IRREVERSIBLE LOSS: THREATS TO HUMAN HEALTH &FOOD SECURITY

Zabta K. ShinwariQuaid-i-Azam University

Scenario of Natural Scenario of Natural ResourceResource A large proportion of species in all assessed A large proportion of species in all assessed

taxa are currently threatened with extinction taxa are currently threatened with extinction (12% of birds, 23% of mammals, 32% of (12% of birds, 23% of mammals, 32% of amphibians; 31% of gymnosperms; 33% of amphibians; 31% of gymnosperms; 33% of corals) and the best estimate of population corals) and the best estimate of population trends of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles trends of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and fish indicates that since 1970 global and fish indicates that since 1970 global population sizes have declined by almost 30%.population sizes have declined by almost 30%.

Symbionts of other organisms, extinction of Symbionts of other organisms, extinction of theirtheir

hosts can cause their extinction too.hosts can cause their extinction too.Loh, J. et al. in 2010 and Beyond: Rising to the Biodiversity Challenge (ed. Loh, J.) (Living Planet Index, WWF, 2008).

Reduced Biodiversity Reduced Biodiversity unable to----unable to----

If ecosystems with reduced biodiversity If ecosystems with reduced biodiversity are less able to provide the ecosystem are less able to provide the ecosystem services—such as carbon sequestration, services—such as carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling and resistance to nutrient cycling and resistance to drought—on which humans rely.drought—on which humans rely.

Ecosystem functions decline as Ecosystem functions decline as biodiversity is lost. Reduced disease biodiversity is lost. Reduced disease transmission is an important ecosystem transmission is an important ecosystem service provided by high biodiversity.service provided by high biodiversity.

•(Naeem et al. 2009, Oxford University Press).

Impacts of biodiversity on the Impacts of biodiversity on the emergenceemergence

and transmission of infectious and transmission of infectious diseasesdiseases Current unprecedented declines in biodiversity Current unprecedented declines in biodiversity

reduce the ability of ecological communities to reduce the ability of ecological communities to provide many fundamental ecosystem services.provide many fundamental ecosystem services.

Reduced biodiversity affects the transmission of Reduced biodiversity affects the transmission of infectious diseases of humans, other animals and infectious diseases of humans, other animals and plants.plants.

Evidence indicates that biodiversity loss frequently Evidence indicates that biodiversity loss frequently increases disease transmission.increases disease transmission.

Areas of naturally high biodiversity may serve as a Areas of naturally high biodiversity may serve as a source pool for new pathogens.source pool for new pathogens.

Current evidence indicates that preserving intact Current evidence indicates that preserving intact ecosystems and their endemic biodiversity should ecosystems and their endemic biodiversity should generally reduce the prevalence of infectious generally reduce the prevalence of infectious diseases.diseases.

Keesing et al., Nature vol. 468: Dec., 2010

Emerging Disease Emerging Disease Events-----Events-----

Between 1940 and 2004, over 300 emerging Between 1940 and 2004, over 300 emerging disease events were identified in humans around disease events were identified in humans around the world. Concomitantly, other emerging the world. Concomitantly, other emerging infectious diseases also appeared in wildlife, infectious diseases also appeared in wildlife, domesticated animals, and crop and wild plants. domesticated animals, and crop and wild plants. Emerging infectious diseases include those in Emerging infectious diseases include those in which the pathogen has evolved into a new strain which the pathogen has evolved into a new strain within the same host species, for example, within the same host species, for example, through the evolution of drug resistance through the evolution of drug resistance (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus or (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus or MRSA) or switched to new host species (for MRSA) or switched to new host species (for example, human immunodeficiency virus or HIV, example, human immunodeficiency virus or HIV, severe acute respiratory syndrome or SARS). In severe acute respiratory syndrome or SARS). In some cases, the switch to new host species is some cases, the switch to new host species is accompanied by a change in geographic range accompanied by a change in geographic range (for example, West Nile virus in the Americas).(for example, West Nile virus in the Americas).

Drivers and locations of emergence events for zoonotic infectious diseases in humans from 1940–2005. a,Worldwide %age of emergence events caused by each driver; b, Countries in which the emergence events took place, and the drivers of emergence. The size of the circle represents the number of emergence events: for scale, the number of events in the United States was 59. Globally, almost half of these diseases resulted from changes in land use, changes in agricultural and other food production practices, or through wildlife hunting, which suggests that contact rates between humans and other animals are an important underlying cause of zoonotic disease emergence. ‘Other’ includes international travel and commerce, changes in human demographics and behaviour, changes in the medical industry, climate and weather, breakdown of public health measures, and unspecified causes.

Biodiversity loss may Biodiversity loss may accelerate ---accelerate ---

Infectious disease include a host and a Infectious disease include a host and a pathogen; often many more species are pathogen; often many more species are involved, including additional hosts, involved, including additional hosts, vectors and other organisms with which vectors and other organisms with which these species interact. these species interact.

West Nile virus is a mosquito-transmitted West Nile virus is a mosquito-transmitted virus for which several species of passerine virus for which several species of passerine birds act as hosts. Three recent studies birds act as hosts. Three recent studies detected strong correlations between low detected strong correlations between low bird diversity and increased human risk or bird diversity and increased human risk or incidence of West Nile encephalitis in the incidence of West Nile encephalitis in the United StatesUnited States

Allan, B. F. et al. Ecological correlates of risk and incidence of West Nile virus in the United States. Oecologia 155, 699–708 (2009).

Links between diseases and the Links between diseases and the diversitydiversity

In human bodies, for example, 90% of all cells In human bodies, for example, 90% of all cells are microbial. A number of studies have are microbial. A number of studies have begun to show links between diseases and begun to show links between diseases and the diversity of an organism’s ‘microbiome’. the diversity of an organism’s ‘microbiome’. Changes in the composition of microbiomes Changes in the composition of microbiomes are frequently associated with infection and are frequently associated with infection and disease.disease.

A rich microbial community appears to A rich microbial community appears to regulate the abundance of endemic microbial regulate the abundance of endemic microbial species that can become pathogenic when species that can become pathogenic when overly abundantoverly abundant

Turnbaugh,P. J. et al.Thehumanmicrobiome project.Nature449,804–810(2007).

