (45% of GNP in2006). GNP per capita reached US$35 000. Two percentof the 39 million employed work in agriculture, 26% inindustry, and 72% in the service sector. Between 2005 and2007, the unemployment rate went down from over 10.0%to 8.4% remaining high by Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD) standards. Until2007, Germany enjoyed economic recovery after a longphase of stagnation since the end of 2004.

582

In its most recent economic survey of 2008, OECD hasincluded a special chapter on educational policy stressingthat improving education outcomes is important for thecountry’s long-term economic performance and socialcohesion. This analysis must also be seen in the light ofthe Lisbon goal of 2000 when the EU heads of statedeclared their ambition to make the EU ‘‘the most com-petitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in theworld by 2010, capable of sustainable economic growth,with more and better jobs and greater cohesion.’’

Institutions at the National Level

According to the Basic Law (Grundgesetz), the culturalsovereignty (Kulturhoheit) implies the predominant respon-sibility of each of the Lander for education, science, andculture. Each Land is responsible for its educational andcultural policy. Educational and cultural legislation is pri-marily, the administration of education and culture almostentirely the responsibility of the 16 Lander. Therefore, onecould also argue that Germany consists of 16 educationalsystems which can be characterized as highly differen-tiated systems (cf. Figure 1 and especially the annotationsas published by the Secretariat of the Standing Conferenceof the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of theLander in the Federal Republic of Germany).

However, within the Federal Government (Bundesre-gierung), it is the FederalMinistry of Education andResearch(BMBF) that is responsible for policy, legislation, and coor-dination with regard to out-of-school vocational trainingand continuing education, financial assistance for students,admission to higher education institutions and the degreestheyconfer. Furthermore, the BMBF shareswith the Lander,joint tasks (Zusammenwirken) according to Article 91 b of theBasic Law. In order to coordinate cooperation among theLander and with the Bund, the Lander established in 1948the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education andCultural Affairs (Standige Konferenz der Kultusminister derLander; Kultusministerkonferenz; KMK).

The General Structure of the EducationSystem

Although German is the normal language of instructionand training at general education and vocational schoolsas well as higher education institutions, some exceptionmust be mentioned. Those include bilingual schools and

Doctorate (promotion)Degree or examination after a first course of study

(diplom, magister, staatsprüfung;bachelor, master)

Universität13)

Fachschule12)

Ber

ufsa

kade

mie

15)

Technische universität/

Technische hochschule

Kunsthochschule

Musikhochschule

Fachhochschule

Verwaltungsfachhochschule

Pädagogische hochschule14)

Dip

lom

, bac

helo

r

Fur

ther

edu

catio

n

Qualification of vocationalfurther education

13

19

18

17

16

16

15

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

Age

12

11

10

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Allgemeinehochschulreife

Abendgymnasium/kolleg

Further education(various forms of general and vocational further education)

Berufsqualifizierender abschluss11)

Mittlerer schulabschluss (realschule leaving certificate) after 10 years,first general education qualification (hauptschule leaving certificate) after 9 years6)

Kindergarten(optional)

Fachhochschulreife

Son

der-

kind

erga

rten

Son

ders

chul

e2)S

onde

rsch

ule2)

10th grade

Grade

Pre

scho

oled

ucat

ion

Prim

ary

educ

atio

nS

econ

dary

leve

l IS

econ

dary

leve

l II

Orientation phase3)

Grundschule1)

Hauptschule4) Realschule4) Gesamt-schule5) Gymnasium5)

Berufschule andon-the-job-training(dual system of vocationaleducation)2)

Berufs-fach-schule10)

Fach-ober-schule9)

Berufs-ober-schule8)

Fachgebundenehochschulreife Allgemeine hochschulreife

In the different school types:gymnasium, berufliches

gymnasium/fachgymnasium,gesamtschule

Gymnasiale oberstufe2)7)

Tert

iary

edu

catio

n

Figure 1 (Continued)

Germany 583

Annotations

Diagram of the basic structure of the education system. The distribution of the school population in grade 8 as per 2005 taken as a national average is as follows: Hauptschule22.5%, Realschule 25.8%, Gymnasium 30.9%, integrierte Gesamtschule 8.5%, types of school with several courses of education 6.3%, special schools 5.3%.

