SEVENTH EDITION

INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITYToward an Integration

WALTER MISCHELColumbia University

YUICHI SHODAUniversity of Washington

RONALD E. SMITHUniversity of Washington

WILEY

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1

PREFACE AND TEXT ORGANIZATION Hi

ORIENTATION TO PERSONALITY 1

What Is Personality Psychology? 1Stable, Coherent Individual Differences 1Describing, Predicting, Understanding 2Defining Personality 3

Theory and Levels of Analysis in Personality Psychology 4Early "Big Picture" Theory 4From Grand Theories to Levels of Analysis 5

Levels of Analysis: Organization of This Book 6In Focus 1.1 The Personal Side of the Science 7The Trait-Dispositional Level 8The Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 8The Phenomenological Level 9The Behavioral-Conditioning Level 10The Social Cognitive Level 11The Biological Level 12Levels of Analysis Applied to Understand Unexpected Aggression:

The Texas Tower Killer 12Integration of Levels: The Person as a Whole 15Practical Applications: Coping and

Personal Adaptation 16Summary 17Key Terms 18

CHAPTER 2 DATA, METHODS, AND TOOLS 19

Why a Science of Personality? BeyondHindsight Understanding 19

In Focus 2.1 Gary W, the Text's C a s e -Gary's Self-Description 21

The Range of Personality-Relevant Measures 21Interviews 22Tests and Self-Reports 22In Focus 2.2 Early Personality Measurement 23Projective Measures 23Naturalistic Observation and Behavior Sampling 23Remote Behavior Sampling: Daily Life Experiences 26Physiological Functioning and Brain Imaging 27

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Conceptual and Methodological Tools 29Constructs and Operational Definitions 29An Example: Defining the Construct of Aggression 30

Establishing Relationships Among Observations 31Correlation: What Goes with What? 31Interpreting Correlations 33,

Reliability and Validity of Observations and Measures 34Reliability: Are the Measurements Consistent? 34Validity: What Is Being Measured? 34

Content Validity 34Criterion Validity 35Construct Validity: Elaborating the Meaning

of the Construct 35The Experimental Approach 36

Independent and Dependent Variables 36Experimental and Control Groups 36Double-Blind Designs 37

Ethics in Personality Research 37Summary 39Key Terms 40

PARTI

THE TRAIT-DISPOSITIONAL LEVEL 41

P R E L U D E TO PART I: The Trait-Dispositional Level 41

CHAPTER 3 TYPES AND TRAITS 43

Types and Traits 44Types 44Traits: Individual Differences on Dimensions 44

Traits Defined 44In Focus 3.1 An Example: Type A Personality 45

Describing and Explaining 46Trait Attributions 47Gordon Allport 47Raymond B. Cattell 49Hans J. Eysenck 51

Common Features of Trait Theories 53Inferring Traits from Behavioral Signs 53Generality and Stability of Traits 54Traits and States Distinguished 54Search for Basic Traits 54Quantification 55Aggregating Across Situations to

Increase Reliability 55

Contents A jdii

Taxonomy of Human Attributes 56Psycholexical Approach 56The "Big Five" Trait Dimensions 56Factor Analysis to Find Dimensions: The NEO-PI-R 57Supportive Evidence for Five-Factor Model 60Stability of Traits over Time 61Links Between the Perceiver and Perceived:

Valid Ratings 63Personality Judgments to Predict Behavior 64In Focus 3.2 Prototypes: "Typical" People 65Interaction of Traits and Situations 66Are Traits Explanations or Summaries? 66

Summary 67Key Terms 68

CHAPTER 4 THE EXPRESSIONS OF DISPOSITIONS 69

Traits, Situations, and the Personality Paradox 70Individual Differences in Behavior Tendencies 70The Intuitive Assumption of Consistency 70The 1968 Challenge 70The Paradox Defined 71

Incorporating Situations Into Traits 71In Focus 4.1 The Person versus Situation Debate 72If. . . Then .. . Situation-Behavior Signatures 73Evidence for Signatures Indicative of

Personality Types 74Gary W s Behavioral Signatures 75Behavioral Signatures of Different Personality Types 75

