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Issues and Challenges in InitialTeacher EducationTony Edwards aa Professor in the School of Education , University ofNewcastlePublished online: 02 Aug 2006.

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Cambridge Journal of Education, Vol. 22, No. 3, 1992 283

Issues and Challenges in InitialTeacher EducationTONY EDWARDSProfessor in the School of Education, University of Newcastle

It has been made impossible not to question whether Initial Teacher Education(ITE) "has a future at all in anything like its present institutional forms" (Edwards,1990, p. 180). Whereas the 'old' Conservative Party might have deferred to EdmundBurke's principle that institutions of long standing deserve respect because theircontinued existence carried some presumption of usefulness, the 'new' Conservatismis inclined to suspect traditional practices of embodying a self-protective resistanceto improvement. Certainly the Government's recent approach to teacher educationhas shown a marked taste for confrontation. It is a stance which has been promptedand encouraged by a polemical campaign—too systematically repetitive in its maincharges not to be characterised in this way—which has prepared the ground for theradical changes recently proposed by portraying specialised colleges and depart-ments as not only unnecessary for the training of teachers but as a continuing refugefor outmoded egalitarian and progressive ideas.

It is now the Government's intention to reduce the scope of higher education's(HE) contribution to ITE. It proposes to make training more "practical" byincreasing the time spent in schools, focusing it on the "competences of teaching",giving lead responsibility to "the school and its teachers" from the selection ofstudents through to the assessment of their performance, and supporting thatenhanced role by an appropriate "shift of funds" from HE (Department ofEducation and Science, [DES], 1992).

This paper is written from the HE side of that altered training partnership, butI have tried to avoid being defensive about the changes in prospect. It is certain thatITE will become more 'school-based', though it remains uncertain how that sloganis to be interpreted. It is right that the respective contributions of schools and HEshould be defined more clearly than in the past, and within a 'more equal'partnership. I will argue, however, that maintaining a strong HE contribution iscritically important for the status and practice of teaching. The argument beginswith the familiar defence, unlikely to carry much weight with a Governmentsuspicious of 'producer interests', that its standing as a profession needs a substan-tial academic base.

At a time when sociology of education was almost as prominent in it as ITE'scurrent detractors believe it still to be, the professional status of teaching was a

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common syllabus item. The conventional wisdom was to categorise it as no morethan a semi-profession because teachers lacked that control over entry (and overviolations of the professional code) which the 'great' professions enjoyed. They alsolacked a body of abstract knowledge, largely created and organised by the professionitself, which is sufficiently impressive and sufficiently mysterious to keep the publicat a respectful distance and officials from being too intrusive. It is ironic thereforethat at a time when the long campaign for a general teaching council has gainedmomentum and gathered a wide constituency of support, so important a movetowards professional self-government has been countered by unprecedented govern-ment intervention in professional training and conditions of service (Grace, 1991).

In England and Wales, the creation of a largely graduate profession has beenachieved through devolving both the provision and accreditation of ITE to institu-tions of HE, with no central control over the content of training and no collectiveprofessional voice in it either. The creation of CATE (the Council for theAccreditation of Teacher Education) in 1984 greatly increased the first, by provid-ing a mechanism through which the Secretary of State's criteria could be enforcedand by (in effect) imposing HMI inspection on 'autonomous' universities. It didnothing for professional control, since the CATE's membership explicitly excluded'representatives' of relevant professional bodies and effectively disfranchised teachereducators and teacher associations except in so far as they came into the accredita-tion process through the local committees. The reshaped CATE 2 of 1989, althoughgiven a more professional full-time staff, had a smaller membership which has beendeliberately weighted with overt critics of existing courses. While less intrusive inits detailed enquiries, it has also been more proactively radical in its commitment tochange. The 1992 version appears sensible in so far as accreditation by institutionreplaces accreditation by the documentation of good intentions, and provided thatthe revised criteria do not again become unmanageably numerous and specific. Thediscontinuing of the local committees, however, raises a question about whatsafeguards there will be against any tendency from the Council to politicise teachereducation and impose a single orthodoxy.