Biodiversity loss may Biodiversity loss may accelerate ---accelerate ---

For hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, a directly For hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, a directly transmitted zoonotic disease, correlational and transmitted zoonotic disease, correlational and experimental studies have shown that a lower experimental studies have shown that a lower diversity of small mammals increases the diversity of small mammals increases the prevalence of hantaviruses in their hosts, prevalence of hantaviruses in their hosts, thereby increasing risk to humansthereby increasing risk to humans

With species losses increasing the With species losses increasing the transmission of two fungal rust pathogens that transmission of two fungal rust pathogens that infect perennial rye grass and other plant infect perennial rye grass and other plant species (Source: Roscher et al. Oecologia 153, species (Source: Roscher et al. Oecologia 153, 173–183 (2007).173–183 (2007).

Biodiversity loss – it will make Biodiversity loss – it will make you sickyou sick A new generation of antibiotics, new A new generation of antibiotics, new

treatments for thinning bone disease and treatments for thinning bone disease and kidney failure, and new cancer kidney failure, and new cancer treatments may all stand to be lost unless treatments may all stand to be lost unless the world acts to reverse the present the world acts to reverse the present alarming rate of biodiversity loss.alarming rate of biodiversity loss.

The natural world holds secrets to the The natural world holds secrets to the development of new kinds of safer and development of new kinds of safer and more powerful pain-killers; treatments more powerful pain-killers; treatments for a leading cause of blindness – for a leading cause of blindness – macular degeneration – and possibly macular degeneration – and possibly ways of re-growing lost tissues and ways of re-growing lost tissues and organs by, for example, studying organs by, for example, studying amphibians, salamanders etc.amphibians, salamanders etc.

Amphibian speciesAmphibian species Nearly Nearly one thirdone third of the approximately of the approximately 6,000 6,000

known amphibian speciesknown amphibian species are are threatenedthreatened with extinction. with extinction.

Promising Treatment for Peptic Ulcers Promising Treatment for Peptic Ulcers Lost (Lost (Brooding frog (Rheobatrachus)Brooding frog (Rheobatrachus)

AlkaloidsAlkaloids made by species like the made by species like the Ecuadorian Ecuadorian Poison FrogPoison Frog, which could be the , which could be the source of a new and source of a new and novel generation of novel generation of pain-killerspain-killers..

Antibacterial compoundsAntibacterial compounds produced in the produced in the skin ofskin of frogs and toads such as the frogs and toads such as the African African Clawed Frog and South and Central Clawed Frog and South and Central American leaf frogsAmerican leaf frogs..

One compound, known as One compound, known as ziconotideziconotide, is , is thought to be thought to be 1000 times more potent than 1000 times more potent than morphinemorphine and has been shown in clinical and has been shown in clinical trials to provide significant trials to provide significant pain relief for pain relief for advanced cancer and AIDSadvanced cancer and AIDS patients. patients. Another Another cone snailcone snail compound has been compound has been shown in animal models to shown in animal models to protect brain protect brain cells from deathcells from death during times of inadequate during times of inadequate blood flow.blood flow.

Marine snail

BearsBears Several medical benefits have already arisen Several medical benefits have already arisen

from the study of bears, including the from the study of bears, including the development of development of rsodeoxycholic acidrsodeoxycholic acid, found in , found in the the gall bladdersgall bladders of some bear species such of some bear species such as as polar and black bearspolar and black bears, into a medicine., into a medicine.

The substance is used to The substance is used to prevent the build up prevent the build up of bile during pregnancyof bile during pregnancy; ; dissolvedissolve certain certain kinds of kinds of gallstonesgallstones; and ; and prolong the life of prolong the life of patientspatients with a specific kind of liver disease, with a specific kind of liver disease, known as primary biliary cirrhosis, giving known as primary biliary cirrhosis, giving them more time to find a liver transplant.them more time to find a liver transplant.

‘Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity’ Oxford University Press, April 2008

Pakistan: GeographicalPakistan: Geographical Dispersion of DistrictsDispersion of Districts

Forest-based communitiesForest-based communities

Forest communities involved in relatively new initiatives in local Forest communities involved in relatively new initiatives in local

forest management forest management

Over-arching goals such as enrichment of forests, poverty Over-arching goals such as enrichment of forests, poverty

reduction and sustainable livelihoods. reduction and sustainable livelihoods.

However, in Pakistan - forest –based communities getting However, in Pakistan - forest –based communities getting

marginalized in mainstream development with limited optionsmarginalized in mainstream development with limited options

Now exposed to the worst (Extremism vs State actions) Now exposed to the worst (Extremism vs State actions)

Widespread povertySubstantial reliance on remittances from migrant household members.Strong dependence on natural resources e.g. fuelwood, wild foods, medicinal plants, thatching grass, construction timber etc.

Wild plant products formed an important part of household diet.

Socio-economic context:

SUSTAINABLE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ?DEVELOPMENT ?

ENVIRONMENT ECONOMIC

SOCIAL

DEVELOPMENTConservation goals cannot be divorced from economic development.

Biodiversity encompasses the diversity of genes, species and ecosystems.

Plants with weedy traits become Plants with weedy traits become more abundant when plant diversity more abundant when plant diversity declines. Consequently, the very declines. Consequently, the very species that have traits permitting species that have traits permitting persistence in degraded and species-persistence in degraded and species-poor ecosystems are also more likely poor ecosystems are also more likely to carry high pathogen and vector to carry high pathogen and vector burdens.burdens.

Pilgrim, et al., Biol. Conserv. 120, 161–170 (2004).

Link of reduce Biodiversity with invasiveness of species

Sustainability – an ethical Sustainability – an ethical conceptconcept

•We are trustees, or stewards, of the planet's vast resources and We are trustees, or stewards, of the planet's vast resources and biological diversitybiological diversity•We must learn to make use of the earth's natural resources, We must learn to make use of the earth's natural resources, both renewable and non-renewable, in a manner that ensures both renewable and non-renewable, in a manner that ensures sustainability and equity into the distant reaches of time.sustainability and equity into the distant reaches of time.•This requires full consideration of the potential environmental This requires full consideration of the potential environmental consequences of all development activitiesconsequences of all development activities•We must temper our actions with moderation and humilityWe must temper our actions with moderation and humility•The true value of nature cannot be expressed in economic termsThe true value of nature cannot be expressed in economic terms•This requires a deep understanding of the natural world and its This requires a deep understanding of the natural world and its role in humanity's collective development both material and role in humanity's collective development both material and spiritualspiritual•Sustainable environmental management is not a discretionary Sustainable environmental management is not a discretionary commitment we can weigh against other competing interestscommitment we can weigh against other competing interests•It is a fundamental responsibility that must be shouldered, a It is a fundamental responsibility that must be shouldered, a pre-requisite for spiritual development as well as our physical pre-requisite for spiritual development as well as our physical survival.survival.(based on Bahá'í International Community, Valuing Spirituality in Development. A concept paper written for the World Faiths and Development (based on Bahá'í International Community, Valuing Spirituality in Development. A concept paper written for the World Faiths and Development Dialogue, Lambeth Palace, London, 18-19 February 1998Dialogue, Lambeth Palace, London, 18-19 February 1998))

JUSTICE AND EQUITY

• It is unjust to sacrifice the well-being of the It is unjust to sacrifice the well-being of the generality of humankind -- and even of the generality of humankind -- and even of the planet itself -- to the advantages which planet itself -- to the advantages which technological breakthroughs can make technological breakthroughs can make available to privileged minorities.available to privileged minorities.