The Narcissistic Signature 76The Signature of Rejection Sensitivity 77

Two Types of Consistency 78Uses of the Two Types of Consistency 78

Interactionism in Personality Psychology 80The Meaning of Person X Situation Interaction 80

An Example: Uncertainty Orientation 80Definition of Triple Typology 81

In Focus 4.2 A Triple Typology for Hostility 82Interaction as a Rule in Science 83Resolution of the Personality Paradox 83

, Summary: Expressions of Consistency inTraits-Dispositions 84

Summary 86Key Terms 86Taking Stock Part I: The Trait-Dispositional Level 87

Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 87Enduring Contributions of the

Trait-Dispositional Level 88

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PART II

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC-MOTTVATIONAL LEVEL 91

P R E L U D E TO PART II: The Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 91

CHAPTER 5 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES: FREUD'S CONCEPTIONS 93

Basic Assumptions: Unconscious Mental Determinism 95The Unconscious 95The Roads to the Unconscious 96

Dreams 96Free Association 97

In Focus 5.1 Encouraging Free Association 97Psychic Structure: Anatomy of the Mind 97

The Id: At the Core 98The Pleasure Principle 98

' Sexual and Aggressive Instincts 98Primary Process Thinking 98

The Ego: Tester of Reality 99The Reality Principle 99

The Superego: High Court in Pursuit of Perfection 99Conflict, Anxiety, and Psychodynamics 100

Conflict 100Defense: Denial and Repression 101Libido 102

Neurosis 102When Defenses Fail: Neurotic Anxiety and Conflict 102

Development of Neurotic Anxiety 102The Meaning of Neurotic Acts 103

Origins of Neuroses 103The Psychopathology of Everyday Life: "Mistakes"

That Betray 104Motivational Determinism: Unconscious Causes 104

Personality Development 105Stages of Development 106

Oral 106Anal 106Phallic 106Latency 106Genital 107

In Focus 5.2 How Oral Is the Infant? 107Fixation and Regression 108Freud's Theory of Identification 108

Impact of Freud's Theories 109Image of the Person 109The Healthy Personality 110Behaviors as Symptoms 110

Summary 111Key Terms 112

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CHAPTER 6 POST-FREUDIAN PSYCHODYNAMICSAND MOTIVES 113

Toward Ego Psychology and the Self 114Anna Freud and the Ego Defense Mechanisms 114

Transformation of Motives 115Projection 116Reaction Formation 116Rationalization 117Sublimation 117

Carl Jung 118Alfred Adler 121Erich Fromm 123Erik Erikson 123

Object Relations Theory and the Self 125"Good-Bad Splitting" 126The Development of Self 127

Attachment: The Roots of Object Relations 127Attachment Theory 128Early Attachment Relations: Secure/Insecure Attachment Patterns 128Attachment in Adult Relationships 129Kohut's Theory 131

Murray, the Harvard Personologists, and Higher Motives 134Higher Order Motives 134Competence Motivation 135Need for Achievement 136In Focus 6.1 The Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT) 136Need for Power 137Need for Intimacy 138Implicit Methods for Assessing Motives 138

Summary 139Key Terms 140

CHAPTER 7 PSYCHODYNAMIC PROCESSES 141

Anxiety and Unconscious Defenses 142The Concept of Unconscious Repression 142

Repression versus Suppression 143Studying Repression 143

Perceptual Defense 144The Long History of Perceptual Defense 144Limitations of Early Laboratory Studies 145

The Cognitive Unconscious 145Experimental Evidence for Unconscious Processes 146The Repressed Memory Debate 146

Return of the Repressed 147Did It Really Happen? 147The Power of Suggestion 147

The Risk of Excessive Skepticism 148Optimistic Prospects for the Future of the Unconscious 148

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Patterns of Defense: Individual Differences in Cognitive Avoidance 148Repression-Sensitization 148In Focus 7.1 Person-Situation Interaction in Repressive Tendencies 149Selective Attention 150Blunting versus Monitoring Styles 151The Role of Control: When Don't You Want to Know? 152Matching the Medical Information to the Patient's Style 153