Although it is clear that accredited patterns of training will be more 'school-based' than most existing courses have been, that term has still to be defined andunderstood. It would be unfortunate if more attention continued to be given tocounting days in school than to deciding which components of ITE gain from beingfocused on a particular school and which gain from a wider frame of reference.Secondary Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) courses, which is wherereform begins, are already (on average) about 50% 'school-based', and those oftencited as being exemplary in this respect (for example, at Oxford and SussexUniversities) involve significantly less time in schools than the Government's initial80% prescription. And as recent surveys have indicated, more time in school is notnecessarily related either to better training or even to the school's role beingextended much beyond the traditional provision, supervision and assessment ofpractical teaching (Her Majesty's Inspectorate [HMI], 1991; Barrett et al, 1992).Much more important is that schools should be fully involved in planning andimplementing a coherent training programme, and in assessing its outcomes. More

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Initial Teacher Education: challenges 285

equal partnerships of this kind have been developing voluntarily (Booth et al.,1990), though they remain in a minority. They will be a consequence anyway of theindependence of locally managed schools and of mounting pressures on them to costthe services they provide. The clearer complementary roles which are so desirableprofessionally will therefore be unavoidable as part of the funding for ITE isallocated to schools, and as explicit contracts replace what have normally beenvaguely defined contributions based on goodwill.

The 'more equal' partnership proposed in the Government's ConsultationDocument was welcomed 'in principle' from both sides of it. That qualifying phrasereflects, not the familiar tactic of affirming consent to an evidently good thing whilehoping that nothing much will happen, but a realistic appreciation that if change isto go beyond merely spending more time in school then significantly differentarrangements will take time to establish. There is therefore almost completeagreement that the Government's initial timetable would be unworkable even ifschools were not coping simultaneously with unprecedented changes in theirfunding, organisation and curriculum, and that it reflects a failure to think throughthe many practical problems which HMI identify as having to be solved before therecan be "any general increase in the involvement of schools" (HMI, 1991, para. 5).These include the selection of suitable schools (by HE institutions, according tocriteria which must be made explicit), because those which have the 'best' examina-tion results or National Curriculum test scores may not be the best for training newteachers, and because departments within the same secondary school may be ofvariable quality. Once chosen, the school will need the 'mentor' training, and theextra resources (especially of staff time), to support enhanced contributions to ITEwithout too great a diversion of effort from its 'prime purpose' of teaching pupils.Perhaps most difficult of all is the problem of how best to translate the reforms toprimary education when so many schools are too small to provide a broad trainingbase, and when the extent of students' new learning—for example, of NationalCurriculum subjects and their assessment—seems to point more firmly to theconcentration of training than to its dispersal. Yet if patterns of ITE for primaryand secondary schools diverge too widely, thus making it impossible (for example)for tutors to work across both, this would seem to be in unfortunate contrast to thestimulus which the National Curriculum has given to planning children's learning'from 5 to 16'.

Practical problems on the other side of the partnership begin with questionsabout whether 'lead' responsibilities in selecting, teaching and assessing students canbe transferred outside the institutions making the final award while that awardremains an HE qualification. It has been argued, for example by David Hargreaves(1990) and Mary Warnock (1988), that it is because existing arrangements rein-force the inferior professional status of teachers that full control over initial trainingshould be transferred to schools under the supervision of a general teaching council.But while a larger, formal role for schools has been firmly supported throughout theconsultation process, and is seen (for example, in the Association of MetropolitanAuthorities' response) as strengthening the profession's own understanding of the'complexity and depth' of the expertise demanded of its members, a strong

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complementary base in HE is still generally regarded as indispensable to profes-sional status. There is a considerable and immediate risk that the 'shift of funds' toschools, within a national ITE allocation which the Government has yet to recognisewill have to be increased to meet the greater cost of its reformed pattern of training,will erode the range and depth of expertise required of HE institutions.

