Investigating the Relationship Between Protestant Work Ethicand Confucian Dynamism: An Empirical Test in Mainland China

Suchuan Zhang • Weiqi Liu • Xiaolang Liu

Received: 10 January 2011 / Accepted: 28 July 2011 / Published online: 18 August 2011

� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract This study examined the relationship between

the Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) and Confucian Dynamism

in a sample of 1,757 respondents from several provinces in

mainland China. Mirels and Garrett’s (J Consult Clin Psy-

chol 36:40–44, 1971) PWE Scale and Robertson’s (Manag

Int Rev 40:253–268, 2000) Confucian Dynamism Scale were

used to measure the work ethics. The 16 items of the PWE

Scale and eight items of the Confucian Dynamism Scale

were initially subjected to a principal components analysis.

Factor analysis produced four factors of the PWE, which

were labeled as follows: hard work, internal motive, admi-

ration of work itself, and negative attitude to leisure; and

three factors of the Confucian Dynamism, which were

labeled: long-term orientation, short-term orientation, and

guanxi orientation. The results of a multiple regression

analysis indicated that all the dimensions of PWE were

positively related to Confucian Dynamism, but negatively to

guanxi orientation. The results also indicated that three PWE

dimensions (‘‘hard work,’’ ‘‘internal motive,’’ and ‘‘admi-

ration of work itself’’) were positively and significantly

related to long-term orientation, but two of them were related

negatively and significantly to the short-term orientation of

Confucian Dynamism. In addition, the results showed that

the dimension—admiration of work itself—of PWE was

significantly and negatively associated with the guanxi ori-

entation, but significantly and positively to the short-term

orientation.

Keywords Protestant Work Ethic � Confucian

Dynamism � Values � Chinese culture � Guanxi

Introduction

Weber (1958) studied the effects of the cultural values and

the rise of capitalism and argued that the so-called Protestant

Work Ethic (PWE) played an important role in the devel-

opment of capitalism in the West. He also contrasted the

western ‘‘Protestant Work Ethic’’ with the apparent absence

of rationality in Confucian values. More recently, a few

strong cases have been made in favor of the positive effects

of Confucian, such as hard work, diligence, frugality, and the

love of education (Redding 1990; Dana 1999; Lim and Lay

2003). Hofstede and Bond (1988), in their exploration of

cultural differences, also present an ‘‘Eastern’’ dimension,

which is called ‘‘Confucian Dynamism.’’ Actually, just as

the PWE has been considered as the main driving force

behind the economic successes of America and the countries

of Europe, Confucian Dynamism has also been found to be

strongly correlated with economic growth and the main

underlying reason for the economic successes of the five

Asian Dragons; namely China, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong,

and Singapore (Chinese Culture Connection 1987; Hofstede

1991; Lim and Lay 2003; Ralston et al. 1992; Holt 1997).

High endorsement values within PWE include industrious,

ambitious, hard working, intrinsically motivated, deferment

of immediate rewards, conservation of resources, the saving

of surplus wealth, and the avoidance of idleness and waste

in any form (Tang 1990; Ma 1986), and high scores in

S. Zhang (&) � X. Liu

School of Economic and Business, Shanxi University,

No. 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006, China

e-mail: sue.zhsu555@gmail.com

X. Liu

e-mail: liuxiaolang0507@163.com

W. Liu

School of Management, Shanxi University, No. 92 Wucheng

Road, Taiyuan 030006, China

e-mail: liuwq@sxu.edu.cn

123

J Bus Ethics (2012) 106:243–252

DOI 10.1007/s10551-011-0993-8

Confucian Dynamism also emphasize the following values:

persistence, thrift, diligence, ordering relationships by sta-

tus, and having a sense of shame (Hofstede and Bond 1988;

Lim 2003). The two work ethics have both similarities and

differences.

Though both Confucian values and PWEs are different

values from different parts of the world, they have been

successfully adopted in the countries that follow them.

Therefore, both belief systems have attracted considerable

attention in social and occupational psychologies. While a

fairly extensive body of research has investigated PWE at the

individual level of analysis, Confucian Dynamism has been

studied primarily at the national and societal level (Chinese

Culture Connection 1987; Hofstede 1991, 1993, 1994;

Hofstede and Bond 1988; Ralston et al. 1992). Scant atten-

tion has been focused on Confucian Dynamism at the indi-

vidual level of analysis. Further, little study has been done to

investigate the relationship between PWE and Confucian

Dynamism. The purpose of this study was to present the

results from an exploratory test of the relationship between

two work ethics at the individual level of analysis.