• Only development programmes that are Only development programmes that are perceived as meeting their needs and as being perceived as meeting their needs and as being just and equitable in objective can hope to just and equitable in objective can hope to engage the commitment of the masses of engage the commitment of the masses of humanity, upon whom implementation humanity, upon whom implementation depends. depends.

• (adapted from Baha'i International Community, (adapted from Baha'i International Community, Prosperity of HumankindProsperity of Humankind))

Solidarity

The poor are most vulnerable to climate The poor are most vulnerable to climate change and least able to protect themselves. change and least able to protect themselves.

We should consider every human being as a We should consider every human being as a trust of the whole.trust of the whole.

The goal of wealth creation should be to The goal of wealth creation should be to make everyone wealthy.make everyone wealthy.

Voluntary giving is more meaningful and Voluntary giving is more meaningful and effective than forced redistribution.effective than forced redistribution.

Moderation in Material Civilization

The civilization, so often vaunted The civilization, so often vaunted by the learned exponents of arts by the learned exponents of arts and sciences, will, if allowed to and sciences, will, if allowed to overleap the bounds of moderation, overleap the bounds of moderation, bring great evil upon menbring great evil upon men.... .... The The day is approaching when its flame day is approaching when its flame will devour the citieswill devour the cities... ...

Bahá'u'lláh (1817-1892)Bahá'u'lláh (1817-1892)

• Global warming is a perfect illustration of Global warming is a perfect illustration of thisthis

Contentment – moderate lifestyles

All faiths have taught the spiritual All faiths have taught the spiritual value of a simple life and value of a simple life and detachment from material things:detachment from material things:

.....be content with little.be content with little, , and be and be freed from all inordinate desirefreed from all inordinate desire..

(Bahá'u'lláh)(Bahá'u'lláh) What does this imply for the consumer What does this imply for the consumer

society and its energy consumption?society and its energy consumption?

Human population growthHuman population growth

24.1 Human population growth

Note correlations in the data.Note correlations in the data.

The Ozone Hole The Ozone Hole Global WarmingGlobal Warming

Climate change will Climate change will bring great bring great

environmental changesenvironmental changes(Aral Sea, from UNEP, GEO 3)(Aral Sea, from UNEP, GEO 3)

• Food insecurityFood insecurity• Water shortagesWater shortages• Terrorism, refugeesTerrorism, refugees• Natural, economic and social Natural, economic and social

disastersdisasters• Loss of biodiversityLoss of biodiversity

Human Impacts of Climate Human Impacts of Climate ChangeChange

An increase in extreme weather events: An increase in extreme weather events: floods, droughts, cyclonesfloods, droughts, cyclones

Less winter snowfall, melting glaciers, Less winter snowfall, melting glaciers, water shortageswater shortages

Changing conditions for agriculture Changing conditions for agriculture and forestry, shifting fish stocksand forestry, shifting fish stocks

Sea level rise, flooding low-lying areas Sea level rise, flooding low-lying areas and islandsand islands

Millions of environmental refugeesMillions of environmental refugees High costs of mitigation and adaptationHigh costs of mitigation and adaptation Greatest impact on the poorGreatest impact on the poor

Global warming is Global warming is driven by our addiction driven by our addiction

to cheap energyto cheap energy Our industrial economy was built on Our industrial economy was built on

cheap energy, mostly from fossil fuelscheap energy, mostly from fossil fuels Transportation, communications, trade, Transportation, communications, trade,

agriculture, heating/cooling, consumer agriculture, heating/cooling, consumer lifestyle all depend on energylifestyle all depend on energy

Energy demand is rising rapidly and the Energy demand is rising rapidly and the supply is shrinkingsupply is shrinking

Global warming is just one more reason Global warming is just one more reason to address the energy challenge urgentlyto address the energy challenge urgently

Adaptation will be extremely expensiveAdaptation will be extremely expensive

Controlling greenhouse Controlling greenhouse gases?gases?

UN Framework Convention on Climate UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (Rio, 1992) call for controlsChange (Rio, 1992) call for controls

Kyoto Protocol on reduction of greenhouse Kyoto Protocol on reduction of greenhouse gases – return emissions to 1990 levels by gases – return emissions to 1990 levels by 20122012

COCO22 emissions rose 4.5% in 2004 to 27.5 b emissions rose 4.5% in 2004 to 27.5 b

tonnes, 26% higher than 1990tonnes, 26% higher than 1990 China and India have doubled COChina and India have doubled CO

22 production since 1990, US +20%, Australia production since 1990, US +20%, Australia +40%+40%

US released 5.8, China 4.5, Europe 3.3, US released 5.8, China 4.5, Europe 3.3, India 1.1 billion tonnes of COIndia 1.1 billion tonnes of CO

22 in 2004 in 2004

Fossil energy use is still Fossil energy use is still growinggrowing

World oil use is growing 1.1%/year, Latin World oil use is growing 1.1%/year, Latin America 2.8%, India 5.4%, China 7.5%America 2.8%, India 5.4%, China 7.5%

From 2001-2020, world oil consumption From 2001-2020, world oil consumption will rise 56%, with OPEC production will rise 56%, with OPEC production doubling, but non-OPEC production has doubling, but non-OPEC production has already peakedalready peaked

Oil provides 40% of world's primary energyOil provides 40% of world's primary energy Two thirds of future energy demand will Two thirds of future energy demand will

come from developing countries where 1.6 come from developing countries where 1.6 billion people have no electricity.billion people have no electricity.

Energy demand and global warming are on Energy demand and global warming are on a collision coursea collision course

Religion and the challenges of today

• - Progressive globalizing of human experience- Progressive globalizing of human experience• - Loss of faith in the certainties of materialism as its - Loss of faith in the certainties of materialism as its

negative impacts become apparentnegative impacts become apparent• - Lack of faith in traditional religion and failure to - Lack of faith in traditional religion and failure to

find guidance there for living with modernityfind guidance there for living with modernity• - Still longing to understand the purpose of existence - Still longing to understand the purpose of existence • - Now there is a sudden resurgence of religion, based - Now there is a sudden resurgence of religion, based

on a groundswell of anxiety and discontent with on a groundswell of anxiety and discontent with spiritual emptiness. spiritual emptiness.

