Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik Module 17: Infancy & Childhood Module 17 Infancy & Childhood

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod PlotnikModule 17: Infancy & Childhood

Module 17

Infancy & Childhood


PRENATAL INFLUENCES

• Prenatal period: three stages– prenatal period extends from conception to birth

and lasts about 266 days (9 months)


PRENATAL INFLUENCES (CONT.)

• Prenatal period: three stages

1. Germinal stage– conception or fertilization– occurs if one of the millions of sperm penetrates

the ovum’s outer membrane– after penetration by the sperm, outer membrane

changes and becomes impenetrable to the millions of remaining sperm

– fertilized ovum is called “zygote”




2. Embryonic stage– second stage of the prenatal period and spans

the 2-8 weeks that follow conception– during this stage, cells divide and begin to

differentiate into bone, muscle, and body organs




3. Fetal stage– begins two months after conception and lasts until

birth– fetus develops vital organs, such as lungs, and

physical characteristics that are distinctly human– during embryonic and fetal stages, the developing

organism is especially vulnerable to toxic agents– protected by the placenta



• Placenta and teratogens– Placenta

• organ that connects the blood supply of the mother to that of the fetus

• acts like a filter• allows oxygen and nutrients to pass through while

keeping out some toxic or harmful substances– Teratogen

• any agent that can harm a developing fetus (cause deformities or brain damage)

• can be a disease, drug, or another environmental agent



• Birth defects and amniocentesis– possible to test during fetal stage for a number of

genetic errors– Amniocentesis

• medical test done between weeks 14 and 20 of pregnancy

• involves inserting a long needle through the mother’s abdominal muscles into the amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus

• fetal cells are analyzed in the fluid• more than 450 genetic disorders can now be

tested and identified



• Birth defects and amniocentesis– Down Syndrome

• results from extra 21st chromosome• causes abnormal physical traits• fold of skin at the corner of each eye, wide

tongue, heart defects• abnormal brain development, resulting in

degrees of mental retardation



• Drugs and prenatal development– Drug use during pregnancy

• cocaine plus other drugs• pregnant women using crack cocaine along

with other drugs, such as alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, or opiates had:– lower birth weight– poor feeding habits– greater risk for developing other

psychological problems




• smoking and nicotine• 13% (about) of pregnant women smoke• increase the risk of:

– low birth weight– pre-term deliveries– possible physical problems (cleft lip or

palate)– SIDS– respiratory infections




• lead• levels of lead in the blood system are

associated with low IQ scores in children• likelihood of antisocial acts such as, assaults,

truancy, and disorderly conduct• some lead sources, paint, gasoline, industry




• alcohol• heavy drinking - Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)• FAS results from a mother drinking heavily during

pregnancy, especially in the first 12 weeks• FAS results in:

– short stature, flattened nose, short eye openings, neurological changes, hyperactivity, impulsive behavior, deficits in information processing, drug and alcohol abuse




• alcohol• moderate drinking - Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)• FAS results from a mother having 7-14 drinks

per week during pregnancy• FAE less severe than FAS• FAE results in:

– Deficiencies in cognitive tasks, academic skills, fine motor speed and coordination


NEWBORNS’ ABILITIES

• Genetic development program– mother contributes 23 chromosomes and father

contributes 23 chromosomes– each child receives a unique genetic program– brain growth– genetic program (after birth) regulates how the

brain develops– makes thousands of connections between

neurons


NEWBORNS’ ABILITIES (CONT.)

• Sensory development– Faces

• newborns show a preference for their mother’s face over strangers faces the first few days after birth

• newborns recognize a person’s eyes• 3-6 months

– infant can visually distinguish his or her mother’s face from strangers

• 3-4 years– visual abilities are equal to those of an adult



• Sensory development– Hearing

• one-month olds have very keen hearing• can discriminate small sound vibrations• 6 months, have developed the ability to make all

sounds that are necessary to learn language– Touch

• have well developed sense of touch• will turn head when lightly touched on the cheek• touch also elicits other reflexes such as

grasping and sucking



• Sensory development– Smell and taste

• infants at 1-day-old can discriminate a few odors such as citrus and floral

• six-week-old infants can smell the difference between their mother and a stranger

• newborns have an inborn preference for both sweet and salt and an inborn dislike of bitter-tasting things