Personality Assessment 154The Core Beneath the Mask 154 ^Reiving on the Clinician 154Projective Methods 154The Rorschach Test 155Assessment with the TAT 156In Focus 7.2 Gary's TAT Stories 156Studying Lives in Depth 157Assessment Strategy: Diagnostic Council 157Selecting U.S. Spies: The OSS Assessment Project 158From Situational Tests to Psychodynamic Inferences 158

Treatment and Change 159Free Association and Dream Interpretation 159In Focus 7.3 Today's View of Freud's Theory of Trauma 160The Transference Relationship and Working Through 161Relational Therapy and Restoration of the Self 162Alternative Psychodynamic Interpretations of Gary W. 163

Summary 163Key Terms 164Taking Stock Part II: The Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 165

Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 165Enduring Contributions of the Psychodynamic-Motivational Level 166

PART III

THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL LEVEL 169

PRELUDE TO PART III: The Phenomenological Level 169

CHAPTER 8 PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS 171

Sources of Phenomenological Perspectives 173Allport's Functional Autonomy 173Lewin's Life Space 173Phenomenology and Existentialism: The Here and Now 176

George Kelly's Psychology of Personal Constructs 177The Person's Constructs 177A Personal Construct Conceptualization of Gary W. 179

Rationality-Emotionality 179Power and Control versus Dependence and Weakness 179Defeat-Success 179Security-Liberty 179

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Behavioral Referents for Personal Constructs 180Exploring the Meaning Underlying Puzzling Behavior Patterns 181People as Scientists 182Constructive Alternativism: Many Ways to See 183Roles: Many Ways to Be 183People Are What They Make of Themselves: Self-Determination 184

Carl Rogers 'Sel f Theory 184Unique Experience: The Subjective World 184Self-Actualization 185The Self 185 ^In Focus 8.1 Self-Actualization as a Need (Maslow) 186Consistency and Positive Regard 187Client-Centered Therapy 189Rogers Reflects on His Own Work 190

C o m m o n Themes and Issues 191Potential for Growth and Change 191

Summary 192Key Terms 193

CHAPTER 9 THE INTERNAL VIEW 194

Exploring Internal Experience 194Why Self Matters: Consequences of Self-Discrepancies 195In Focus 9.1 Effects of Self-Discrepancy: Anorexia 198The View Through the Persons Eyes 198Uses of Self-Assessment 199The Q-Sort Technique 200Interviews 201The Semantic Differential 201Nonverbal Communication 202Studying Lives from the Inside 203

The Whole Person: Psychobiography 203Life Stories: Personal Narratives 203

Enhancing Self-Awareness: Accessing One's Experiences 204Group Experiences 204Meditation 206The Persons Experience and the Unconscious 207Accessing Painful Emotions: Hypnotic Probing 208Peering into Consciousness: Brain Images of

Subjective Experiences 209The Value of Self-Disclosure about Subjective Experiences 209In Focus 9.2 Caution: Rumination Can Increase Depression 210

Change and Well-Being 210The Meaningful Life, the Healthy Personality 210

Summary 212Key Terms 213Taking Stock Part III: The Phenomenological Level 214

Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 214Enduring Contributions of the Phenomenological Level 215

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PART IV

THE BEHAVIORAL-CONDITIONING LEVEL 217

PRELUDE TO PART IV: The Behavioral-Conditioning Level 217

CHAPTER 10 BEHAVIORAL CONCEPTIONS 220

The Behavioral Approach to Psychodynamics: Dollard and Miller 221Primary Needs and Learning 221 f

Drive 222Cue 223Response 223Reinforcement 223Conflict 223

Neurotic Conflict: The Core 225Anxiety and Repression 225Psychodynamic Behavior Theory 225

Classical Conditioning: Learning Emotional Associations 226How Classical Conditioning Works 226Higher-Order Conditioning 227In Focus 10.1 A Behavioral Challenge to the Psychodynamic

Theory of Neurosis 230From Trauma to Anxiety 231

Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning: Learning fromResponse Consequences 232

How Instrumental or Operant Conditioning Works 232Summary of Two Types of Conditioning 233