The ability of pupils to transfer between school types and the recognition of school-leavingqualifications is basically guaranteed if the preconditions agreed between the Länder arefulfilled. The duration of full-time compulsory education (compulsory general education) is9 years (10 years in four of the Länder) and the subsequent period of part-time compulsoryeducation (compulsory vocational education) is 3 years.

1 In some Länder special types of transition from pre-school to primary education(Vorklassen, Schulkindergärten) exist. In Berlin and Brandenburg the primary school comprises six grades.

2. The disabled attend special forms of general-education and vocational school types(partially integrated with non-handicapped pupils) depending on the type of disability inquestion. Designation of schools varies according to the law of each Land (Sonderschule/Schule für Behinderte/Förderschule/Förderzentrum).

3. Irrespective of school type, grades 5 and 6 constitute a phase of particular promotion,supervision and orientation with regard to the pupil’s future educational path and itsparticular direction. In some Länder, the orientation stage (Orientierungsstufe or Förder-stufe) is organised as a separate school type.

4. The Hauptschule and Realschule courses of education are also offered at schools withseveral courses of education, for which the names differ from one Land to another. TheMittelschule (Sachsen), Regelschule (Thüringen), Sekundarschule (Bremen, Sachsen-Anhalt), Erweiterte Realschule (Saarland), Integrierte Haupt-und Realschule (Hamburg),Oberschule (Brandenburg), Verbundene or Zusammengefasste Haupt-und Realschule(Berlin, Hessen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Niedersachsen) and Regionale Schule(Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Rheinland-Pfalz), Regionalschule (Schleswig-Holstein),Gemeinschaftsschule (Schleswig-Holstein) as well as comprehensive school(Gesamtschulen) fall under this category.

5. The Gymnasium course of education is also offered at comprehensive schools(Gesamtschule). In the cooperative comprehensive schools, the 3 courses of education(Hauptschule, Realschule and Gymnasium) are brought under one educational andorganisational umbrella; these form an educational and organisational whole at theintegrated Gesamtschule. The provision of comprehensive schools (Gesamtschulen) variesin accordance with the respective educational laws of the Länder.

6. The general education qualifications that may be obtained after grades 9 and 10 carryparticular designations in some Länder. These certificates can also be obtained in eveningclasses and at vocational schools.

7. Admission to the gymnasiale Oberstufe requires a formal entrance qualification whichcan be obtained after grade 9 or 10. At present, in the majority of Länder the AllgemeineHochschulreife can be obtained after the successful completion of 13 consecutive schoolyears (9 years at the Gymnasium). Yet in almost all Länder the gradual conversion to8 years at the Gymnasium is currently under way, where the Allgemeine Hochschulreife can be obtained after a 12-year course of education.

8. The Berufsoberschule has so far only existed in a few Länder and offers school-leaverswith the Mittlerer Schulabschluss who have completed vocational training or 5 years’working experience the opportunity to obtain the Fachgebundene Hochschulreife. Pupilscan obtain the Allgemeine Hochschulreife by proving their proficiency in a second foreignlanguage.

9. The Fachoberschule is a school type lasting for two years (grades 11 and 12) which admitspupils who have completed the Mittlerer Schulabschluss and qualifies them to study at aFachhochschule. Pupils who have successfully completed the Mittlerer Schulabschluss andhave been through initial vocational training can also enter the Fachoberschule directly ingrade 12.

Figure 1 (Continued)

584 National Systems of Education

10. Berufsfachschulen are full-time vocational schools differing in terms of entrancerequirements, duration and leaving certificates. Basic vocational training can be obtainedduring one- or two-year courses at Berufsfachschulen and a vocational qualification isavailable at the end of two- or three-year courses. Under certain conditions theFachhochschulreife can be acquired on completion of a course lasting a minimum of 2years.

11. Extension courses are offered to enable pupils to acquire qualifications equivalent to theHauptschule and Realschule leaving certificates.