• depth perception• At 6 months, infants have developed depth

perception



• Motor development– refers to the stages of motor skills that all infants

pass through as they acquire the muscular control necessary for making coordinated movements

– Proximodistal principle• states that parts closer to the center of the

infant’s body develop before parts farther away– Cephalocaudal principle

• states that parts of the body closer to the head develop before parts closer to the feet



• Motor development– Maturation

• refers to developmental changes that are genetically or biologically programmed rather than acquired through learning or life experiences

– Developmental norms• refers to the average age at which children

perform various kinds of skills or exhibit abilities or behaviors

• major milestones in infants’ motor development• crawling, walking



• Motor development– environmental stimulation

• appropriate stimulation for development of the visual system, for learning to speak, for emotional development, and for motor development

• infants cannot perform complex cognitive, sensory or motor tasks, such as walking, talking, and reading until appropriate areas of their brains develop neural connections

• genetic program needs and interacts with environmental stimulation for the proper development of a child’s sensory, motor, and cognitive abilities


EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

• Definition– refers to the influence and interaction of genetic

factors, brain changes, cognitive factors, coping abilities, and cultural factors in the development of emotional behaviors, expressions, thoughts and feelings

• Temperament and emotions– refers to relatively stable and long lasting

individual differences in mood and emotional behavior, which emerge early in childhood because these differences are largely influenced by genetic factors


EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)

• Temperament and emotions– Easy babies

• happy and cheerful, regular sleeping and eating habits, adapted quickly to new situations

– Slow-to-warm-up babies• more withdrawn, moody, and tend to take

longer to adapt to new situations– Difficult babies

• fussy, fearful of new situations, and more intense in their reactions



• Temperament and emotions– No-single-category babies

• variety of traits and cannot be classified into one of the other three categories

– Genetic influence• infants develop distinct temperaments very

early, usually in the first 2-3 months of life• these distinct temperaments occur largely

because of genetic factors rather than learning experiences



• Temperament and emotions– Environmental influence

• involves factors such as, family influence, poverty level, educational opportunities, and social class

• interact with and can change the infant’s initial temperament

– Attachment• a close, fundamental emotional bond that develops

between the infant and his or her parents or caregiver

• as a child shows closer attachment to parents, the child shows more distress when the parents temporarily leave



• Attachment– Separation anxiety

• an infant’s distress whenever the infant’s parents leave

• Kinds of attachments– Secure attachment

• characteristic for infants who use their parent as a safe home base from which they can wander off and explore their environments

– Insecure attachment• characteristic of infants who avoid or show

ambivalence or resistance toward their parent or caregiver



• Attachment– Effects of attachment– kind of attachment formed in infancy is thought to be

associated with the success of future adult relationships

– Secure attachment• associated with being better at resolving conflicts,

being more trusting, enjoying relationships, and dealing better with stress and anxiety

– Insecure attachment• associated with being dependent, having poor social

relationships, and showing more anxiety in stressful settings


COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• Piaget’s theory– Cognitive development

• refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains an understanding of his or her world through the interaction and influence of genetic and learned factors

– Jean Piaget• greatest impact on developmental psychology

with cognitive development• both biologist and psychologist


COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• Piaget’s theory– Assimilation

• process by which a child uses old methods or experiences to deal with new situations

– Accommodation• process by which a child changes old methods

to deal with or adjust to new situations


COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)

• Piaget’s stages of cognitive development– Refer to four different stages

1. Sensorimotor stage

2. Preoperational stage

3. Concrete operations

4. Formal operations



• Sensorimotor Stage– birth to age 2– infants interact with an learn about their

environments by relating their sensory experiences to their motor experiences

– object permanence– develops over a period of 9 months– refers to the understanding that objects or events

continue to exist even if they can no longer be heard, touched or seen



• Preoperational Stage– about age 2 to 7 years– children learn to use symbols, such as words or mental

images, to solve simple problems and to think or talk about things that are not present

– Conservation• refers to the fact that even though the shape of

some object or substance is changed, the total amount remains the same

– Egocentric thinking• refers to seeing and thinking of the world only from

your own viewpoint and having difficulty appreciating someone else’s viewpoint



• Concrete Stage– about age 7 to 11 years– children can perform a number of logical mental

operations on concrete objects (physically present)– Conservation

• children gradually master the concept of conservation during the concrete operations stage