• - Desperate people without hope are easily attracted - Desperate people without hope are easily attracted to radical, intolerant, fanatical movements.to radical, intolerant, fanatical movements.

• - The world is in the grip of a war of civilizations - The world is in the grip of a war of civilizations based on irreconcilable religious antipathiesbased on irreconcilable religious antipathies

• - This situation paralyses our ability to address - This situation paralyses our ability to address global challenges such as climate changeglobal challenges such as climate change

We can chooseWe can choose

• Business as usual in a Business as usual in a materialistic society materialistic society ignoring the futureignoring the future

• Retreating to a fortress Retreating to a fortress world of old valuesworld of old values

• Making a transition to Making a transition to sustainability with science sustainability with science and religion in harmonyand religion in harmony

Age structure in MDCs and Age structure in MDCs and LDCsLDCs

24.1 Human population growth

Our unsustainable societyOur unsustainable society

Population growth in the LDCs is at a high ratePopulation growth in the LDCs is at a high rate Consumption in the MDCs is at a high rateConsumption in the MDCs is at a high rate Agriculture uses a lot of the land, water and fossil fuels Agriculture uses a lot of the land, water and fossil fuels

and produces pollutionand produces pollution Almost ½ of the agricultural yield feeds our farm Almost ½ of the agricultural yield feeds our farm

animalsanimals It takes about 10 lbs of grain to produce about 1 lb of It takes about 10 lbs of grain to produce about 1 lb of

meat therefore the overeating of meat in the MDCs is meat therefore the overeating of meat in the MDCs is wastefulwasteful

Currently we mostly use nonrenewable forms of energy Currently we mostly use nonrenewable forms of energy leading to acid deposition, global warming and smogleading to acid deposition, global warming and smog

As the human population grows we encroach on other As the human population grows we encroach on other species that results in habitat loss and species species that results in habitat loss and species extinctionextinction

24.4 Working toward a sustainable society

The health and demographic impact of biomass The health and demographic impact of biomass fuel use: A crossfuel use: A cross

country comparisoncountry comparison

Indoor air pollution Indoor air pollution

and rural likeand rural like

Dependence on biomass Dependence on biomass

exacts a heavy price on exacts a heavy price on

quality of life and health, quality of life and health,

especially among ruralespecially among rural

population, women and population, women and

childrenchildren

Indoor air pollution from household fuels in Indoor air pollution from household fuels in PakistanPakistan

Household energy use by type of fuel in PakistanHousehold energy use by type of fuel in Pakistan

Indoor smoke 4Indoor smoke 4thth in global ranking in global ranking factors for burden of disease in factors for burden of disease in

developing countries developing countries

disability-adjusted lifeyears (DALYs)

Where we are?Where we are? Countries who learnt lesson from 9173-4 Countries who learnt lesson from 9173-4

oil embargo:oil embargo: Japan drive towards energy efficiencyJapan drive towards energy efficiency France nuclear energy (78% of electricity needs France nuclear energy (78% of electricity needs

& waste is reprocessed)& waste is reprocessed) Brazil ethanol from sugar cane, today between Brazil ethanol from sugar cane, today between

domestic oil production & Ethanol industry it domestic oil production & Ethanol industry it does need to import crude oil.does need to import crude oil.

Denmark political will (CO2 tax)Denmark political will (CO2 tax) 1980s economy grew 70%, energy consumption same1980s economy grew 70%, energy consumption same 16% energy from solar & wind power16% energy from solar & wind power Two of world most innovative manufacturer of Two of world most innovative manufacturer of

enzymes converting biomass to fuel are in Denmarkenzymes converting biomass to fuel are in Denmark 73 they got 99% energy from middle East, today is 73 they got 99% energy from middle East, today is

zerozero

Green house gasesGreen house gases

Fuel from Heaven (come from above Fuel from Heaven (come from above ground)ground) Wind, hydroelectric, tidal, biomass, solar Wind, hydroelectric, tidal, biomass, solar

(renewable, produce no harmfull emissions)(renewable, produce no harmfull emissions)

Fuel from hell (come from undergorund)Fuel from hell (come from undergorund) Coal, oil, gas (emit COCoal, oil, gas (emit CO2 2 & other pollutants.& other pollutants.

Green house gasesGreen house gases Other green house gases (e.g Methan CHOther green house gases (e.g Methan CH44) from ) from

rice farming, petroleum drilling, coal mining, rice farming, petroleum drilling, coal mining, animal defecation, solid waste landfill sites, cattle animal defecation, solid waste landfill sites, cattle belching.belching.

CHCH44 heat trapping power in atmosphere is 21 heat trapping power in atmosphere is 21 times stronger than COtimes stronger than CO2 2

1.3b cows belching in the world1.3b cows belching in the world When cow chew their cud, they re-gurgitate some When cow chew their cud, they re-gurgitate some

food to rechew it (gas comes out)food to rechew it (gas comes out) Avg cow expels 600L CHAvg cow expels 600L CH44 daily daily Trap the sun’s heat near the earth surface before Trap the sun’s heat near the earth surface before

the heat radiates back into space.the heat radiates back into space. Composition of earth’s atmosphere has been Composition of earth’s atmosphere has been

relatively unchanged for 25m years. relatively unchanged for 25m years.

PopulationPopulation Current Current 6.7 b6.7 b (9.2 b in 2050)(9.2 b in 2050) Less dev.Less dev. 5.45.4 (7.9 b in 2050)(7.9 b in 2050) 1.2 b extremely poor (less than 1$ a day); 1.2 b extremely poor (less than 1$ a day);

half live in India-Pak (Pak 50 m).half live in India-Pak (Pak 50 m). 1800 London was world’s largest city (1m)1800 London was world’s largest city (1m) 1960 (111 cities with pop. More than 1m)1960 (111 cities with pop. More than 1m) 1995 (280 cities with 1m & more)1995 (280 cities with 1m & more) 2007 (310)2007 (310) Ten million or more (1975-5; 1995-14 & Ten million or more (1975-5; 1995-14 &

2015-26)2015-26)

Population & Governance Population & Governance Countries where population grow Countries where population grow

rapidly, governance is difficult rapidly, governance is difficult (Afghan; Niger; Congo; Pak).(Afghan; Niger; Congo; Pak).