12. Fachschulen cater for vocational continuing education (1–3 year duration) and as a rulerequire the completion of relevant vocational training in a recognised occupation andsubsequent employment. In addition, the Fachhochschulreife can be acquired undercertain conditions.

13. Including institutions of higher education offering courses in particular disciplines atuniversity level (e.g. theology, philosophy, medicine, administrative sciences, sport).

14. Pädagogische Hochschulen (only in Baden-Württemberg) offer training courses forteachers at various types of schools. In specific cases, study courses leading to professionsin the area of education and pedagogy outside the school sector are offered as well.

15. The Berufsakademie is a tertiary sector institution in some Länder offering academictraining at a Studienakademie (study institution) combined with practical in-company pro-fessional training in keeping with the principle of the dual system.

As at July 2007Source: Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and CulturalAffairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany. Documentation and EducationInformation Service.

Figure 1 Basic structure of the educational system in the Federal Republic of Germany.

Germany 585

classes as well as instruction and extra classes in themother tongue for pupils whose mother tongue is notGerman. Furthermore, the Lander concerned apply theEuropean Charter of Regional Minority Languages of theCouncil of Europe to those speaking Danish, Frisian,Sorbian, Romany, and Low German. In the higher educa-tion institutions, increasingly English is also used as alanguage of instruction and as working language. Thisis also in line with the Bologna Process leading to aEuropean Higher Education Area.

School attendance is compulsory for children betweenthe ages of 5–6 and 18 years. Depending on the Land, full-time schooling is mandated for either 9 or 10 years; it maybe followed by part-time attendance at a vocational school,complemented by an apprenticeship (dual system). Allcompulsory schooling is free of charge.

In principle, the education system is divided into thefollowing levels:

� pre-primary education,� primary education,� secondary education, and� tertiary education.

Pre-Primary Education

Pre-primary education is provided by institutions cater-ing for children from a few months to 5–6 years when they

usually start school (kindergarten being the traditionalform for children from 3 to 5–6 years). Traditionally,those institutions are not regarded as part of the edu-cational system; they are run by the nonpublic andpublic child and youth welfare services, for example, bychurches, welfare associations, local authorities (Kommu-nen), and parents’ associations. In most Lander, the legaland administrative competence lies with the ministries ofsocial affairs.

All children having reached the age of 3 years have thelegal right to be admitted to a kindergarten until schoolentry. The main responsibility is with the Kommunenwhichare obliged to provide places in day-care centers to allchildren from 3 years until they start school. Parents mustpay fees for the attendance of pre-school institutions. Theamount depends, inter alia, upon parents’ income andfamily size. Parents can apply for full or partial reim-bursement by the local youth welfare office if they cannotafford to bear the costs. Whereas in 1960 only 25% of theage group attended pre-school institutions, its shareincreased to 87% by 2006.

Primary Education

Primary education is compulsory for all. Deferment ofschool attendance is only possible in exceptional cases.In the majority of the Lander, those children must attendSchulkindergarten or preschool classes (Vorklassen) in order

586 National Systems of Education

to reach the necessary level of individual development.Earlier, compulsory schooling started on 1 August for allchildren having reached their sixth birthday. Nowadays, ageneral tendency can be observed to set the statutoryqualifying date for starting school on 31 December. Berlinstarted in 2004, Bavaria and North-Rhine-Westfalia fol-lowed. This implies that compulsory education startsbetween the age of 5 and 6 years.

For the first 2 years of primary education (Grundschule),school work is not graded; instead, teachers provide eva-luations of the pupils’ strengths and weaknesses. Foreignlanguage instruction often begins as early as third orfourth grade. By fifth grade, all students are learning aforeign language, in most cases English. Other subjects areGerman, mathematics, science, art, music, and physicaleducation. The Grundschule lasts for 6 years in the Landerof Berlin and Brandenburg and for 4 years in all theother Lander.