B. F. Skinner's Influence on Personality 233Importance of the Situation 234Rejection of Inferred Motives 235Identifying Stimuli (Situations) Controlling Behavior 236Conditioned Generalized Reinforcers 238Discrimination and Generalization in Everyday Life 238Shaping Behavior by Successive Approximations 240The Patterning of Outcomes: Schedules of Reinforcement 240Superstitions: Getting Reinforced into Irrationality 241Punishment 241

Summary 242Key Terms 243

CHAPTER 11 ANALYZING AND MODIFYING BEHAVIOR 244

Characteristics of Behavioral Assessments 245Case Example: Conditions "Controlling" Gary's AnxietyDirect Behavior Measurement 246

Situational Behavior Sampling 246Verbal Behavior 248

Finding Effective Rewards 248

245

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Assessing Conditions Controlling Behavior 249Functional Analyses: Case Example 250

Changing Emotional Reactions 252Desensitization: Overcoming Anxiety 252Conditioned Aversion: Making Stimuli Unattractive 255An Example: Treating Cocaine Dependency 255

Changing Behavior 256Case Example: Hyperactivity 256In Focus 11.1 Rewards May Backfire 257Contingency Contracting 258 v-Symptom Substitution? 258Evaluating the Consequences of Behavior, Not the Person 259Does Changing Behavior Change Personality? 260Unexpected Similarities: Behavior Theory and Existentialism 261In Focus 11.2 Depression: More than Insufficient

Reinforcement 263Summary 264Key Terms 265Taking Stock Part IV: The Behavioral-Conditioning Level 266

Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 266Enduring Contributions of the Behavioral-

Conditioning Level 266

PARTV

THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEVEL 269

P R E L U D E TO PART V: The Social Cognitive Level 269

CHAPTER 12 SOCIAL COGNITIVE CONCEPTIONS 271

Development of the Social Cognitive Perspective 271Historical Roots 271Cognitive Processes Underlying Behavior 272

Observational Learning (Modeling): Albert Bandura 273Learning through Observation 273Observing Other People s Outcomes: What Happens to Them Might

Happen to You 275Rules and Symbolic Processes 275New Directions 276

Social Cognitive Person Variables 276Encodings (Construals): How Do You See It? 277Expectancies and Beliefs: What Will Happen? 278In Focus 12.1 Self-Efficacy and Its Implications 279

The Role of Self-Efficacy 279Affects: Feelings and "Hot" Reactions 280Goals and Values: What Do You Want? What Is It Worth? 280What Can You Do? Overcoming Stimulus Control 281In Focus 12.2 On the History of Person Variables 282

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The Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS) 283Structure and Dynamics 283View of the Person: Gary W. 284

Assessing Person Variables and Dynamics 284Gary's Ways of Encoding Experience and Himself 285Affect and Distress Reactions 285Gary's Rejection Sensitivity Dynamics (Interpersonal Domain) 285Expectancies, Values, and Goals 286

Common Themes 287Summary 289Key Terms 290

CHAPTER 13 SOCIAL COGNITIVE PROCESSES 291

The Self 292The "I" and the "Me" 292The Self as a Basic Schema 292

Self-Schemas 293The Relational Self and Transference 293

The Relational Self 293Transference Reconsidered 294

Perceived Stability of Self and Potential for Change 295Multiple Self-Concepts: Possible Selves 296Self-Esteem and Self-Evaluation 297

Costs of Self-Esteem Pursuit 299Features and Functions of the Self: Overview 299

Causal Attributions, Helplessness, and Mastery 300Causal Attributions Influence Emotions and Outcomes 300

Pride and Shame 300Learned Helplessness and Apathy 300In Focus 13.1 The Perception of Control and Meaningfulness 301Pessimistic Explanatory Styles 303Learned Optimism 303In Focus 13.2 The Illusory Warm Glow of Optimism 304Helpless versus Mastery-Oriented Children 305Incremental versus Entity Theories: Your Own Personality Theory Matters 306

Personality Assessment 307Measuring Self-Efficacy Expectancies 308Individual Differences in If. . . then . . . Signatures 309The Implicit Association Test (IAT) 310