– Classification• ability to classify items by color and size for

example• children still have difficulty figuring out

relationships among objects that are not present or imaginary situations



• Formal Operations Stage– about age 12 to adulthood– adolescents and adults develop the ability to think

about an solve abstract problems in a logical manner

– adolescents develop thinking and reasoning typical of adults

– ability to think in a logical, systematic, and abstract way is one of the major characteristics of the formal operations stage


SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

• Social development– refers to how a person develops a sense of self or a

self-identity, develops relationships with others, and develops the kinds of social skills important in personal interactions

• Freud’s Psychosexual Stages– Five different developmental periods:

1. Oral2. Anal3. Phallic4. Latency5. Genital


SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)

• Oral stage– early infancy to 18 months– pleasure seeking is around the mouth– sucking,chewing, and biting– if fixated at this stage due to oral wishes being

gratified too much or to little, could continue in adulthood seeking oral gratification



• Anal stage– 1 and a half years to 3 years– infant’s pleasure seeking is centered on the anus

and its functions of elimination– if fixated, will continue behavior activities in either

retention or elimination– retention– may take form of being neat, stingy, or rigid– elimination– may take form of being generous or messy



• Phallic stage – 3 to 6 years (early childhood)– pleasure seeking is centered on the genitals– competes with parent of same sex for affections

and pleasures of the parent of the opposite sex– may result in feelings of inferiority for women and

of having something to prove for men



• Latency stage – 6 to puberty (middle to late childhood)– child represses sexual thoughts and engages in

nonsexual activities, such as:– developing social and intellectual skills– puberty:– sexuality reappears



• Genital stage – puberty to adulthood– individual has renewed sexual desires that he or

she seeks to fulfill through relationships with members of the opposite sex

– successful resolution of the conflicts in the first three stages will lead to having energy to develop loving relationships and a healthy and mature personality



• Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages– eight developmental periods during which an individual’s

primary goal is to satisfy desires associated with social needs

– Eight periods associated with issues of:1. Trust2. Autonomy3. Initiative4. Industry5. Identity6. Intimacy7. Generativity8. Ego integrity



• Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages– Trust versus Mistrust

• early infancy through the first year• if parents are sensitive and responsive to

needs of the child, basic trust will develop• if parents neglect needs, the child may view

the world as uncaring and learn to become mistrustful



• Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages– Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

• late infancy-1 to 3 years• battle of wills between parents’ wishes and

child’s desires to do as he or she pleases• if parents encourage:

– the child to explore, a sense of independence develops

• if parents disapprove or punish:– the child’s explorations, he or she may

develop a feeling that independence is bad and feel shame and doubt



• Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages– Initiative versus Guilt

• early childhood-3 to 5 years• child develops a number of social skills that are

expected to be used to meet challenges in the child’s world

• if parents encourage initiative:– the child will develop the ability to plan and

initiate new things• if parents discourage initiative:

– the child may feel guilty or uncomfortable or may feel unable to plan the future



• Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages– Industry versus Inferiority

• middle and late childhood-5 to 12 years• child needs to direct energy into working and

completing tasks• develops a feeling of industry• if child has difficulty applying and completing

work:– then the child may develop a feeling of

inferiority and incompetence



• Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages– Identity versus Role Confusion

• adolescence• if child is successful making the change to

adolescence, he or she will develop a sense of confidence and a positive identity

• if child is unsuccessful, he or she will experience role confusion

• results in having low self-esteem and becoming socially withdrawn


SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)• Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

– emphasizes the importance of learning through observation, imitation, and self-reward in the development of social skills, interactions, and behaviors

– Resiliency• refers to various personality, family, or environmental

factors that compensate for increased life stresses so that expected problems do not develop

– Vulnerability• refers to psychological or environmental difficulties

that make children more at risk for developing later personality, behavioral, or social problems



• Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory– Gender identity

• refers to the individual’s subjective experience and feelings of being a female or male

– Gender roles• traditional or stereotypic behaviors, attitudes,

and personality traits that parents, peers, and society expect us to have because we are male or female



• Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory– Social role theory

• emphasizes the influence of social and cognitive processes on how we interpret, organize, and use information

– Cognitive developmental theory• children develop mental skills and interact with their

environments, learn one set of rules for male behaviors and another set of rules for female behaviors

– Gender schemas• sets of information and rules organized around how

either a male or a female should think and behave

Documents

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, Rod Plotnik Module 17: Infancy & Childhood Module 17 Infancy & Childhood