Secondary Education

Upon completion of the Grundschule at which all childrenattend mixed-ability classes, the secondary school system ischaracterized primarily by three school types which dividethe students of age 10–12 into various educational paths withdifferent leaving certificates and qualifications: Hauptschule,Realschule, and Gymnasium. Despite all attempts to increasethe horizontal mobility, this differentiated system at thesecondary level is still the characteristic feature of Germaneducation. Apart from these three types, all Lander haveGesamtschulen (comprehensive schools), although highly dif-fering in number (in 2003, e.g., two institutions in Bavaria and217 in North-Rhine-Westfalia). Several Lander introducedtypes of schools in which the traditional courses offered bythe Hauptschule and the Realschule are combined under oneorganizational umbrella. Names, however, differ from Landto Land (cf. Figure 1 and the annotations).

Secondary education breaks down in lower secondarylevel (Sekundarschule I) from grades 5 to 9/10 and uppersecondary level (Sekundarstufe II) from grades 10 to 12/13.Transition from Grundschule to one of the school branchesat secondary level depends on legislation in the Landconcerned. The decision is either taken by the parents

Table 1 Distribution among students in grade 8 according to sch

Year Gymnasium Realschule Hauptschule

1960 17 11 721970 23 21 56

1980 27 28 41

1990 30 29 34

2000 31 26 232005 33 27 24

From Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (2008). Grund-u

or the school or the school supervisory authority, based onan assessment made by the Grundschule.

Whereas Hauptschulen provide its students with a basicgeneral education preparing them for an apprentice-ship afterward, Realschulen offer a more extensive generaleducation. The Hauptschule normally covers grades 5–9/10,the standard Realschule grades 5–10. A Realschule-leavingcertificate qualifies for a transfer to a school that providesa vocational or higher education entrance qualification.

The Gymnasium provides an intensified general educa-tion; it comprises both the lower and the upper secondarylevel and covers grades 5 or 7–12/13; its leaving certifi-cate (Abitur) provides a general higher education entrancequalification. In almost all the Lander, the reduction from9 to 8 years at the Gymnasium is currently underway. Asmentioned above, in addition to the three school branches,there are Gesamtschulen in the majority of Lander. Twotypes can be distinguished. Whereas the cooperative onecombines the Hauptschule, Realschule, and Gymnasium in oneorganizational unit and offers instruction in classesdesigned for the achievement of various certificates, theintegrated one forms one organizational and educationalunit, differentiating classes in some of the subjects accord-ing to the level of proficiency.

Table 1 shows how the students in grade 8 weredistributed over time. Whereas the share of students at theHauptschule decreased from 72% in 1960 to 24% in 2005, aclear increase can be observed in the attendance at Gymna-sium and Realschulemoving from 17% and 11% to 33% and27%. Since the Hauptschule tends to become a kind of left-overs school (Restschule) with a disproportionately high per-centage of students from migrant families, presentlyalternative solutions are discussed or even started rangingfrom an integration (cf. Table 1) to its full abolition.

The vocational training system has enjoyed a highreputation based on its success in producing the necessaryskills through the dual system of education, a combinationof part-time vocational schooling and part-time on-the-job training, which is open to all lower secondary schoolleavers. It is organized for some 340 professions. In alleconomic fields, training regulations (the workplaceelement) are nationally coordinated and framework cur-ricula are established by the Lander (the school element).

ool branch, 1960–2005 (in percent)

Gesamtschule Integrated Haupt-und Realschule

– –– –

4 –

7 –

10 1010 7

nd Strukturdaten 2007/2008, p. 25. Bonn, Berlin: BMBF. p. 25.

Germany 587

Students pass a final examination before an examinationboard composed of representatives of the chambersconcerned. Concomitantly, they receive a second leavingcertificate from the vocational school (Berufsschule) if theyhave achieved the necessary results.

Higher Education

The tertiary sector encompasses higher education institu-tions which include universities and equivalent institutions,for example, for teacher training (Padagogische Hochschulen),theology, art, music, sport, and universities of appliedsciences (Fachhochschulen) (cf. Table 3). In 2003, Germanyhad a total of 366 institutions of higher education of which99 were private institutions (17 universities, 16 institutionsfor theology, 7 for art and 59 Fachhochschulen).