Population is expected to triple by mid Population is expected to triple by mid centurycentury

Large pop. Results in lack of basic Large pop. Results in lack of basic freedom, basic needs, food, housings, freedom, basic needs, food, housings, edn, employment; so they are attracted edn, employment; so they are attracted to violence, civil unrest & extremisms. to violence, civil unrest & extremisms.

Green house gasesGreen house gases

COCO2 2 Industrial, residential & Industrial, residential & transportationtransportation Go to earth’s atmosphere which is like a Go to earth’s atmosphere which is like a

blanket, regulate planet’s temperatureblanket, regulate planet’s temperature COCO2 2 build up thickens the blanket, build up thickens the blanket,

making globe warmmaking globe warm Deforestation in places like Indonesia & Deforestation in places like Indonesia &

Brazil is responsible for more COBrazil is responsible for more CO2 2 than than all the world’s car, trucks, plans, ships all the world’s car, trucks, plans, ships and trains combined (20% of all global and trains combined (20% of all global emissions)emissions)

EnvironmentalismEnvironmentalism We are running an uncontrolled We are running an uncontrolled

experiment on the only home we have.experiment on the only home we have. We can no longer expect to enjoy We can no longer expect to enjoy

peace & security, economic growth, & peace & security, economic growth, & human rights, if we continue to ignore human rights, if we continue to ignore key problems of energy-climate Era:key problems of energy-climate Era: Energy supply & demand, climate Energy supply & demand, climate

change, energy-poverty & biodiversity change, energy-poverty & biodiversity lossloss

Friedman, 2008

Edible Wild Edible Wild Plants In AsiaPlants In Asia

Use of wild food resources by rural households in Use of wild food resources by rural households in Limpopo Province, South Africa (Hansen 1998): Limpopo Province, South Africa (Hansen 1998):

Wild herbs and vegetables – 92%Wild herbs and vegetables – 92% Wild fruit – 81%Wild fruit – 81% Insects – 77%Insects – 77% Bushmeat – 32%Bushmeat – 32%

Cultivated food crops (Giannecchini 2000);Cultivated food crops (Giannecchini 2000); Homestead garden plots – 98%Homestead garden plots – 98% Large fields outside of village – 89%Large fields outside of village – 89%

Animal ownership (Twine et al. 2003)Animal ownership (Twine et al. 2003) Cattle – 34%Cattle – 34% Goats – 56%Goats – 56%

KING VEGETABLE, INC.KING VEGETABLE, INC.

Wild Mushrooms and Wild Vegetable Products

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

2002 2003 2004 2005

MushroomExports

Wild VegetableExports

In thousand tons

1850

1900

1950

2000

2050

2100

2150

2200

2250

2300

China Exports World Demand

Sun Zhigang, General Manager

Sales SuccessesSales Successes Japan Japan

500 Tons per year500 Tons per year Korea Korea

400 Tons per year400 Tons per year Domestic ChinaDomestic China 3,000 Tons per year 3,000 Tons per year

Company’s Financing: $2.5 million$100M sales in 2007

Partners

Partners with supermarket chains (Wal-mart, Huilian)

• Lack of funding• Funding is insufficient

• Not enough taxonomists, field botanists• Taxonomy is too difficult to learn and to practice

•Requires years to accumulate literature, specimens etc.• Critical resources are scattered and available to only a few

workers•Literature•Herbarium specimens

• There are few centralized sources of information• Lack of Sharing information• Not enough trained HR to domesticate wild plants• Not enough use of modern knowledge in Botanical Research

Impediments to The Impediments to The Biodiversity Conservation in Biodiversity Conservation in

PakistanPakistan

HurdlesHurdles Existing bureaucratic/political proceduresExisting bureaucratic/political procedures

Top-down communication channelsTop-down communication channels

Absence of a pro-poor stance amongst the officialsAbsence of a pro-poor stance amongst the officials

Only Only political willpolitical will can make it happen can make it happen

‘‘Top-down’ system - still the main vehicle of governance. Top-down’ system - still the main vehicle of governance.

Strategic forest management – Institutional forestry rules changed for involving local communities in decision-making/action Bettering access of the poor to NTFPs – Poor worse off in absence of forests -crucial to increase their access to such resources Monitoring food-livelihood security – food-livelihood security implies good forestry Building social capital –nurturing local social bonding Respecting indigenous knowledge – Knowledge/Experience of local communities needs to be respected and integrated into local level decision-making

Common Lessons Learnt:

RevolutionRevolution

Revolution is not a dinner party, not Revolution is not a dinner party, not an essay, nor a painting, nor a piece an essay, nor a painting, nor a piece of emroidery; it cannot be advanced of emroidery; it cannot be advanced softly, gradually, carefully, softly, gradually, carefully, considerately, respectfully, politely, considerately, respectfully, politely, plainly and modestly.plainly and modestly.

--Mao Tse-tung--Mao Tse-tung

"The sun, the moon, and the "The sun, the moon, and the stars, would all have stars, would all have disappeared a long time disappeared a long time ago...if they had happened to ago...if they had happened to have been within the reach of have been within the reach of the predatory human hands". the predatory human hands". (Havelock Ellis, "The Dance of (Havelock Ellis, "The Dance of Life", 1923)Life", 1923)

DandelionDandelion Taraxacum officinaleTaraxacum officinale Parts used: roots, leaves, Parts used: roots, leaves,

flowers, and crowns.flowers, and crowns. No poisonous look-alikesNo poisonous look-alikes Leaves can be eaten raw in Leaves can be eaten raw in

salads, steamed, or sauteed. salads, steamed, or sauteed. Flowers can be made into Flowers can be made into wine or dipped in batter and wine or dipped in batter and deep-fried like fritters. deep-fried like fritters. Roots can be made into a Roots can be made into a coffee substitute.coffee substitute.

Most older leaves can be Most older leaves can be made milder-tasting if made milder-tasting if covered with a bucket or covered with a bucket or other container for a few other container for a few days up to a weekdays up to a week

DandelionDandelion

Has more beta Has more beta carotene than carotene than carrots, more iron carrots, more iron than spinach. Also than spinach. Also has vitamins B-1, B-has vitamins B-1, B-2, B-5, B-6, B-12, C, 2, B-5, B-6, B-12, C, E, P, and D, biotin, E, P, and D, biotin, inositol, potassium, inositol, potassium, phosphorus, phosphorus, magnesium, and magnesium, and zinczinc

WatercressWatercress Nasturtium officinaleNasturtium officinale One of the oldest-One of the oldest-

known leaf vegetables known leaf vegetables eaten by human beingseaten by human beings

Member of the Member of the cabbage family, related cabbage family, related to Mustardto Mustard

contains significant contains significant amounts of iron, amounts of iron, calcium and folic acid, calcium and folic acid, in addition to vitamins in addition to vitamins A and C. A and C.