Personality Change and Therapy 311Social Cognitive Influences 312Cognitive Behavior Therapy 313Beck's Cognitive Therapy 314

Summary 315Key Terms 316Taking Stock Part V: The Social Cognitive Level 317

Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 317Enduring Contributions of the Social Cognitive Level 318

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PART VI

THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL 321

PRELUDE TO PART VI: The Biological Level 321

CHAPTER 14 HEREDITY AND PERSONALITY 323

Genetic Bases of Personality 323The Human Genome: The Genetic Heritage 323The Twin Method 324Results of Twin Studies 325

The Big Five 325Temperaments 326Attitudes and Beliefs 328Aggressive and Altruistic Tendencies 328Romantic Love 329

Twins Reared Apart 329Beyond Self-Report Measures 330In Focus 14.1 Understanding Heritability and the Heritability Index 331Heredity versus Environment: Another False Dichotomy 332Summary 333

Gene-Environment Interplay 333The Unique (Nonshared) Psychological Environment of Each Family Member 334

Environmental Influences Within the Family 334Environmental Influences Outside the Family 335

Interactions Among Nature-Nurture Influences 336Genes Also Influence Environments 337Search for Specific Gene-Behavior Connections 338Causal Mechanisms: The Role of Neurotransmitter Systems 339Genetic and Environmental Influences on Person X Situation Interactions 341Social Environments Change the Expression of Genes,

the Brain, and Personality 341Stress is Bad for Your Brain 341

Summary 343Key Terms 343

CHAPTER 15 EVOLUTION, BRAIN, AND PERSONALITY 344

Evolutionary Theory and Personality 344The Evolutionary Approach 344Implications of Evolution for Personality 346

Mate Selection 346Sexual Jealousy 346Explanations Are Not Justifications 347Altruism 347

Evolutionary Theory and Inborn Constraints on LearningBiological Preparedness 348Evolution of Fears 348

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Specificity of Psychological Mechanisms 349The Value of Discriminativeness in Coping with Stress 350

Brain-Personality Links 350In Focus15.1 An Early Effort: Physique and Personality? 351Biological Bases ofExtraversion-Introversion (H. J. Eysenck) 352The Behavioral Inhibition and Activation Systems 354Brain Asymmetry and Emotional Reactivity 354Summary and Implications 355Sensation Seeking: A Trait with a Specific Biological Basis? 356In Focus 15.2 Testosterone and the Antisocial Personality 358

Biological Assessment and Change 359New Windows on the Brain 359Biological Therapies 361

Antidepressants 361Antipsychotics 361Tranquilizers 362Other Common Drugs 362

Summary 363Key Terms 364Taking Stock Part VI: The Biological Level of Analysis 365

Overview: Focus, Concepts, Methods 365Enduring Contributions of the Biological Level 365

PART VII

INTEGRATION OF LEVELS: THE PERSON AS A WHOLE 367

PRELUDE TO PART VII: The Integration of Levels 367Overview of Contributions from Each Level 367

CHAPTER 16 PERSONALITY IN THE PURSUIT OF GOALS 371

Approach-Avoidance Dispositions in Goal Pursuit 372The Biological Level: BIS and BAS 372The Trait-Dispositional Level 372The Phenomenological Level: Positive-Negative Moods 373The Social Cognitive Level: Promotion-Prevention Focus 375In Focus 16.1 Studying Promotion versus Prevention Pride 376Convergence with Evolutionary Theory 377Linking Dispositions to Situations 378Links to the Psychodynamic-Motivational and

Behavioral Levels 378The Goal Pursuit Process 380

Life Tasks, Personal Goals, and Projects 380Illustrative Processing Dynamics: Thinking about a Career 381Encoding/Appraisal of the Situation 383

Self-Relevance 383Emotional Meanings 383Biological and Trait-Dispositional Levels 384

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Expectancies and Beliefs 384Self-Efficacy Expectancies 384Perceived Control and Predictability 385Outcome Expectancies 385Enhancing Self-Efficacy in Goal Pursuit 385

