Japan's Foreign Aid Policy to Angola and Mozambique

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Japans Foreign Aid Policy to Angolaand MozambiquePedro Miguel Amakasu Raposo De Medeiros CarvalhoPublished online 24 Aug 2011

To cite this article Pedro Miguel Amakasu Raposo De Medeiros Carvalho (2011) Japans ForeignAid Policy to Angola and Mozambique Politikon South African Journal of Political Studies 382315-342 DOI 101080025893462011580131

To link to this article httpdxdoiorg101080025893462011580131

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Japanrsquos Foreign Aid Policy to Angolaand MozambiquePEDRO MIGUEL AMAKASU RAPOSO DE MEDEIROSCARVALHOlowast

ABSTRACT This article compares Japanrsquos aid policies to Angola and Mozambiquesince 1950 It argues that East-West rivalry prevented Japan from providing aid tothem particularly after 1975 The post-Cold War period enabled Japan to assistthe countriesrsquo transitions from war to peace as part of a peacebuilding approachoriginating in Japanrsquos traditional development cooperation in Asia As recipientcountries of Japanese aid they are contrasting examples of sub-Saharan Africareform ownership and explain why Mozambique is a priority nation to Japan indevelopment terms while Angola until recently was not The article affirmsthat Japanese decision-making with regard to Angola and Mozambique reflectsboth international pressures and domestic interests influenced by internationalfactors and domestic changes It concludes that the TICADrsquos developmentapproach which emphasizes the applicability of the Asian experiences inAfrica peacebuilding and human security as a component of Japanese foreignpolicy has boosted Japanrsquos lsquosoft-powerrsquo role in the international system

Introduction

Angola and Mozambiquersquos independence from Portugal in 1975 inflicted damageon Japanrsquos dual diplomacy between White Africa and Black Africa (Morikawa1997 pp 6ndash7) At the time Angola and Mozambiquersquos Marxist ideologies pre-vented closer relations with Japan as they were entangled in the strategiccontest between the US and USSR Japan supported the US policy in Africa interms of lsquocomprehensive securityrsquo to counter communist subversion in bothcountries Therefore neither country could receive Japanrsquos economic assistanceas their aid providers were the USSR China Cuba and eastern European countries(Owoeye 1992 p 144)

In the 1980s Japan faced continuous international criticism for being too commer-cially oriented highly tied and for not focusing on basic human needs (BHN) Underthe Development Assistance Committee (DACrsquos) pressure in 1989 Japan increasedaid to African countries through a three-year US$600 million untied effort in supportof structural adjustment programmes (SAP) for low-income countries

Politikon (August 2011) 38(2) 315ndash342

ISSN 0258-9346 print 1470-1014 online11020315ndash28 2011 South African Association of Political Studies

DOI 101080025893462011580131


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From a realistic perspective the major ambition of the Japanese Ministry ofForeign Affairs (MOFA) is to turn Japan into a political power by gaining a perma-nent seat on the UN Security Council (UNSC) Japanrsquos dispatch of electoral observersto Angola and Self Defence Forces (SDF) to Mozambique was the first political com-mitment to try to attain this goal It represented a political and security shift never seenbefore in Japanrsquos foreign policy toward Africa breaking with its pacifist attitudetowards conflict prevention and resolution of conflicts in Africa (Ochiai 2001 p 42)

The second political commitment was the organization of the Tokyo Inter-national Conference on African Development (TICAD) in 1993 to gain Africanpolitical support to achieve UNSC membership and to use the conference as aninternational stage to demonstrate its own diplomatic and development objectives(Sato 2010 p 17)

Japanrsquos ODA budget has contracted in the new millennium TraditionallyJapan has focused its aid on east Asia In recent years Japanrsquos net aid to Africaincreased from US$12 billion in 1999 to approximately US$26 billion in 2005(OECDQWIDS) At TICAD IV Japan committed itself to doubling its ODAto Africa excluding debt relief It set a target of US$18 billion by 2012 withUS$17 billion already paid out in 2008