Literature and Hypotheses

Confucian Dynamism

After developing the four cultural dimensions of individual-

ism versus collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity,

and power distance, Hofstede and Bond (1988) identified a

fifth dimension: Confucian Dynamism. According to Hofst-

ede (1993), Confucian Dynamism deals with ‘‘time orienta-

tion’’ and consists of two contracting poles: ‘‘long-term

orientation’’ versus ‘‘short-term orientation.’’

Hofstede and Bond (1988) suggested that individuals

who are high in Confucian Dynamism are likely to be more

persistent, have a greater respect for status, place a higher

value on thrift, and have a greater sense of shame. In

addition, Lu et al. (1999) found individuals high in Con-

fucian Dynamism are also more likely to place greater

importance on other stakeholders than themselves. More-

over, Jaw et al. (2007) noted that respondents with high

Confucian Dynamism tend to emphasize self-enhancement,

contribution to society, stability and rewards, and openness

to change simultaneously. It was also found that such

individuals are more likely to confine themselves within

social norms (Lu et al. 1999; Ornatowski 1996).

Even though the aim of Hofstede’s research was to mea-

sure societal-level phenomena, some researchers have

developed instruments that measure an individual’s beliefs

about various cultural issues (Triandis et al. 1985; Vitell et al.

1993; Robertson 2000; Robertson and Hoffman 2000). In the

early studies, results showed that Confucian Dynamism was

consistent at the individual level of analysis with Hofstede

and Bond’s (1988) social level results (Robertson 2000;

Robertson and Hoffman 2000). Based on the thesis of Hof-

tstede and Bond, Robertson (2000) divided Confucian

Dynamism items into two dimensions, which are four posi-

tive or ‘‘future-oriented’’ items and four negative or ‘‘past/

present-oriented’’ items, and also found that the future-ori-

ented items are significantly correlated to individualism and

uncertainty avoidance, while the past-oriented items are

related to uncertainty avoidance and future-orientation.

PWE

PWE has been the most notable concept since Max Weber

first expounded the relationship between culture values and

economic development (Weber 1958).

Although Weber’s original thesis emphasized elements of

Protestantism, the concept of the PWE is now used without

religious connotations to describe people who place work at

or near the center of their lives (Furnham 1990c). PWE is a

multidimensional concept, and there is no clear agreement

among researchers on the actual dimensions of PWE. Furn-

ham (1990b) compared and contrasted seven measures of the

PWE and found five readily interpretable factors: respect for,

admiration of, and willingness to take part in hard work; a

disdain for leisure, religion, and morality; independence

from others; the asceticism, and the damage of having too

much time and money. Using PWE Scale developed by

Mirels and Garrett (1971) and a sample of students in Tai-

wan, Tang (1993) developed four factors: hard work, internal

motive, asceticism, and attitudes toward leisure. Also using

the same scale, McHoskey (1994) presented four factors:

success, asceticism, hard work, and anti-leisure. In addition,

Wentworth and Chell (1997) found five factors emerging,

such as person’s use of time, disdain for leisure, hard work,

rewards of work, and disdain for indolence. Jones (1997) also

explained the PWE by five dimensions which were hard

work, use of time, saving, innovation, and honesty. Arslan

(2001) found five factors: work as an end in itself, hard work

brings success, saving in money and time, internal locus of

control, and negative attitudes to leisure.

Among a number of scales to be constructed to measure

PWE, the Mirels and Garrett scale has been the most

widely used in research, especially in Factor Analysis

(Baguma and Furnham 1993; Furnham 1982, 1990a;

Furnham and Rose 1987; Kidron 1978; Tang 1993,

McHoskey 1994; Wentworth and Chell 1997; Arslan

2001). We also use this scale in present study.

Hypothesis

Though some rare study has made an a priori investigation

of the relationship between the PWE and Confucian

244 S. Zhang et al.

123

Dynamism at the individual level of analysis, Lim (2003)

did find that PWE and Confucian Dynamism are similar in

that both promote values such as thrift and industriousness.

In addition, comparing the findings of Furnham et al.