Given the heavy reliance on assertion in the Government's presentation of itsreforms, it is not unreasonable to ask whether traditional routes into teaching havefailed so conspicuously and irredeemably that radical reconstruction is now the onlyremedy? The existing system, while undoubtedly open to substantial improvement,is not 'known' to have failed. Thus HMI's general judgement on the ITE coursesrecently visited was that most were "satisfactory or better", although 10% had"some shortcomings in important areas" (HMI, 1991, para. 65); the proportionscompare favourably with other forms of professional training which HMI inspect.Despite claims to the contrary from other sources, there has been no persistentcriticism from schools or local education authorities (LEAs) that training isirrelevantly 'theoretical'. Indeed, the schools surveyed by HMI in 1987 judged 95%of their new recruits to have been "adequately equipped for the job they wererequired to do" (HMI, 1988, p. 25). It will be interesting to see what emerges fromthe subsequent survey still to be reported, though any differences will be hard tointerpret because changes in schools will have altered what new teachers are'required to do'.

The supply of qualified new recruits has been maintained and recentlyincreased, despite Ministerial assertions that many potential teachers are deterredfrom training by the excessively 'theoretical' nature of courses. It is true that 'non-conventional' routes, in part-time, condensed and Articled Teacher forms, havebeen targeted at 'non-conventional entrants' and have been partly successful incasting the recruiting net more widely. But while important in some shortage areasand shortage subjects, they remain a very small part of the national system. Muchmore significant has been the increasing integration of teaching into the graduatelabour market, so that teacher supply has become much more sensitive to employ-ment opportunities, pay and conditions in other occupations, and entry to teachertraining as much a general economic indicator as evidence of the attractiveness ofthe option itself. The recent large increase in applications, 50% up in May 1992compared with May 1991, is a clear reflection of an economic upturn yet to begin.Nevertheless, it is at least as reasonable to see recruitment being endangered if entryto this most difficult of occupations becomes too abrupt or takes on too much of theappearance of a craft apprenticeship as to see it threatened by what Kenneth Clarke,in his speech to the 1992 North of England Education Conference, termed "theorthodoxies of the past".

The counter-argument can be reinforced by questioning the imposition on theentire system of an essentially untried model of training, the Articled TeacherScheme which most closely resembles it having not yet been thoroughly evaluated asto whether it produces demonstrable benefits in quality to offset the loss ofeconomies of scale. As the Modes of Teacher Education research team haveindicated, there is no useful evidence associating particular forms of training with

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levels of beginner competence or with the kinds of teacher produced (Barrett et ah,1992). In that context of speculation unsupported by evidence, particular objectioncan be made to the assumption that making the training more school-based is bysome irresistible process to make it better.

An ITE 'insider' arguing in this way is liable to have the objections dismissed asspecial pleading, especially as the campaign against teacher education has been partof an ideologically driven onslaught on an 'educational establishment' given almostmythical status and influence. In this wider context 'facts' are irrelevant, belief all-important, and the main beliefs have been proclaimed too insistently to need muchrepetition here. Briefly, and using Anthony O'Hear's (1991) recent pamphlet asillustration because of his current membership of CATE, those whom he describesas the "permanent and tenured citizens of Scholesia" are also described as being"hell-bent on forcing every child into a uniform and uniformly mediocre educa-tional mould" (p. 34). Such critics' professed devotion to academic standards makesit the more ironic that their campaign has been conducted in so intellectually shoddya manner, conspicuously marked by those prime characteristics of propaganda—thecaricaturing of what is being attacked, and the construction of a homogeneouscategory of 'people like that' who are made a convenient scapegoat for the troublesof the time. Thus The Times editorial (6 January 1992) was prompted to locate themain "ideology on the march" in education, not in a traditional 'educationalestablishment' imposing past orthodoxies, but among its self-chosen opponentswhom it described as "a politically-minded minority... determinedly imposing itsdogmas about teaching methods and classroom organisation" regardless of pupils,parents or teachers.

Teacher education would be much easier for its practitioners, though certainlynot for that reason any more effective, if there were indeed a ready-made store oforthodox practices to be confidently transmitted. In fact, it has been marked bydifferences about what should complement practical school experience which havedeepened as the retreat from the foundation disciplines gathered pace. Thesedifferences, which do not make it easy to argue back against those who simply'know' how teachers should be trained because they grossly oversimplify whatteaching is, nevertheless arise from recognising the complexity of teachers' work andof the settings in which that work is done. The rest of this paper outlines the scopeof the training which that complexity demands.