The author argues that over time international pressures and its own domesticinterests have influenced Japanrsquos decision-making on foreign aid policy and allo-cation of aid to Angola and Mozambique Changes in the international systemitself combined with domestic factors led to a philosophical shift in Japanrsquosforeign aid policy As a result Japanrsquos aid policy that has rarely dealt with situ-ations in fragile states as it was not oriented towards development assistance inpost-conflict situations changed This contrasts with the traditional Japanesepattern of economic development cooperation that simply provided short-termhumanitarian assistance (emergency relief) to non-fragile low income countriesand resource rich countries (Haughton 2002 p 267)

Japanrsquos new approach to these countriesrsquo transitions from war to peace com-bines both infrastructure (hardware) and social development (software) aidTherefore humanitarian and development considerations are now importantdeterminants of Japanese ODA aside from trade resources and political interestsaimed at achieving greater international prestige (Schraeder Hook and Taylor1998 p 313 Hickman 1993 p 68)

For the international donor community Angola and Mozambique provide modelcases of success (Mozambique) and failure (Angola) in peacebuilding and reformownership despite a similar pattern of decolonization and democratization(Alden 2007 p 143) While Mozambique seems to have made a positive turn-around to overcome its fragility in terms of peacebuilding the apparent lack ofreform ownership in Angola was until recently characterized by the absence ofgood governance policies sound economic management and poverty reductionmeasuresmdashin contrast to Mozambique which is considered a model by theBretton-Woods Institutions (Renzio and Hanlon 2009 p 246)

Literature on Japanese aid to Africa has focused mainly on traditional recipientsin terms of donor foreign policy priority based on quantitative aspects of aid rather

PMAR DE MEDEIROS CARVALHO

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than the qualitative aspects of aid within a new role for aid in peacebuilding andhuman security (henceforth HS) issues Within this new strategy of developmentlsquonewrsquo recipients that were not major aid recipients during the Cold War such asAngola and Mozambique rose in significance

Finally Japanrsquos foreign aid policy towards Angola and Mozambique within theTICAD is limited as well Such limitations stimulate the need for an increaseOwoeye (1992) Sato (1994) Morikawa (1997) and JICA (2000) have providedsome insights into Japanese assistance to Mozambique and Angola but theseare insufficient

This article adopts a chronological and comparative approach to Japaneseforeign aid policy towards Angola and Mozambique from 1950 to 2009 and isbased on original documents exchanged between Portugal and Japan interviewsprimary and secondary sources of information It reviews their path to democracyand divides Japanese foreign aid policy toward the countries into five phases Itthen examines Japanrsquos participation in Angola and Mozambiquersquos peacekeepingoperations (PKO) compares Japanrsquos aid flows with major donors outlinesJapanrsquos aid characteristics to both countries and explains Japanese assistancewithin the TICAD framework It concludes with an overview of the influenceof international pressures and Japanrsquos domestic interests on Japanrsquos relationswith Angola and Mozambique

Angola and Mozambiquersquos path towards democratization

Angola and Mozambiquersquos late decolonization coincided with growing domesticand international resistance to the apartheid system in South Africa and theinclusion of the regionrsquos pattern of discord in the global East-West conflictThe external support of Washington and South Africa Cuba and Moscowbacking different clients complicated a failed Portuguese transition and prolongedthe civil war in both Although both signed general peace agreements (GPA) inthe early 1990s only Mozambique achieved a lasting peace Angolarsquos finalceasefire in 2002 was preceded by a series of failed peace agreements and wasa result of the military victory by the Popular Movement for the Liberation ofAngola (MPLA) over the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola(UNITA)

While donors hailed Mozambiquersquos 1994 elections as a success Angolarsquos elec-tions in 1992 were deemed a failure Unlike UN Operations in Mozambique(ONUMOZ) the United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM-II)lacked the human and financial resources to execute its mandate effectively