(1993) and Hofstede (1994), it was found that, with eco-

nomic growth being much higher for the East Asian

countries than for the Western countries over past two

decades (Hofstede 1994), countries displaying low PWE

scores such as Germany, the United States, Britain, Aus-

tralia, and New Zealand are also the same countries dis-

playing low scores in Confucian Dynamism, and countries

with higher PWE such as India and Hong Kong are the

same countries with high scores in Confucian Dynamism.

Given the above associations between the PWE and

Confucian Dynamism, the following hypothesis was

proposed:

H1 The PWE would be positively related to Confucian

Dynamism.

Confucian Dynamism includes the values relating both

to the positive and the negative sides. Hofstede (1991)

identified this culture dimension as long-term versus short-

term orientations. According to Hofstede (1991), long-term

orientation refers to a positive, dynamic, and future-ori-

ented culture linked with four ‘‘positive’’ Confucian values,

whereas short-term orientation, represents a negative, sta-

tic, and traditional and past-oriented culture associated

with four ‘‘negative’’ Confucian values. Table 1, which is

in line with Confucian Dynamism analyzed by Hofstede

and Band (1988), is presented.

PWE adherents clearly regard hard work, thrift, and

perseverance as meaningful, worthwhile, and rewarding in

and of itself. Hence, the following hypothesis was proposed:

H2a The PWE would be positively related to long-term

orientation of Confucian Dynamism.

Also according to Hofstede and Bond (1988), the traits

of short-term orientation of Confucian Dynamism are

opposite to the PWE values. For example, ‘‘protecting

one’s face,’’ if widely shared as a concern, would detract

from getting on with the business, and the ‘‘reciprocation of

greetings, favors, and gifts’’ is a social activity more con-

cerned with good manners than with performance. More-

over, too much ‘‘respect’’ for tradition impedes innovation.

With such kinds of work values, people spend much time

and energy to maintain relationship rather than work for

itself. These traits of Confucian Dynamism are naturally

contrary to the spirit of PWE. Hence, the following

hypothesis was proposed:

H2b The PWE would be negatively related to short-term

orientation of Confucian Dynamism.

Methods

Sample and Procedures

Data were collected via questionnaire surveys. 1,757

respondents comprised university students, teachers, busi-

nessmen, ganbu (administrators in government organiza-

tions), managers, workers, clerks, etc. They came from

more than 15 provinces in mainland China, such as Beijing,

Shanghai, Liaoning, Shanxi, etc.

The participants included 946 men and 802 women.

Nine participants did not indicate gender. 587 participants

identified themselves as less than 25 years of age, 397 were

25–34 years of age, 407 were 35–44, and the remaining

359 were C45 years old. Seven participants failed to

indicate their age. 304 participants indentified themselves

as having no work experience, 345 having worked for less

than 5 years, 243 for 5–9 years, 170 for 10–14 years, 167

for 15–19 years, 303 for 20–29 years, and the remainder

159 for C30 years. 66 people failed to indicate their work

experience. 738 participants indentified themselves as

junior college education or less, 877 undergraduates, and

141 graduates. One person failed to indicate his/her edu-

cation status.

Instrumentation

Confucian Work Dynamism

We measured this variable with scales adapted from Rob-

ertson and Hoffman (2000). The scale included eight items

and was originally developed by a group of the Chinese

researchers named The Chinese Culture Connection

(1987). The first four items relate to Hofstede’s long-term

orientation of Confucian Dynamism, while the remaining

four items are the basis for short-term orientation scores.

The scale was translated into the Chinese and back trans-

lated independently for accuracy of measurement.

Table 1 Long-term versus short-term orientation of Confucian

Dynamism

Long-term orientation Short-term orientation

1. Persistence (perseverance) 1. Personal steadiness and

stability

2. Ordering relationships by status

and observing this order

2. Protecting your face

3. Thrift 3. Respect for tradition

4. Having a sense of shame 4. Reciprocation of greetings,

favors, and gifts

Source: Based on Hofstede and Bond (1988, p. 16)

Relationship Between PWE and Confucian Dynamism 245

123

In our study, participants responded using a five-point

Likert-scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 5 (agree

strongly). Responses for the eight items were summed to

produce a total Confucian Dynamism. Then, four items in

short-term orientation were reversed in scoring because

greater agreement corresponded with greater short-term

orientation.

PWE

In our study, the Mirels and Garrett (1971) PWE’s Scale

was used to measure the PWE. The scale was translated

into the Chinese and back translated independently for

accuracy of measurement.