In 2007, 1 979 043 students were registered in Germanhigher education institutions. 246 369 (¼ 12.4%) of themwere foreign students. 57 933 of them were enrolled asstudents of foreign nationality who gained their highereducation entrance qualification at a German school(Bildungsinlander). China headed the ranking of countriesof origin, followed by Bulgaria, Poland, and Russia.Turkey which ranked first 10 years ago reached rank 5.As a host country for foreign students, Germany ranksthird after the United States and the United Kingdom.

In 2006, students had an average monthly income of770Euros, 27% of them had less than 600Euros per month.In a breakdown, 52% of the monthly income came from theparents, whereas 24% were earned. Since 2005, the Landercan impose study fees on students. Some Lander made useof this option for the first time in the winter-semester of2006/2007 by imposing up to 500Euros per semester.No matter under what conditions, the imposition of fees ishighly controversial among the political parties in Germany.

The internationalization of German higher educationshows different features. The Bologna Process is supposedto lead toward a European Higher Education Area, thusenhancing its competitiveness and attractiveness to otherparts of the world. In this context, a new graduationsystem of bachelor’s and master’s degrees has beenadopted for implementation in all higher education insti-tutions since 1998. In addition, a European credit transfersystem (ECTS) has been introduced facilitating anincrease of student mobility.

In Germany, the speed of the reform process in highereducation is accelerating, which indicates that competi-tion is becoming an integral feature both among highereducation institutions and among the Lander. In general, amove from detailed input-oriented Lander controlmechanisms to highly flexible, output-oriented institu-tional budgets can be observed. Performance indicatorswill be introduced, also influencing the amount of salarysupplements for professors.

Ongoing Debates about FutureDevelopments

Currently, education receives highest political priority inGermany. Although without legal competences in educa-tion, the Federal Chancellor, Angela Merkel, proclaimed‘‘education for all’’ as the message for the twenty-firstcentury, thereby referring to ‘‘welfare for all’’ as postu-lated by the father of the concept of social market econ-omy, Ludwig Erhard, in the 1950s. In the following, someof the major issues in education are summarized.

Pre-School Education

In all Lander, the development of educational conceptsand the preparation and implementation of plans can beobserved which deal with the pre-school sector of day-care centers for children between 3 and 5–6 years, therebyattaching particular importance to improving the linguis-tic competence of children with migrant background. Inabout half of the Lander, those measures also include theirparents. In order to organize the school entrance phase ina more flexible way, cooperative links between pre-schoolinstitutions and primary schools had to be improved. In2004, the KMK and the Conference of Ministers of Youthadopted a framework for early education in the pre-school sector and a recommendation to strengthen andfurther develop the overall relationship between educa-tion, upbringing, and supervision. Furthermore, the Day-Care Expansion Act of 2004, which came into force at thebeginning of 2005, provides for an expansion of the day-care for children under the age of 3 years which should beextended by 2010 in such a way that it meets the actualneeds of parents and their children.

Primary Education

Since the 1990s, teaching became more pupil oriented,enhancing their self-initiatives. Furthermore, all Landerhave introduced foreign language teaching mainly forgrades 3 and 4, in some Lander even for grades 1 and 2.In October 2004, the KMK adopted binding educationalstandards for the subjects German and mathematics.These determine the competences and knowledge stu-dents should have attained by grade 4.

Secondary Education

Germany is participating in several international compar-ative studies of student achievement. Among them is theOECD project entitled Programme for International Stu-dent Assessment (PISA) which provides Germany withindicators concerning the knowledge, skills, and abilitiesof 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics, and

588 National Systems of Education

sciences. The survey covers three thematically overlap-ping cycles (PISA 2000, PISA 2003, PISA 2006). After thepublication of the results of PISA 2000 which focused onreading literacy, the KMK named seven areas in which theLander and the KMKwill undertake measures in order to

� improve linguistic competence as early as pre-schooleducation,

� strengthen the link between the pre-school and prima-ry school sector with the aim of an early school entry,

� improve reading literary and basic understanding ofconcepts in mathematics and sciences in primary edu-cation,

� support more efficiently educationally disadvantagedchildren, especially those from families of migrantworkers (cf. Table 2),

� develop and assure the quality of teaching based onbinding educational standards and result-oriented eval-uation,

� improve the performance of teachers, and� expand the provision of all-day activities and care aim-ing to increase educational opportunities.