Long-term conflict in both countries intensified the social disruption and phys-ical destruction caused by the war Currently both countries remain two of theworldrsquos least developed countries The vast majority of Angola and Mozambi-quersquos populations live below the poverty line However while Angola is wellendowed with natural resources Mozambique is not Angolarsquos position as sub-Saharan Africa (SSArsquos) second-largest oil producer after Nigeria illustrates theparadox of plenty oil has done little to generate broad-based growth

JAPANrsquoS FOREIGN AID POLICY TO ANGOLA AND MOZAMBIQUE

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Japanese foreign aid policy to Angola and Mozambique

Kuriyama (2000 p 212) and Kasongo (2010 p 70) agree that Japanrsquos post-warforeign policy based on the centrality of UN diplomacy and the spirit of theBandung summit within an Afro-Asian perspective weakened after the 1960s asuntil the 1980s was limited to pursue commercial and political interests inresource-rich countries or to maintain the Western alliance Aid was an instrumentof foreign policy rather than a policy itself empty of development purposes(Yoshida 1988 p 121 Ampiah 1997 p 45) Relations focused on SouthAfrica Kenya Nigeria Tanzania Zaire Zambia Liberia Ghana and IvoryCoast and socialist countries like Angola and Mozambique were excluded(Owoeye 1992 p 143ndash44)

First phase 1951ndash1960

Japanrsquos African diplomacy guided by the Yoshida Doctrine (Ampiah 1997p 48) concentrated its resources on domestic development and emphasized econ-omic re-entry into areas like Lusophone Africa with which it had maintained traderelations before World War II

Diplomatic relations with Portugal and its colonies were re-established in 1952Between 1950 and 1953 Japanese imports from Angola and Mozambiqueamounted to US$128140 dollars and were limited to textile fibres and rawmaterials However in 1957 Japanese imports were valued at US$15435 ofwhich US$14467 was for metallic minerals while Japanese exports wereUS$3600 (MNE 1957a) These trade figures particularly as far as imports areconcerned were much greater than those of its major Black African trade partnerslike Nigeria Ghana and Kenya (Morikawa 1997 p 59)

Japanrsquos early post-war contacts with Lusophone Africa illustrate their economicimportance as Japan sought to secure access to natural resources As early as 1957Keidanren received a proposal from Portuguese Guinea seeking aid to developagricultural fisheries and mineral resources on the island (MNE 1957b)Japanese companies responded by assembling several industrial plants inGuinea In 1958 the Nichimen Kaisha supplied 8332 pieces of steel rails andaccessories for the Mozamedes Railway Company to serve the mining region ofCassinga in Angola (Carvalho 2006 p 183)

Second phase 1961ndash1973

In the 1960s Japan lacked a clear aid policy on the use of ODA for economicdevelopment as aid was tied to export promotion (Inukai 1993 p 255) Despiteliberation wars in Angola and Mozambique Japanrsquos trade with LusophoneAfrica expanded British and Organisation of African Union (OAU) pressureson Japan to cancel all trade with Mozambique increased as according to theBritish embassy Rhodesia was using Mozambique to import goods and also toexport its commodities However the Japanese government did not yield to the


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pressure claiming it was impossible to determine the origin of the merchandise(MNE 1967 pp 1ndash2)

Despite the external pressures in 1962 the African section of MOFA requestedLisbon to open a General Consulate in Lorenzo Marques The realization of theproject depended on the Japanese Ministry of Financersquos (MOF) financial budget(MNE 1962 p 1)

In 1964 Japanese trade with Angola and Mozambique was valued at US$36million By 1973 trade had risen to US$392 million (Morikawa 1997 p 61)Three factors explain this trend Firstly Japanrsquos rapid economic growth requirednatural resources The second factor was Japanrsquos political support for the whiteminority regimes Thirdly with the renewal of the 1966 commercial treatybetween both countries Portugal agreed to withdraw trade restrictions againstJapan under GATT Article 35 In return Portugal asked Japan for more creditin the form of economic cooperation with its territories (MNE 1974a p 1)The latter led to Japanese private sector investment in fisheries and mineralresource development in Mozambique