The PWE Scale consisted of 19 items, with higher

scores reflecting strong adherence to the PWE and lower

scores little adherence to the PWE. Participants responded

using a five-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 (disagree

strongly) to 5 (agree strongly). Item 9 (‘‘People should

have more leisure time to spend in relaxation.’’), Item 13

(‘‘Hard work offers little guarantee of success.’’), and Item

15 (‘‘Life would be more meaningful if we had more lei-

sure time.’’) were reverse-scored.

In this study, 19 items of PWE Scale originally yielded a

Cronbach’s alpha of only 0.64 (mean = 60.37, SD =

7.15). Then, we used the Item—Total Statistics—to test for

which items ‘‘Cronbach’s Alpha if Item Deleted’’ was more

than 0.64 (Xue 2010). According to this method, the

‘‘Cronbach’s Alpha if Item Deleted’’ scores for items 9, 13,

and 15 were 0.66, 0.65, and 0.67, respectively. Reliability

estimates for the PWE improved from 0.64 to 0.71

(mean = 52.57, SD = 7.19) after deleting the items 9, 13,

and 15. These three items in original PWE Scale were all

reverse-scored. It was an unexpected result. We hope to

explore this matter further in a future study.

Results

Factor Analysis of PWE Items

Factor analysis was employed to reveal the underlying

dimensions of the PWE. We selected items with factor

loadings of 0.50 or greater with a criterion of an eigenvalue

greater than one. Varimax rotation was utilized to identify

four factors. Before rotation, these factors accounted for

41.54% of the total variance among the 16 PWE items.

Mchoskey (1994), Tang (1993), and Mudrack (1997)

accounted for similar amount (39, 45.5 and 42.5%, respec-

tively) of variances among 19 PWE items with four factors.

Five items were omitted because of low factor loadings. The

factors loadings for this analysis, along with each item’s

respective communality, are presented in Table 2.

Four items 6, 8, 11, and 5 loaded on the first factor,

which accounted for 19.18% of the variance and labeled

‘‘hard work’’ (eigenvalue = 3.07). Three of the four items

were the same to those loadings on the first factor in Tang’s

study. For Factor two, which was labeled ‘‘Internal

motive’’ (eigenvalue = 1.33), 8.30% of the variance can be

explained by items 14, 18, and 19. Two of the three were

the same as those in Tang’s study. In this factor, item 14

was not included in Tang’s study. For Factor 3, items 3 and

Table 2 Factor analytic results

for the PWE Scale

N = 1,757. Item numbers were

taken from Mirels and Garrett’s

(1971)a Denotes highest factor

loading

Item H Factor loadings

Hard

work

Internal

motive

Admiration

of work itself

Negative attitude

to leisure

1 0.55 0.12 0.30 0.67a

2 0.53 0.18 0.12 0.69a

3 0.50 0.64a 0.27

4 0.46 0.18 0.14 0.64a

5 0.34 0.54a 0.17 0.14

6 0.54 0.70a 0.18 -0.12

7 0.26 0.47 0.14 0.12

8 0.43 0.58a 0.20 0.23

10 0.40 0.32 0.24 0.44 -0.21

11 0.45 0.52a 0.39 -0.15

12 0.27 0.25 0.32 0.31

14 0.51 0.51a -0.15 0.48

16 0.25 0.16 0.45 0.14

17 0.29 0.23 0.40 0.11

18 0.52 -0.12 0.62a 0.30 -0.16

19 0.38 0.14 0.59a

246 S. Zhang et al.

123

4 accounted for 7.43% of the variance. It was labeled

‘‘admiration of work itself’’ (eigenvalue = 1.19). Finally,

item 1 and 2 loaded on the Factor 4, which accounted for

6.62% of the variance and labeled ‘‘Negative attitude

toward leisure’’ (eigenvalue = 1.06).

Factor Analysis of Confucian Dynamism Items

In order to test the dimensions of Confucian Dynamism,

the Factor analysis also was conducted among eight items.

We selected items with factor loadings of 0.50 or greater

with a criterion of an eigenvalue greater than one. Varimax

rotation was employed to identify three factors. Before

rotation, these factors accounted for 51.95% of the total

variance among the eight items. This result was very clo-

sely related to the thesis of the Hofstede (1991).