According to the 2006 OECD, PISA study educationachievement of 15-year-olds in Germany has been abovethe OECD average in science ranking eighth positionamong OECD countries. Their achievement has beenaverage in reading and mathematics. Students fromfamilies of migrant workers had made lower scores in thethree subjects than native students. Given the relativelylarge share of foreign students (cf. Table 2), their perfor-mance had a large negative impact on Germany’s ranking.

Higher Education

Modernization and internationalization are the key effortsin Germany. This implies, inter alia, a higher degree ofderegulation in the Lander, thus increasing the institu-tional autonomy and creating financial incentives via theuse of performance indicators. The responsible authori-ties intend to enhance the international competitive-ness of higher education institutions. One example is theExcellence Initiative of the Bund and the Lander for the

Table 2 Share of foreign students according to educationallevel, 2000 and 2005 (in percent)

2000 2005

Pre-primary level 15.2 14.0Primary level 11.5 11.6

Secondary level 8.5 9.5

Secondary level II and post-secondary

non-tertiary level)

7.2 6.2

From Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (2008).

Grund-und Strukturdaten 2007/2008., p. 57. Bonn, Berlin: BMBF.

promotion of science and research in German institutionsof higher education funding three areas, namely researchschools for the promotion of scientific talent, excellenceclusters for the promotion of leading science, and futureconcepts for top-class research at universities (totalamount until 2011: 1.9 billion Euros).

Conclusions

In sum, it can be concluded that the issue of qualityassurance through educational standards and educationalreporting received the necessary attention after the PISAshock. As a consequence, the KMK had adopted thenecessary measures step by step in 2003 and 2004. As aresult of this and for the first time, quality development inthe general education of all Lander can be checked againstjointly agreed criteria. In order to guarantee a centralcomparative review of the achievement of educationalstandards, the KMK founded in 2004 the Institute forQuality Development in Education (IQB) which was setup at the Humboldt University Berlin. The comprehen-sive strategy for educational monitoring of the KMK isindeed a completely new approach in educationalplanning, thus replacing input-oriented approaches byoutput-oriented strategies. One step in this direction isthe first joint educational report of June 2006, of the Bundand the Lander on education in Germany, which has beendrawn up by an independent scientific consortium. Thiseducational report will be published every 2 years andpresent a set of core indicators, informing the Germanpublic about education in the course of life, that is, fromearly education up to continuing education taking intoaccount the necessity of lifelong learning.

In its second report of 2008 the group observed, interalia, that

� the female students are increasingly successful at alllevels of the German education system – a success storywhich is not yet reflected on the labor market;

� the demand for higher education remains relativelylow, although the proportion of students qualifying forhigher education increased;

� the socioeconomic background of parents has a stron-ger impact on student participation in secondary andhigher education than in other OECD countries.

Over the last years, a broad spectrum of reforms relatedto all levels of the education system has been started inGermany. Whether the reform processes will actually leadto the desired results remains an open question.

Educational Finance

TheBund, theLander, andKommunen spent altogether 86.7billionEuros in 2005 (in 1995: 75.9 billionEuros), among

Table 3 Institutions of higher education, 1995, 2000, and2003

1995 2000 2003

Universities 89 97 100Teacher training 6 6 6

Theology 17 16 16

Art 46 49 52

General Fachhochschulen 138 155 163Public administration Fachhochschulen 30 29 29

Total 326 352 366

From Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (2008).

Grund-und Strukturdaten 2007/2008, p. 149. Bonn, Berlin: BMBF.

Germany 589

them 50.2 billionEuros for general and vocational educationand 18.4 billionEuros for higher education (9.2 billionEurosfor higher education research are not included).