The geographical importance of these territories proved vital for Japanrsquos naturalresource and economic interests in neighbouring countries such as Zambia Zaireand South Africa Between 1967 and 1971 the bulk of Kantangarsquos minerals(Zaire) mostly copper were being carried on the British-owned BenguelaRailway across Angola and then sent to the Angolan port of Lobito

As mineral production increased the Japanese did not want to be overdependenton the Benguela railway and offered a loan of US$83 million to Zaire for pro-jected railway and bridge construction (Owoeye 1992 p 21) Also Japanesecapital was used to build a new railway in Angola connecting the mines ofNamapa with the port of Nacala (Carvalho 2006 p 183) Zambia another produ-cer of copper also benefited from these new export trails With respect to coalSouth Africa was Japanrsquos most important partner The first coal to be exportedfrom South Africa was loaded at Lorenzo Marques Mozambique in 1972(Owoeye 1992 p 23)

These examples illustrate that as far back as 1967 Japan already had a regionalperspective in its aid assistancemdashnot just to extract Africarsquos resources but also toensure the removal of transportation bottlenecks in the shipment of vital productsto Japan

Third phase 1974ndash1988

During this phase the political and strategic uses of aid assumed a wider signifi-cance in Japanrsquos foreign policy objectives and emerged as a central pillar of Japa-nese foreign policy (Ampiah 1997 p 174) With the oil crises in 1973 and 1979Japanrsquos interest in Africarsquos resources grew and aid became connected with long-term economic security considerations Then Japan EXIM Bankrsquos suspension ofall export credits affected relations with Angola and Mozambique (Carvalho2006 p 184) In 1974 some months before Foreign Minister Kimura touredAfrica the Japanese government suspended sporting and cultural exchanges


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with South Africa (Oda 2002 p 43) and Angolan officials warned Japanese com-panies that they would not have the same treatment in Angola if they did businesswith Lisbon (MNE 1974b p 4)

In 1973 the C Itoh Company signed an agreement with the Angolan Companyof Manganes for an iron ore project at Cassalas-Quitungo As a result Angolawould export to Japan two million tons of iron-ore pellets per year from mid-1976 (Japan Times 1974 p 3) In 1974 Taiyo Fisheries Co formed a jointventure with a Mozambican company to carry out shrimp fishing (JICA 1989p 20)

In addition Japan reversed its policy of disregarding nationalist demands duringthe struggles for independence from Portugal Ahead of the western Europeancountries it recognized the Republic of Guinea-Bissau on 1 August 1974 andthe Peoplersquos Republic of Angola on 20 February 1976 and established diplomaticrelations with Mozambique on 9 January 1977 (Morikawa 1997 p 82 Paul2002 p 2) With this move Tokyo expected to neutralize the criticism of itspro-Pretoria diplomacy and anti-communist policy and improve its pro-BlackAfrica image by showing sympathy towards African national liberationmovements

After 1975 Angola and Mozambique were transformed into an arena of proxywars between the superpowers As a result strategic interests US pressures andreactive changes took precedence over Japanese economic interests resulting inlow aid flows and trade decline Africarsquos share of Japanrsquos oil imports fell from29 in 1975 to 19 and 08 in 1980 and 1984 respectively In 1980Libyan Nigerian and Angolan shares fell to 05 03 and 02 respectively(Owoeye 1992 pp 26ndash27 158) There was also a decline in Angolarsquos exportsto Japan whose own sales were hit hard by lost oil revenue (Mukonoweshuro1992 p 259)

In 1975 Japan made a donation to the UN Southern Africa Fund in the amountof US$210000 earmarked for relief education and training for the victims ofracial discrimination and colonial rule in southern Africa Japan also contributedyen120 million in emergency aid through the UN High Commissioner for Refugeesfor the relief of victims of natural disasters and for refugees returning to Mozam-bique immediately before its independence Such measures continued as the OAUaccused Japan of continuing business with Southern Africa in defiance of UNsanctions (Japan Times 1974 p 3) The Japanese ambassador to the UNShizuo Saito denied the charges saying that Japanese government exercisedstrict control over economic activities by Japanese nationals in Angola andMozambique (Japan Times 1974 p 3) In fact because Mozambique could notimport from Japan Macao was used as a transit destination by Japan to exportgoods to Mozambique (Carvalho 2006 p 129)