WatercressWatercress

PlantainPlantain Plantago majorPlantago major Broad leafed plantain, Broad leafed plantain,

also a narrow- leafed also a narrow- leafed speciesspecies

Young leaves are edible Young leaves are edible but not very tastybut not very tasty

More useful in More useful in medicine and first aid; medicine and first aid; has been used to stop has been used to stop bleeding, and to treat bleeding, and to treat burns, skin irritations, burns, skin irritations, bee stings and bee stings and mosquito bites.mosquito bites.

Shepherd’s PurseShepherd’s Purse Capsella bursa-pastorisCapsella bursa-pastoris Relative of mustard, Relative of mustard,

very mild-tasting green. very mild-tasting green. Can be eaten raw in Can be eaten raw in salads, steamed, salads, steamed, sauteed, or cooked in sauteed, or cooked in soups and stews.soups and stews.

provides vitamin C and provides vitamin C and K, some protein, sulfur, K, some protein, sulfur, calcium, iron, and calcium, iron, and sodium. sodium. Used in Medicine to Used in Medicine to

stop bleeding and as stop bleeding and as an astringentan astringentSeed pods are also Seed pods are also edibleedible

MilkweedMilkweed Asclepias syriacaAsclepias syriaca young shoots, young young shoots, young

leaves, flower buds and leaves, flower buds and fresh fruits are all fresh fruits are all edibleedible

primary source of food primary source of food for the caterpillars of for the caterpillars of the monarch butterflythe monarch butterfly

mature stems, leaves mature stems, leaves and pod bark contain and pod bark contain compounds that are compounds that are toxic in large qualities toxic in large qualities and have been known and have been known to poison sheep, cattle, to poison sheep, cattle, and other livestock.and other livestock.

CattailCattail Typha latifoliaTypha latifolia One of the most One of the most

important and important and common wild foodscommon wild foods

The shoots, flower The shoots, flower stalks, rhizomes and stalks, rhizomes and pollen are all ediblepollen are all edible

Wild GingerWild Ginger Asarum speciesAsarum species root can be used in root can be used in

place of `regular' place of `regular' ginger in recipesginger in recipes

despite the name despite the name and similar flavor, and similar flavor, it isn't related to it isn't related to Asian gingerAsian ginger

DaylilyDaylily Hemerocallis fulvaHemerocallis fulva Introduced species, Introduced species,

escaped into wild.escaped into wild. Shoots, buds, flowers and Shoots, buds, flowers and

tubers all edibletubers all edible Use the shoots raw in Use the shoots raw in

salads, or sauté, steam, stir-salads, or sauté, steam, stir-fry, deep-fry, bake, simmer fry, deep-fry, bake, simmer in soups, or pickle.in soups, or pickle.

Cook the unopened buds Cook the unopened buds like green beans.like green beans.

Use the flowers raw in Use the flowers raw in salads, in soups, or deep-salads, in soups, or deep-fried.fried.

If you dig up a lily and it If you dig up a lily and it *doesn’t* have tubers…*doesn’t* have tubers…DON’T eat it, it’s DON’T eat it, it’s poisonous!poisonous!

ArrowheadArrowhead Sagittaria latifoliaSagittaria latifolia Also known as wapato, Also known as wapato,

duck potato, and indian duck potato, and indian potatopotato

The buds and fruits of this The buds and fruits of this plant in late summer are plant in late summer are edible, but plant is mostly edible, but plant is mostly prized for its tubers, which prized for its tubers, which were traditionally were traditionally gathered by wading into gathered by wading into ponds and dislodging them ponds and dislodging them with one’s feet so they’d with one’s feet so they’d float to the surface of the float to the surface of the water.water.

Can be eaten raw but best Can be eaten raw but best when cooked, like the when cooked, like the name suggests, tastes name suggests, tastes almost identical to a almost identical to a potato, but with a slightly potato, but with a slightly nutty taste.nutty taste.

Wild CarrotWild Carrot Daucus carotaDaucus carota Ancestor of cultivated Ancestor of cultivated

carrotscarrots Also called Queen Also called Queen

Anne’s LaceAnne’s Lace Root is edible when Root is edible when

young, then becomes young, then becomes toughtough

Crushed seeds have Crushed seeds have been used since been used since ancient Greece as a ancient Greece as a contraceptive/abortivecontraceptive/abortive, and recent studies , and recent studies have proven this effecthave proven this effect

Jerusalem ArtichokeJerusalem Artichoke Helianthus Helianthus

tuberosustuberosus Member of the Member of the

Sunflower familySunflower family Also called the Also called the

SunchokeSunchoke Cultivated in some Cultivated in some

gardens and found gardens and found wildwild

Produces inulin Produces inulin instead of starchinstead of starch

Amanita MushroomsAmanita Mushrooms Account for 90% of Account for 90% of

mushroom fatalitiesmushroom fatalities With very few With very few

exceptions, amanitas exceptions, amanitas grow on the ground grow on the ground near treesnear trees

Very young amanitas, Very young amanitas, called buttons, resemble called buttons, resemble puffballs, but when you puffballs, but when you cut puffballs open, cut puffballs open, they're undifferentiated they're undifferentiated inside. An amanita inside. An amanita button has a cap, stem, button has a cap, stem, and gills inside.and gills inside.WarningWarning

unless you’re 110% sure you have right species, unless you’re 110% sure you have right species, don’t risk it!don’t risk it!

Amanitas continued…Amanitas continued… Unfortunately even the most Unfortunately even the most

deadly Amanitas supposedly deadly Amanitas supposedly taste wonderful, and taste wonderful, and symptoms don’t appear until symptoms don’t appear until 8-12 hours after ingestion, 8-12 hours after ingestion, when it’s too late.when it’s too late.

amanita toxins prevent cells amanita toxins prevent cells from making new proteins, from making new proteins, which kills them…if untreated which kills them…if untreated death comes after days of death comes after days of suffering from liver and/or suffering from liver and/or kidney failurekidney failure

Doctors can shunt the blood Doctors can shunt the blood through filters to remove the through filters to remove the toxins. They use dialysis to toxins. They use dialysis to replace the kidneys, and give replace the kidneys, and give the patient a liver transplant. the patient a liver transplant. Sometimes the patient can be Sometimes the patient can be savedsaved

Fly AgaricFly Agaric Amanita muscariaAmanita muscaria poisonous, but not deadlypoisonous, but not deadly Various peoples have used mushroom in Various peoples have used mushroom in

shamanic ritualsshamanic rituals Aspects of Santa Claus were inspired by Aspects of Santa Claus were inspired by

this mushroom. His red coat and white this mushroom. His red coat and white buttons symbolize the red mushroom with buttons symbolize the red mushroom with its white patches. Santa flies because the its white patches. Santa flies because the mushroom sometimes creates the mushroom sometimes creates the hallucination of flight. He uses reindeer hallucination of flight. He uses reindeer because they're fond of the mushroom, because they're fond of the mushroom, and herders who eat reindeer that have and herders who eat reindeer that have eaten the mushroom get high too.eaten the mushroom get high too.