Items 1 (‘‘Managers must be persistent to accomplish

objectives.’’), 2 (‘‘There is a hierarchy to on-the-job rela-

tionships and it should be observed.’’), 3 (‘‘A good man-

ager knows how to economize.’’), and 4(‘‘It is important to

have a conscience in business.’’) were loaded on the Factor

1, which accounted for 22.05% of the variance (eigen-

value = 1.76) and were labeled long-term orientation.

These items are line with those on the left-select Confucian

values in Hofstede and Bond (1988), whereas items 5

(‘‘Personal stability is not critical to success in business.’’),

6 (‘‘Respect for tradition hampers performance.’’), 8

(‘‘Upholding one’s personal image makes little difference

in goal achievement.’’) were loaded on the Factor 2, which

accounted for 17.04% of the variance (eigenvalue = 1.36)

and were labeled short-term orientation. These items were

consistent with those on the right-select Confucian values

in Hofstede and Bond (1988) except the item 7 (‘‘The

exchange of favors and gifts is not necessary to excel.’’).

Item 7 was loaded on Factor 3, which accounted for

12.86% of the variance and was labeled ‘‘guanxi (special

relationship) orientation’’ (eigenvalue = 1.03). Guanxi is

one aspect of traditional Chinese culture. Contemporary

Chinese still deeply endorse the attitudes toward the very

traditional practice of guanxi, a network arrangement of

personal connections, involving reciprocal obligations to

exchange favors (Farh et al. 1998). The factors loadings for

this analysis, along with each item’s respective commu-

nality, are presented in Table 3.

Hypotheses Testing

We used multiple regression analyses to test the postulated

hypotheses in our study. A series of multiple regression

analyses were computed to examine the significance of the

various variables (age, gender, work experience, and edu-

cation) and four dimensions of the PWE as predictors of

Confucian Dynamism, long-term orientation, short-term

orientation, and guanxi orientation. Table 4 shows the

results of the regression analysis.

Our Hypothesis 1 that the PWE would be positively

related to Confucian Dynamism was supported. The

omnibus F-test was statistically significant (F = 28.16;

p \ 0.001). The dimensions of the PWE such as ‘‘hard

work,’’ ‘‘internal motivation,’’ and ‘‘admiration of work

itself’’ were all positively and significantly related to the

Confucian Dynamism. The ‘‘Negative attitude toward lei-

sure’’ dimension of the PWE was also positively but not

significantly related to the Confucian Dynamism.

Our Hypothesis 2a, that the PWE would be positively

related to long-term orientation of Confucian Dynamism,

was partly supported. The omnibus F-test was statistically

significant (F = 25.27; p \ 0.001). Except ‘‘negative atti-

tude toward leisure’’ dimension of the PWE, three

dimensions of PWE were all positively and significantly

correlated with long-term orientation of Confucian Dyna-

mism. One of the interesting results was that ‘‘negative

attitude toward leisure’’ was negatively, though not sig-

nificantly, related to long-term orientation dimension.

Our Hypothesis H2b, the PWE would be negatively

related to short-term orientation of Confucian Dynamism,

was also partly supported. The omnibus F-test was statis-

tically significant (F = 13.78; p \ 0.001). Two dimensions

of ‘‘hard work’’ and ‘‘internal motive’’ were all negatively

and most significantly related to short-term orientation

(p \ 0.001). The ‘‘negative attitude toward leisure’’ was

found to be also negatively but not significantly related to

short-term orientation. Contrary to Hypothesis 2b, an

unexpected result showed that ‘‘admiration of work itself’’

dimension was significantly and positively related to short-

term orientation (p \ 0.05).

We did not postulate the relationship between PWE and

guanxi orientation. This dimension was produced unex-

pectedly through Factor analysis. The omnibus F-test was

Table 3 Factor analytic results for the Confucian Dynamism Scale

Item H Factor loadings

Long-term

orientation

Short-term

orientation

Guanxiorientation

1 0.44 0.65a 0.09 -0.04

2 0.40 0.54a 0.23 -0.23

3 0.52 0.72a -0.06 0.15

4 0.51 0.71a -0.13 0.08

5 0.43 0.02 0.63a 0.18

6 0.61 0.13 0.74a -0.25

7 0.79 0.10 0.09 0.88a

8 0.46 -0.15 0.54a 0.39

N = 1,757. Item numbers were taken from Robertson and Hoffman’s

(2000)a Denotes the highest factor loading

Relationship Between PWE and Confucian Dynamism 247

123

statistically significant (F = 3.15; p \ 0.01). There was a

negative and significant correlation between the ‘‘admira-

tion of work itself’’ dimension and guanxi orientation

(p \ 0.01). Guanxi orientation was negatively related to all

the dimensions of the PWE. Given that guanxi orientation

is one trait of short-term orientation (Hofstede and Bond

1988), it was reasonable to say that these results supported

Hypothesis 2b also.