The adoption of a more pro-African position shielded Japan from criticismsrelated to international sanctions against apartheid in South Africa and racist min-ority rule in Rhodesia Japan also began using aid to appease Zambian andMozambican critics over its relationship with Pretoria (Inukai 1993 p 258Orr 1990 p 96)


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During this phase Mozambique received US$827 million from Japan whileAngola received only US$41 million (see Tables 3ndash4) The combined effect ofthe civil war together with the prolonged drought and the world economiccrisis in the early 1980s pushed Mozambique to sign an agreement with theUnited States Overseas Private Investment Corporation paving the way for Japa-nese aid (TCSF 2005 p 3)

After 1983 Japanrsquos unwise development aid policy to Mozambique until thenbased on humanitarian considerations emerged in the form of grant aid to thefishery and road sectors (Yoshida 1988 p 129ndash30) In Angola though onlyaid relief was provided

Although associated with resource diplomacy Japanrsquos ODA also reflected theJapanese peoplersquos growing humanitarian concerns about starvation in Mozambi-que in 198485 According to Sato (1994 p 106) they recognized the tragedyin Africa as their own issue

From the mid-1980s international pressure from OECD members and multilat-eral agencies for further support beyond emergency relief was a major motivationfor the higher increase in Japanese ODA to Africa (Ampiah 1997 pp 202ndash203)

In 1985 the US requested Japan to provide more aid for Mozambiquersquos Queli-mane Fishing Port which Tokyo did in 1986 and for the maintenance of the BeiraCorridor in 1988 (TCSF 2005 p 4) Japanrsquos agreement to provide aid to Mozam-bique would confirm Calderrsquos argument (198788 pp 518ndash519) that Japan was areactive state in the sense that policy decisions to impose economic sanctions onboth countries or increase aid to Mozambique were taken in response to outsidepressure particularly from the US

Rather than simply reacting to foreign pressure it can be said that the Americanrequest suited Japanese policy objectives as one of the worldrsquos largest fishingnations Therefore Japanrsquos fishing grant aid to Mozambique in 1986 confirmsOrrrsquos (1990 pp 108ndash113) argument that foreign pressure is not evident in allcases as there are countries in which mutual interests are identifiable

Fourth phase 1989ndash2000

With the end of the Cold War Japanese ODA to Angola and Mozambiquechanged from a reactive pattern of mixed interests (economic political strategicand some humanitarian) to a proactive pattern based on humanitarian and devel-opment assistance identified as the basic philosophy in its ODA Charter (1992)and the TICAD

Humanitarian assistance is distinct from development assistance as the first ispolitically unconditional and usually short-term while the second is conditionaland presupposes a long-term strategy to rebuild conflict-affected countriesHowever some humanitarian crises assume more political visibility than othersAccording to Sato (MOFA 2009) the Mozambican humanitarian flood crisis of2000 particularly the case of images of a woman who gave birth to a baby in atreetop focused Japanrsquos public opinion on the value of humanitarian aid TheMozambican crisis contrasts with Angolarsquos food crisis which received much


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less media coverage and partly explains MOFArsquos decision to grant more aid toMozambique than to Angola

The starvation of millions of people in Mozambique led the ruling Front for theLiberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) and the Mozambique National Resistance(Renamo) to peace talks in 1990 and eventually to sign the GPA in October 1992In Angola however there was no genuine desire for peace and Savimbi (UNITArsquosleader) had the resources to continue the civil war until government forces killedhim in February 2002