The Koryak shaman would bring prepared The Koryak shaman would bring prepared fly agarics to ceremonies in a sack, like fly agarics to ceremonies in a sack, like Santa's bag of toys, and enter the yurt Santa's bag of toys, and enter the yurt (portable circular domed dwelling) (portable circular domed dwelling) through the smoke hole (like a chimney).through the smoke hole (like a chimney).

Santa lives at the North Pole because for Santa lives at the North Pole because for most Europeans, Siberia might as well be most Europeans, Siberia might as well be the North Pole. And in Europe today, the North Pole. And in Europe today, Christmas cards still often depict the fly Christmas cards still often depict the fly agaricagaric

ChanterellesChanterelles Cantharellus cibariusCantharellus cibarius Found in summer and Found in summer and

fall on the ground in fall on the ground in Oak, Conifer and Oak, Conifer and Beech forestsBeech forests

Often sent to France Often sent to France to be canned, and are to be canned, and are then imported back then imported back into the US as over-into the US as over-priced `French priced `French Gourmet Mushrooms’Gourmet Mushrooms’

Fried Chicken MushroomFried Chicken Mushroom Lyophyllum decastesLyophyllum decastes very prolific in fall very prolific in fall

and spring.and spring. found in grassy found in grassy

areas and on areas and on disturbed soildisturbed soil

best used in soups, best used in soups, stews, and sauces. stews, and sauces.

Not so good fried Not so good fried because of chewy because of chewy texturetexture

Honey MushroomHoney Mushroom

Armillaria melleaArmillaria mellea comes in two main comes in two main

varieties: brown and varieties: brown and yellowyellow

found in fall at the foot found in fall at the foot of living or dead trees of living or dead trees or stumps, especially or stumps, especially OaksOaks

Like previous, best Like previous, best used in soups, sauces used in soups, sauces and stews, but good and stews, but good fried toofried too

MorelsMorels Morchella speciesMorchella species Considered a choice Considered a choice

edibleedible Cut in half; should be Cut in half; should be

hollow from top to hollow from top to bottombottom, , with no with no division between the division between the cap and stem.cap and stem.

Found in old orchards, Found in old orchards, near dead trees, in near dead trees, in soils with limestone in soils with limestone in itit

Morels…Morels… Are particularly prone Are particularly prone

to appear after forest to appear after forest fires…fires…

So much in fact that in So much in fact that in the 19the 19thth century the century the Russian government Russian government passed a law making it passed a law making it illegal to burn down illegal to burn down forest areas, which forest areas, which people were doing to people were doing to harvest the morels that harvest the morels that would pop up the would pop up the following year.following year.

Hen of the WoodsHen of the Woods Grifola frondosaGrifola frondosa Grows in almost all the Grows in almost all the

USA, in the fall at the USA, in the fall at the bases of deciduous bases of deciduous trees; living or deadtrees; living or dead

Ranges in size from 3 Ranges in size from 3 to up to 50 poundsto up to 50 pounds

Sold as Maitake Sold as Maitake mushrooms in mushrooms in specialty foods and specialty foods and health storeshealth stores

PuffballsPuffballs Calvatia giganteanCalvatia gigantean Cut open before eating Cut open before eating

to distinguish puffballs to distinguish puffballs from inedible (but not from inedible (but not deadly) earthstars, and deadly) earthstars, and deadly amanita in their deadly amanita in their button stages.button stages.

When cut open a When cut open a puffball will be solid puffball will be solid white throughout with a white throughout with a texture like cream texture like cream cheese. A button cheese. A button Amanita will have a Amanita will have a stem inside. stem inside.

Oyster MushroomsOyster Mushrooms Pleurotus Pleurotus

ostreatusostreatus Choice mushroomChoice mushroom Looks, smells and Looks, smells and

tastes like what it’s tastes like what it’s named afternamed after

Used in recipes as Used in recipes as a Vegan substitute a Vegan substitute for seafoodfor seafood

Can be found all Can be found all year round.year round.

WintergreenWintergreen

Gaultheria procumbensGaultheria procumbens Most `wintergreen’ Most `wintergreen’

flavorings used today flavorings used today come from the sap from come from the sap from Sweet Birch treesSweet Birch trees

The leaves are made The leaves are made into tea, and the into tea, and the berries (perfectly berries (perfectly edible) can be made edible) can be made into pies, jellies and into pies, jellies and tartstarts

Food from Leaves and Food from Leaves and Young ShootsYoung Shoots

Rumex spp.Rumex spp. - - The bitter succulent leaves were roasted . The bitter succulent leaves were roasted . (Y (Young oung leaves of some species are more edible, and even used to be leaves of some species are more edible, and even used to be cultivated as a vegetable in Europe.  A native African dock, cultivated as a vegetable in Europe.  A native African dock, 'Abyssinian spinach', 'Abyssinian spinach', R. abyssinicusR. abyssinicus has been domesticated.) has been domesticated.) Zygadenus venenosusZygadenus venenosus. Don't eat what you don't 'know' is safe!). . Don't eat what you don't 'know' is safe!). Murderous tribal wars were fought over this resource.Murderous tribal wars were fought over this resource. SedgeSedge, , ?  ?  Scirpus spScirpus sp. -  grows in damp and marshy places by lakes. . -  grows in damp and marshy places by lakes. The young shoots are edible.The young shoots are edible. Phragmites communisPhragmites communis, a plant of damp places and lake shores, a plant of damp places and lake shores MintMint, , Mentha sp.Mentha sp. Wild parsnipWild parsnip, , ??Phellopterus montanus,Phellopterus montanus, Amaranthus spp.Amaranthus spp. - the young - the young leaves are very mild.leaves are very mild. Lamb's quarterLamb's quarter, , Chenopodium albumChenopodium album - An introduced annual. The - An introduced annual. The leaves are quite mild.leaves are quite mild. MustardMustard, , Brassica campestrisBrassica campestris - the lower leaves, or very young - the lower leaves, or very young plants, which are least hot, are eaten.plants, which are least hot, are eaten. Wild lettuceWild lettuce, , Mimulus guttatusMimulus guttatus - a low growing plant found on wet - a low growing plant found on wet ground, the leaves are like a somewhat bitter watercress.ground, the leaves are like a somewhat bitter watercress. PeppergrassPeppergrass, , Lepidium freemontiiLepidium freemontii - A small land cress with 'hot' - A small land cress with 'hot' tasting leavestasting leaves Wood sorrelWood sorrel, , Usually, Usually, Oxalis sp.Oxalis sp. ? ? Oxalis tuberosa Oxalis tuberosa, or , or O. enneaphyllaO. enneaphylla. . (Oxalis species leaves and bulbs were once commonly eaten wherever (Oxalis species leaves and bulbs were once commonly eaten wherever in the world they were found - Africa has around 130 indigenous in the world they were found - Africa has around 130 indigenous species - in spite of their oxalic acid content.)species - in spite of their oxalic acid content.)