In justifying his inclusion of teaching among the semi-professions, Goode(1969) noted as a major obstacle to 'full' professional status the undeveloped natureof pedagogical theory. Since that time, research has added greatly to understandinghow teachers use questioning exchanges and other strategies to control what islearned and what discontinuities there may be between the communicative demandsof classrooms and pupils' experience of how language is used in their 'home world'(examples which reflect the writer's interests rather than any judgement about peaksof research achievement). What it has not done, and not generally set out to do, is toprovide a stock of expert solutions to 'common' classroom problems. As Schon(1987) has noted, status in HE normally goes to "systematic, preferably scientificknowledge" which is created on "high" ground and then brought "down" to be

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applied to "well-structured" problems, whereas professional training has to enablethose undergoing it to cope creatively with situations marked above all by "uncer-tainty, uniqueness, and value conflict". If that makes professional knowledge seemless than precise and rigorous, then that is an unavoidable consequence of themessiness and unpredictability of the problems to which it relates.

But that is no argument for dismissing 'theory' as irrelevant. Through the oftenvague rhetoric surrounding the concept of the "reflective practitioner" which nowdominates ITE (Barrett et ah, 1992) is an insistence that professional actionappropriate and effective in particular circumstances is constructed (or generated)within a framework of knowledge and understanding which draws both on theteacher's practical experience and on a wider frame of reference. From thisperspective, theory is not a set of generalisations from which applications directlyrelevant to particular cases can be selected, but a continuing process of self-criticalreflection on practice from which some reshaping of subsequent practice mayemerge. It is not something apart from teaching as the Government's ConsultationDocument implied (though it avoided the crass error of assigning 'practice' toschools and 'theory' to HE). Rather, it is something all teachers do more and lesssystematically and explicitly, and from varying resources of classroom experienceand professional knowledge.

That approach is in sharp contrast to the more mechanical versions ofprofessional competence, in which a set of technical operations are assessed againstclosely specified criteria drawn from detailed analysis of the demands of the job. Inannouncing his own initiative on teacher training, the Scottish Education Ministerhoped to see expressed "in simple and straightforward terms, the skills andcompetences with which a newly qualified teacher should be equipped, and whichare essential for good classroom teaching". These should then be set before studentsas objectives which their training should allow them to reach, and used in judgingthe effectiveness of that training (Scottish Office, 1992). It is unclear how compre-hensive such a list could be. Thus a leading advocate of "outcomes models" ofprofessional training which cover "all the things we want people to learn" to meettypical occupational demands, admits the difficulty of defining at professional levelsof National Vocational Qualification the knowledge which "underpins" competentperformance (Jessup, 1991). An Annex to the DES Consultation Document (1992)sets out the "competences expected of newly qualified teachers". In the main text,there is a brief reference to the difficult task of "defining competences that areprecise and capable of assessment without being excessively detailed and over-prescriptive". There is no reference to the scope of any "underpinning" knowledgewhich might matter profoundly without being "precisely" measurable. Yet it is hardto see how such supposedly observable competences as "setting appropriatelydemanding tasks" and devising "an appropriate range of teaching strategies" can beseparated from a well-informed understanding of how children learn—at differentstages in their development, and in different social and cultural circumstances—onwhich those decisions should be based.

A great deal of 'competent' classroom practice comes, with experience, fromteachers' knowing what works without necessarily knowing why it works or being