Affects/Emotions 386"Hot" Emotions and Impulsive Reactions 386Tuning in to the Wrong Thoughts: Anxiety 386

Goals/Values, Motivations 387Goal Hierarchies 387Standards and Self-Evaluation 387Acquisition of Standards 388Bypassing Self-Standards 388Activation of Self-Standards: From Mindlessness to

Self-Focus 388Alternative Routes in Effective Goal Pursuit 389

Summary 390Key Terms 391

CHAPTER 17 SELF-REGULATION: FROM GOAL PURSUIT TOGOAL ATTAINMENT 392

Self-Regulatory Processes 393Why Self-Regulate? 393

Automaticity 393Beyond AutomatidtyP 394

Approach (Appetitive) and Avoidance (Aversive) Dilemmas 394Willpower 394Motivation and Competence 395

The Biological Level: Executive Functions 395Brain Mechanisms in Effortful Control 395Self-Report Measures 396

The Trait-Dispositional Level 396Ego Control and Ego Resilience 396

The Social Cognitive and Phenomenological Levels 398Cognitions, Emotions, and Attention in Self-Regulation 398

Emotional Regulation in Approach (Appetitive) Dilemmas 399Delay of Gratification as a Basic Human Task 399

The Goal-Directed Delay Situation 400Cooling Strategies: It's How You Think That Counts 401

Strategic Self-Distraction 401Hot and Cool Construal 402Flexible Attention 403

Emotional Regulation in Avoidance (Aversive) Dilemmas 403Cognitive Transformations to Deal with Stress 404In Focus 17.1 Cooling Unwanted Emotions: Cognitive Reappraisal is

Better Than Denying Negative Feelings 405Interaction Among Levels: Hot and Cool Systems in

Self-Regulation 405

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The Emotional (Hot) Brain/The Rational (Cool) Brain 406Bodily Changes: Emotion in Stress 406Fight or Flight Reactions 406The Hot Amygdala 407The Rational Cool Brain 408

Biosocial Model of Self-Regulation: Hot System/Cool System Interaction 408Attention Control 408

In Focus 17.2 Neural Mechanisms in Impulsive Violence 409Social Emotions Enable Self-Regulation: Links to Evolution 410

Self-Regulatory Competence 410A Stable Person Variable 410

Long-Term Stability of Self-Regulatory Competence 410Long- Term Protective Effects 411The Down-Side of Self-Regulation 412

Conclusions 413Potential for Self-Directed Change 413

In Focus 17.3 Gary W's Self-Regulatory System 414Summary 415Key Terms 416

CHAPTER 18 PERSONALITY IN ITS CONTEXT AND CULTURE 417

Personality System in Action 417Personality Dispositions and Dynamics 418Sources of System Activation 419Expressions of the System—and Their Consequences 419

Interacting Influences of Biology and Culture ~ 420Interacting Influences on Personality Development 420Biology-Trait-Socialization Interactions: Shyness 421

Gender and Sex Differences 422Overview and Issues 422

Neonatal Sex Differences 422Gender Concepts 423Expression of Gender-Relevant Behavior 423

Interactions of Biology, Sex, and Culture in Response to Threat 423In Focus 18.1 Adult Sex Differences and Their Implications 424

Men Fight or Flee: Women Tend and Befriend 425Interactions in the Genesis of Gender Roles 426

Culture and Personality 427The Link Between the Cultural and the Personal

Meaning Systems 427Culturally Specific Personality Dispositions 428

Cross-Cultural and Intracultural Differences 429Individualism versus Collectivism 429Summary: Interacting Influences of Biology—Culture

on Personality 429What Develops? The Evolving Self 430

Taking Charge: Human Agency 430The Self-Construction Process ̂ 430

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The Self as an Active Agent 431Self-Direction/Agency 431The Relational Self 431

What Do People Need to Thrive? The View from Multiple Levels 432Potential for Change 434

The Role of Genetics 434The Role of the Brain 434

Summary 435Key Terms 436Taking Stock Part VII: The Integration of Levels 437

Prospects for Personality Psychology 437Personology Revisited 437

Glossary 439

References 455

Photo Credits 489

Name Index 490 •

Subject Index 499