Discussion

Our purpose in conducting this study was to better under-

stand the relationship between PWE and Confucian

Dynamism in the Chinese setting. This objective was

accomplished using a more heterogeneous sample than has

been used in previous experiments. A significant interac-

tion effect was found between PWE and Confucian

Dynamism in this present study. The findings appeared to

support the notion that these two work ethics are not cul-

turally specific (Hofstede and Bond 1988; Robertson 2000;

Robertson and Hoffman 2000; Furnham et al. 1993; Lim

and Lay 2003; Williams and Sandler 1995).

In our findings, the hard work dimension and internal

motive of PWE was positively and significantly correlated

with long-term orientation while negatively and signifi-

cantly associated with short-term orientation. This result

indicates that individuals, who have a strong commitment

to working hard and internal motive, place more impor-

tance on the values associated with Confucian teachings

that are future oriented (persistence, status-ordered rela-

tionships, thrift, and a sense of shame) (Hofstede and Bond

1988). This finding is consistent with some extant studies

which suggest that Confucian ethics advocate the virtue of

hard work and respect for educational achievements (e.g.,

Wong and Wong 1989). These individuals would (a) save

enough money as availability of capital from reinvestment

and obvious asset to economic growth (Hofstede and Bond

1988; Fang 2003; Lim 2003; Tang 1992, 1993), (b) meet

person’s commitment to doing their duty in society because

the shared value of ‘‘ordering relationship by status and

observing this order’’ lies at their heart (Hofstede and Bond

1988; Fang 2003), (c) adhere to pursuit of whatever goals

they select for themselves, including economic goals, and

(d) accumulate wealth, prestige, status, power, and so on, to

gain respect from others. On the other hand, those scoring

lower on the work-hard dimension and internal-motive

dimension place more importance on values associated

with Confucian teachings that are past and present oriented

(steadiness and stability, protection of face, and respect for

tradition) (Hofstede and Bond 1988). For example, these

individuals could likely detract their attention from getting

on with the business and enhancing their work performance

because they widely concern their faces. Furthermore, they

would be likely to respect traditional Chinese etiquette and

custom widely and overstress personal steadiness and sta-

bility leading to discourage their initiative, risk seeking,

and changeability required of entrepreneurs trying to

exploit the opportunity to develop their business and career

(Hofstede and Bond 1988). Lu et al. (1999) noted that such

Table 4 Results of multiple regression analysis

Variables Dependent variables

Confucian

Dynamism

Long-term

orientation

Short-term

orientation

Guanxiorientation

Hard work 0.13** 0.11*** -0.09*** -0.01

Internal motive 0.20*** 0.17*** -0.13*** -0.02

Admiration of work itself 0.13*** 0.19*** 0.05* -0.07**

Negative attitude to leisure 0.02 -0.02 -0.05 -0.03

Age 0.13* 0.11* -0.07 -0.03

Gender 0.01 0.01 -0.04 0.05

Work experience -0.02 -0.10 -0.07 -0.04

Education -0.02 0.01 0.04 0.04

R2 0.12 0.11 0.06 0.02

Adjusted R2 0.11 0.10 0.06 0.01

F 28.16*** 25.27*** 13.78*** 3.15**

N = 1757. Betas are standardized regression coefficients and represent the coefficients when all the variables are entered simultaneously.

Gender: female = 0, male = 1; age: 17–24 = 1, 25–34 = 2, 35–44 = 3, C45 = 4; work experience: no work experience = 0,

0 \ 5 years = 1, 5–9 years = 2, 10–14 years = 3, 15–19 years = 4, 20–30 years = 5, C30 years = 6; education: diploma and lower = 1,

undergraduate = 2, graduate = 3

* p \ 0.05; ** p \ 0.01; *** p \ 0.001

248 S. Zhang et al.

123

individuals are more likely to confine themselves within

social norms, and also to avoid feelings of guilt which may

arise from nonconformity to local teachings, customs, and

traditions.