Solomon's sealSolomon's seal, , ??Polygonatum giganteumPolygonatum giganteum - the very young shoots - the very young shoots of the related European of the related European P. officinaleP. officinale were used like asparagus; were used like asparagus; perhaps the Paiute used perhaps the Paiute used P. gigantuemP. gigantuem the same way. (The the same way. (The rhizomatous roots of rhizomatous roots of P. giganteumP. giganteum are also starchy, and were used are also starchy, and were used by the Ainu people of Northern Japan as a food source. by the Ainu people of Northern Japan as a food source. P. P. giganteumgiganteum grows in both Asia and America) grows in both Asia and America) PurslanePurslane, , Probably Probably Portulacca oleraceaPortulacca oleracea, a sour tasting introduced , a sour tasting introduced annual weed with succulent crisp textured leaves; possibly annual weed with succulent crisp textured leaves; possibly Portulacca retusaPortulacca retusa, known to be used by tribes in the Southwest as a , known to be used by tribes in the Southwest as a vegetable, or vegetable, or Calandrinia sp.Calandrinia sp. - adapted to dry western parts of USA. - adapted to dry western parts of USA. Or maybe even Or maybe even Lewisia redivivaLewisia rediviva, a purslane more commonly known , a purslane more commonly known as 'bitter root', altho' it is usually harvested for its very nourishing as 'bitter root', altho' it is usually harvested for its very nourishing flour (in spite of its common name!), rather than as a vegetable.flour (in spite of its common name!), rather than as a vegetable. Bracken fernBracken fern, , Pteridium aquilinumPteridium aquilinum - the very young shoots ('fiddle - the very young shoots ('fiddle heads') are eaten raw or cooked, when they taste like somewhat heads') are eaten raw or cooked, when they taste like somewhat bitter asparagus.bitter asparagus. Sow thistleSow thistle, , Sonchus spSonchus sp. - very young leaves are edible.. - very young leaves are edible. ChickweekChickweek, , Stellaria mediaStellaria media - a common small annual plant with - a common small annual plant with vaguely cabbage tasting leaves.vaguely cabbage tasting leaves. nettle, nettle, ??Urtica sp.Urtica sp. - in other countries, fresh nettle tops are - in other countries, fresh nettle tops are regarded as a very nutritious spring 'spinach', usually used in soup.regarded as a very nutritious spring 'spinach', usually used in soup. Wild violetWild violet.. Viola spViola sp., possibly ., possibly V. palmataV. palmata, or , or V. papailionaceaV. papailionacea - - While viola flowers, at least, have been used in food in Medieval While viola flowers, at least, have been used in food in Medieval time, the roots are poisonous - except the mucilaginous roots of time, the roots are poisonous - except the mucilaginous roots of V. V. palmatapalmata.. The basal leaves ofThe basal leaves of V. papailionaceaV. papailionacea  are still collected for greens today. They are quite   are still collected for greens today. They are quite extraordinarily rich in vitamin A.extraordinarily rich in vitamin A.

Food from Roots and Food from Roots and TubersTubers

Wild onionWild onion, , ?Allium validum?Allium validum - 'swamp onion'. - there are many - 'swamp onion'. - there are many species of wild onion, most have small bulbs, and are found in a species of wild onion, most have small bulbs, and are found in a variety of habitats, depending on the species.variety of habitats, depending on the species. Mariposa lilyMariposa lily, , Calochortus sp.Calochortus sp. - 'Indian potato'.- a wide ranging - 'Indian potato'.- a wide ranging genus with corms that can be eaten raw or cooked. They can genus with corms that can be eaten raw or cooked. They can also be dried and pounded into flour.also be dried and pounded into flour. CamasCamas, , Camassia spCamassia sp. - a bulbous plant of damp places, marshes . - a bulbous plant of damp places, marshes and lake edges. The bulbs were baked, or cooked and dried and and lake edges. The bulbs were baked, or cooked and dried and the flour extractedthe flour extracted. . BrodiaeaBrodiaea, , a pretty flowering 'bulb', most species of which are a pretty flowering 'bulb', most species of which are edible. They produce their edible corms in a wide range of edible. They produce their edible corms in a wide range of habitats, according to the species.habitats, according to the species. PrimrosePrimrose, , ??Primula sp.Primula sp. In Europe the leaves and flowers of In Europe the leaves and flowers of 'cowslip', 'cowslip', P. verisP. veris, have a history of use as salad greens. , have a history of use as salad greens. Water parsleyWater parsley, , Oenanthe sarmentosaOenanthe sarmentosa - the black tubers are said - the black tubers are said to have a 'cream-like taste'. The leaves and stems are also to have a 'cream-like taste'. The leaves and stems are also edible, tasting a bit like celery. Some similar looking species are edible, tasting a bit like celery. Some similar looking species are poisonous.poisonous. Balsam rootBalsam root (Oregon Sunflower), (Oregon Sunflower), ? possibly a species of ? possibly a species of sunflower, sunflower, HelianthusHelianthus. Many sunflower species have edible . Many sunflower species have edible roots.roots. WocusWocus (water lily) (water lily) N. advenaN. advena - the roots are starchy, and can be - the roots are starchy, and can be baked, grilled, pounded for flour, or stored whole for winter usebaked, grilled, pounded for flour, or stored whole for winter use

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Unsafe water and hygiene

Alcohol

Physical inactivity

High Body Mass Index

Low fruit and vegetable intake

Unsafe sex

Underweight

Cholesterol

Tobacco

Blood pressure

Millions of deaths per year

Top 10 leading risk Top 10 leading risk factorsfactors 2.7 million

deaths per year