Compared to the majority of OECD countries, overalleducational expenditure in Germany increased moreslowly in recent years than total public expenditure.Therefore, its proportion decreased from 9.9% to 9.7%between 2000 and 2005, whereas the OECD averageincreased from 12.8% to 13.2%.

In 2005, Germany spent 5.1% of GDP at all levels ofthe education system (OECD average: 6.1% of GDP).Looking at the expenditure per student at different edu-cational levels, Germany remained below the OECDaverage in primary education, but above the OECD aver-age in higher education and, due to the dual system, alsoin secondary education. The OECD clearly postulatesthat additional investments in education will be impor-tant. However, efficiency and productivity in educationmust also be improved.

See also: An Overview of Vocational Education andTraining; Higher Education: An Overview; ProgressMonitoring.

Further Reading

Authoring Group Educational Reporting (ed.) (2008). Education inGermany 2008. An Indicator-Based Report Including an Analysis ofTransitions Subsequent to Lower Secondary Education. Summary ofImportant Results. Bielefeld: W. Bertelsmann.

Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (2008). Grund-undStrukturdaten 2007/2008. Bonn, Berlin: BMBF.

Cortina, K. S., Baumert, J., Lechinsky, A., Mayer, K. U., andTrommer, L. (eds.) (2008). Das Bildungswesen in der BundesrepublikDeutschland. Reinbek/Hamburg: Rowohlt.

Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD)/German AcademicExchange Service (ed.) (2008). Wissenschaft weltoffen. Daten undFakten zur Internationalitat von Studium und Forschung. Facts andFigures on the International Nature of Studies and Research inGermany. Bielefeld: Bertelsmann.

Federal Ministry of Education and Research (2007). Economic andSocial Conditions of Student Life in the Federal Republic of Germanyin 2006. 18th social survey of the Deutsches Studentenwerkconducted by HIS Hochschul-Informations-System – SelectedResults – Bonn, Berlin: BMBF.

Hufner, K., Landfried, k. (guest eds.) (2003). German Higher Education:A System under Reform. Higher Education in Europe, vol. 28, No. 2,pp 141–198.

Hufner, K., Naumann, J., Kohler, H., and Pfeffer, G. (1986).Hochkonjunktur und Flaute. Bildungspolitik in der BundesrepublikDeutschland 1967–1980. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta.

Kehm, B. (1999). Higher Education in Germany. Developments,Problems, and Perspectives. Wittenberg and Bucharest: UNESCO-CEPES.

Max Planck Institute for Human Development and Education (1983).Between Elite and Mass Education. Albany, NY: State University ofNew York Press.

OECD (1972). Reviews of National Policies for Education: Germany.Paris: OECD.

OECD (2007). PISA 6: Science Competencies for Tomorrow‘s World.Volume 1 Analysis. Paris: OECD.

OECD (2008). Education at a Glance. OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD.OECD Economic Surveys (2008). Germany. Vol. 2008, Issue 7. OECD

Publishing.Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education

and Cultural Affairs of the Lander in the Federal Republic of Germany(2008). The Education System in the Federal Republic of Germany2006. Bonn: KMK.

Relevant Websites

www.bmbf.de/gus – Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung.Portal for Fundamental and Structural Data on Education.

www.hrk-bologna.de – Bologna Centre of the German Rectors’Conference.

www.che.de – Centre for Higher Education Development.www.wissenschaft.weltoffen.de – Data Report on the International

Nature of Studies and Research in Germany.www.bildungsbericht.de – Education in Germany 2008: An Indicator-

based Report Including an Analysis of Transitions Subsequent toLower Secondary Education.

www.enqa.eu – European Association for Quality Assurance in HigherEducation.

www.ec.europa.eu – European Commission.www.eurydice.org – Eurydice, the Information Network on Education in

Europe.www.daad.de – German Academic Exchange Service.www.bildungsserver.de – German Education Server.www.kmk.org – Kultusministerkonferenz.www.oecd.org – Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development.www.destatis.de – Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland.www.wissenschaftsrat.de – German Council of Science and

Humanities.