Similar to the hard-work and internal-motive dimen-

sions, admiration of work itself dimension was positively

and significantly correlated with long-term orientation of

Confucian Dynamism. The one puzzling result obtained

related to the ‘‘admiration of work itself’’ dimension. This

dimension was also positively and significantly with short-

term orientation of Confucian Dynamism. That is, indi-

viduals who strongly support the views, such as ‘‘there are

few satisfactions equal to the realization that one has done

his or her best at a job’’ and ‘‘money acquired easily (such

as through gambling or speculation) is usually spent

unwisely,’’ are high endorsements with short-term orien-

tation. At face value, this result seems counter-intuitive and

seemingly inconsistent with the various other logical

associations achieved both on individual level (Robertson

2000) and on national and societal level (Hofstede and

Bond 1988). This result appeared inscrutable. Some pos-

sible explanations will be given as follows:. First, as one of

‘‘short-term’’ values (Hofstede and Bond 1988), ‘‘Personal

steadiness and stability’’ in the Chinese culture context

means ‘‘prudence’’ and implies the need for good planning

(Fang 2003). Therefore, people with such characteristic

possibly endorse the statement: ‘‘money acquired easily

(e.g., through gambling or speculation) is usually spent

unwisely’’ (Mirels and Garrett 1971), which item of PWE

loaded on ‘‘admiration of work itself’’ dimension. Second,

‘‘Protecting your face’’ is another trait in short-term ori-

entation (Hofstede and Bond 1988). Face concerns have

received some research attention to date (Lim 2003; Tim-

ing-Toomey and Kurogi 1998; Tata 2000; Hwang 1987; Hu

1944; Redding and Ng 1982). Face shows respect for one’s

social status and reputation in society (Wang et al. 2005).

Face can be acquired or lost. Therefore, individuals with

high endorsement to the value of ‘‘Protecting your face’’

would work hard and even glorify from work itself to

acquire their face.

The negative attitude to leisure dimension of PWE was

negatively but not significantly associated with three

dimensions of Confucian Dynamism. This result indicates

that the individuals who have a strong commitment to view

leisure time with suspicion and mistrust don not accord

with the values of not only short-term orientation and gu-

anxi orientation but also long-term orientation. Given the

assertion by Wang et al. (2005) that Confucian culture

tends to view time as a process of eternity—what really

matters for many Chinese is how life can be made natural

and enjoyable each day—this result appears logical. Fan

(1995) also reported that the highest reward in life for the

Chinese is the spiritual enrichment and serenity derived

from the moderation of one’s living environment. Time is

therefore valuable when it is used for achieving this ulti-

mate human reward, while time is also flexible and

renewable regardless of how much present-day business

presses against it. Furthermore, this finding indicates that

the individuals who firmly recognize the dangers associ-

ated with too much idle time are seen as out of step with

the Confucian world. The Chinese prefer the philosophical

principle of zhongyong or being ‘‘in the middle’’—of

maintaining a balanced and integrated life (Fang 2003).

Therefore, if one is always pressed by time, where is the

quality of life? Moreover, ‘‘Leisure’’ has far-reaching

implications for the Chinese people rather than negative

thing. Confucian values also suggest that human beings

should crave harmony between work and leisure for their

sheer existence and healthy development. The Chinese

people take leisure and amusement—even unprofitable

amusements—as a good chance for their relaxation.

Therefore, even individuals who espouse a high endorse-

ment of long-term orientation may adhere to a positive

attitude to leisure.

Finally, the last unexpected result was about guanxi

orientation of Confucian Dynamism. All the four dimen-

sions of PWE were negatively associated with guanxi. That

is, individuals who endorse the values of PWE view guanxi

with negative attitude. Further, in our findings, the

‘‘admiration of work itself’’ dimension correlated espe-

cially negatively and significantly with guanxi orientation.

This result suggests that individuals who hold the value of

work in high esteem will avow a low endorsement toward

guanxi orientation. Most studies have investigated the

effect of guanxi at all the three levels—the societal, orga-

nizational, and individual levels (Fan 2002; Tsang 1998;

Dunfee and Warren 2001; Warren et al. 2004; Zhang and

Zhang 2006). Our findings about guanxi are inconsistent

with some extant studies. For example, Zhang and Zhang

(2006) concluded that guanxi can influence a firm’s per-

formance indirectly as a special asset owned by an indi-

vidual and when it acts as an ‘‘organizational asset.’’