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able to justify explicitly doing things that way. There are also routines and rituals, atthe technician end- of practice, which can be at least partly learned from observingexperienced practitioners. But important as this 'craft knowledge' is, especially fornew teachers because so much of it relates directly to classroom management, it isincomplete. Its sufficiency for some critics of ITE, provided there is also adequate"knowledge and love" of the subject to be taught (O'Hear, 1988), depends on amodel of teaching as an unproblematic passing down of 'authorised' knowledge andskills. Yet even for secondary teachers whose degrees seem directly relevant to afoundation subject in the National Curriculum, a difficult process of transformationis needed before the subject as learned becomes the subject to be taught. This mayinvolve a different, even a deeper, understanding of the intellectual structure of thesubject and what it can contribute to a balanced curriculum. It is also likely toinvolve a great deal of new content—and not only for the more obvious cases of, forexample, physicists teaching 'science', engineering graduates teaching technology ormathematics, 'literature' graduates teaching English or a foreign language to attain-ment targets which place more emphasis on 'language', and graduates in anydiscipline who have to meet the polymathic demands of Key Stages 1 and 2. Bothsubject knowledge and its application are therefore at the centre of ITE, and areinseparable from the study of pedagogy—a term used more fluently in some otherlanguages than in English to refer to a general understanding of the complexprocesses of teaching and learning. Alongside these essential components should liean introduction to the heavy pastoral demands made even on new teachers, and tothe organisational, cultural and political contexts in which those teachers will work.There should also be an introduction to competing ideas about the nature anddilemmas of 'education' which will help them to define (at least provisionally) thekind of teacher they wish to be and to position themselves (again provisionally)within the discourse of legitimate disagreements about "true" education, "good"practice, "real" knowledge, and the nature of the "academic" and the "vocational"—to borrow only four terms from O'Hear's (1991) use of them as though theirmeaning were self-evident.

Even initial teacher education needs this scope if it is to provide a strongfoundation for continuing professional development. While it also needs a divisionof labour between the training partners very much more complex and subtle thanassigning 'craft knowledge' and classroom practice to schools, the contributions ofHE institutions should nevertheless be complementary and distinctive. They shouldcome essentially from making reference to and drawing on evidence from a widerrange of contexts, curriculum developments and teaching strategies than any schoolcan provide; from making the theories embedded in practice more explicit than theyoften are by even the best practitioners, and so more open to enquiry; and fromencouraging in new teachers an investigative, self-critical approach to their teachingwhich should draw on their tutors' own commitment to research. There is noimplication here that practising teachers may not exemplify that approach, and thebest 'mentors' (whether formally designated or not) provide very much more than agood example (Mclntyre, 1990). Indeed, it is argued that schools have never beenbetter prepared to take over the task of training new teachers, because both the

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challenge of the National Curriculum and the delegation of responsibility for staffdevelopment have heightened professional self-awareness (Beardon et al., 1992).Yet it can also be argued that constraints on reflective practice have never beengreater either, as schools cope with simultaneous innovations and mounting pressureon resources. In such conditions, attention is understandably focused on theproblems of the moment. And the immediate relevance to particular circumstanceswhich the school-based components of training provide needs to be complementedby a broader view, and by some active consideration of alternative forms oforganisation and practice. Selective quoting allowed Kenneth Clarke to cite HMI'sconclusion (1991, p. 5) that "the principle of school-based training is sound, andcan be put into practice effectively". Selective non-quoting allowed him to ignoreHMI's accompanying warning that early and heavy immersion in teaching makes ithard for students to reconcile those immediate demands "with the need to readwidely and develop their professional knowledge".

Current concern about the scope of that professional knowledge has to beunderstood in the context of the teaching profession's long struggle to place trainingsecurely within HE, and to resist any revival of "extinct and ineffective forms ofapprenticeship" (Taylor, 1991, p. 63). Diminishing that academic base would be insharp contrast both to what has happened in other professions, and to the develop-ment of ITE elsewhere in Europe. In this country, there has been a tendency fromtime to time to confine the curriculum of teacher education to 'practical' tasks,especially those of classroom management, and thereby crowd out those 'studies'which might encourage and equip teachers to understand, and where necessary toquestion, the policies and constraints under which they work. That tendency may berevived by an increasing emphasis in both initial and continuing professionaldevelopment on "the school and its teachers", without regard for what may need abroader perspective and a certain critical distance from things as they are. Theimportance of countering it is heightened by the unusual extent to which the 'right'way to, for example, teach reading, test children, compare schools, and raisestandards by extending parental choice are currently asserted without reference toevidence or to possibly well-grounded alternatives. The strongest arguments formaintaining a strong HE base for teacher education therefore lie in the continuedindependence of HE institutions, and their commitment to inquiry and to thecritical scrutiny of ideas and practices.

Correspondence: Tony Edwards, School of Education, University of Newcastle, St.Thomas' Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, United Kingdom.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful for constructively critical comments on an earlier draft of this paperfrom Professors John Furlong, Gerald Grace and Geoff Whitty.

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