Guanxi can also bring strategic implications to the firm,

including facilitating strategic implementation, providing

the means to limit transaction costs, and serving as com-

pensation for the lack of a formal institutional framework,

and as a means to access to scarce resources. In addition,

Leung and Wong (2001) proposed that the modern version

of guanxi is not identical to the traditional Confucian form

and should be seen best as a strategic tool to achieve

business goals. Similarly, Luo (1997) suggested that guanxi

constitutes the most effective and efficient marketing tool.

Although in previous empirical studies, a considerable

number of respondents agreed that guanxi is very important

in work and life, they expressed their distaste toward it

(Anderson and Lee 2008). Therefore, it is logical for the

Relationship Between PWE and Confucian Dynamism 249

123

individuals who have a strong regard and reverence for the

value of work to have a less positive attitude toward gu-

anxi. According to the views of Hofstede and Bond (1988),

guanxi, if widely shared as a concern, would detract from

getting on with the work. Also, guanxi is social activity

more concerned with good manners than with performance

(Hofstede and Bond 1988). In addition, excessive guanxi

vulgarizes one’s social networks and can lead to corruption

(Fang 2003). High endorsement to guanxi orientation dis-

tracts one’s attention from work itself. Hence, it is plau-

sible that individuals who score high on guanxi orientation

are more likely to demonstrate low adherence to PWE

values.

Overall, these results suggest that individuals who

strongly support either the values of PWE or the long-term

orientation of Confucian Dynamism, while those weakly

endorsing short-term and guanxi orientations would likely

to get ahead in life and achieve success in the Chinese

settings. The results of this study have some important

managerial implications. An obvious implication is for

employee selection, with the results showing that selecting

employees who strongly support the values of PWE or

Confucian Dynamism is likely to enhance the performance

of individuals, groups, and even organizations. In addition,

this study draws managers’ attention to the significance of

fostering their employees’ work ethics according to the

values of PWE or Confucian Dynamism in developing

training programs and establishing their organizational

culture. Further, human resource managers may be inter-

ested in allocating their personnel according to their PWE

or Confucian Dynamism scores. For example, a person

whose scores are higher in PWE or the long-term orien-

tation of Confucian Dynamism may be well suited for a

position that deals with the technology, budgeting,

accounting, and managing. On the other hand, a person

whose scores are higher in guanxi orientation may be well

suited to be a liaison, disturbance handler, negotiator, or

spokesperson. Finally, our findings have implications for

multicultural business organizations in China. Inasmuch as

national cultural differences predict the success or failure

of multinational business, it would seem that the more we

know about cultural difference in employees’ work ethics,

the better we shall be able to answer ‘‘which individuals are

likely to work well together, and which are likely to be

good at what tasks?’’

In order to understand the relationship between PWE or

Confucian Dynamism and the levels of economic success

of individuals in China and elsewhere, our future research

would measure differences in commitment to PWE or

Confucian Dynamism between managers against different

work performance in China and elsewhere. A manager’s

work ethic plays a crucial role not only in his or her work

performance but also in the economic prosperity of his or

her organization. Therefore, it is important to understand

the attitudes toward PWE or Confucian Dynamism, which

managers hold. Furthermore, researchers should investigate

how PWE or Confucian Dynamism holds up at the indi-

vidual level in four Mini Dragons (Japan, Taiwan, Hong

Kong, and Singapore) where dominant Confucian values

are considered the main driving forces behind their eco-

nomic successes. This is the logical extension of the

present research project. Also, it would be interesting for

future research to explore if variation in commitment to

PWE or Confucian Dynamism for individuals is moderated

by demographic variables, such as gender, age, work

experience, position, income, and so on. Finally,

researchers may choose to replicate this study in a different

cultural environment such as Western countries or to per-

form a similar study to explore the relationship between

Confucian Dynamism and other organizational constructs.

The results of this study strongly supported the notion

that Confucian values are correlated to values of PWE

(Lim and Lay 2003; Lim 2003). Nevertheless, an inherent

limitation involved with this present study, was that the

Confucian Dynamism measure used in this study might not

be completely valid. Although other researchers have also

used this scale, its reliabilities have not been reported

(Ralston et al. 1992; Robertson and Hoffman 2000; Rob-

ertson 2000; Jaw et al. 2007). In this study, the reliabilities

(Cronbach’s alpha) were not especially high. It should be

noted, however, that while low reliability increases the

probability of making a Type II error, a low alpha only

becomes problematic if findings are non-significant (Cook

and Campbell 1979; Williams and Sandler 1995).

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