With the collapse of Angolarsquos lsquoBicessersquo peace process in 1991 war resumed infrom 1992 to 1994 Although a ceasefire was signed between UNITA and MPLA inLusaka in November 1994 the war restarted in December 1998 The patience of UNand international observers had run out Despite the political instability and unlikemost donors who limited their assistance to humanitarian needs Japan continuedsupporting Angolarsquos peacebuilding bilaterally with emergency relief food aidand several projects for the rehabilitation of infrastructures that from 1989 to2000 amounted to US$84 million (Table 3) and through emergency programmeslike the UN 1997 Appeal donated US$33 million for disarmament demobiliza-tion and the reintegration (DDR) of former soldiers (UN 1998 p 126)

In contrast to Angola Japanrsquos aid to Mozambique from 1989 to 2000 totalledUS$414 million (Table 4) Apart from the difference in the volume of Japanrsquosaid between the two countries Mozambiquersquos national unity and political stabilitywere much stronger than those of Angola Also the chances of civil war reignitingin Mozambique were fewer which helped the strengthening of diplomatic and aidrelations with Mozambique Thus in January 1993 some months before thelaunch of TICAD Japan sent diplomatic missions to various nations in Africaincluding Mozambique (TCSF 2005 p 4 Farah 1998 p 42)

In 1998 while Mozambique was supporting Pretoriarsquos non-intervention in thecivil war that had erupted in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)Angola supported the DRC which created tensions with the Southern AfricaDevelopment Community (SADC) In recognition of Mozambiquersquos role in thepeace and development of Southern Africa and the alignment of Mozambiquewith South Africa Japan placed Mozambique as a priority nation in its aidpolicy (Oda 2000 p 7) In May 1999 in the face of Mozambiquersquos post-conflictchallenges Japanrsquos State Secretary of Foreign Affairs Keizo Takemi declared thatODA priority would be given to landmine clearance (JICA 2000 p 33)

Fifth phase 2001ndash2009

A common feature of Japanese ODA to Angola and Mozambique since 2001 hasbeen its emphasis on peacebuilding through reconstruction and developmentassistance Nevertheless Japanrsquos self-interest in terms of political and resourceconcerns has also propelled its ODA to both countries although to a higherdegree in Angola than in Mozambique

Angolarsquos non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council (UNSC) in 2003 theRoundtable Presidency of the UNSC and the presidency of the Ad Hoc


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Committee for the Resolution and Prevention of Conflicts in Africa in 2003 (UN2003 p 4) raised Luandarsquos profile in MOFA As a result MOFA sent Senior-ViceMinister for Foreign Affairs Tetsuro Yano to Angola in March 2003 to ensureLuandarsquos support for the war in Iraq (MOFA 2003) Thus Angolarsquos role in theUN and global diplomacy reveals the growing political importance of Luandato Tokyo and the latterrsquos use of a positive aid approach towards Angola The cea-sefire between UNITA and the MPLA in 2002 was important in securing Japanrsquossupport as it meant that Japan could increase ODA to Angola as efforts towardsdemocracy and the abandonment of one-party authoritarianism according to theprinciples of the ODA Charter were being pursued

Therefore Japanese ODA increased from US$27 million in 2002 to US$33million in 2003 (Table 3) Aside from discussing the UN vote Japan wasseeking a deal with Angola to ensure uninterrupted oil supplies Sato (MOFA2009) confirmed the strategic and resource importance of Angola as motives forthe private sector and the Ministry of Economy Trade and Industryrsquos (METI)engagement in Angola

From the perspective of Japanrsquos national interests such as securing a stable supplyof resources and energy or strengthening the overall relationship with the hostcountry lsquoNippon Keidanrenrsquo (2008) also refers to Angola as a priority countryalong with Nigeria and Algeria thus explaining Japanrsquos continual aid assistance

An indication of Japanrsquos aid commitment is the establishment of new embassiesin Africa These include embassies in Mozambique (2000) and Angola (2005) theopening of a JICA office in Mozambique (2003) and the establishment of an ODAtask force in Mozambique (2003) and Angola (2006)

Asked why Japanese ODA to Mozambique shows more dynamism than toAngola Sato (MOFA 2009) provided the following reasons Firstly the civilwar in Mozambique ended ten years earlier than the war in Angola SecondlyMozambique has a lower GDP per capita than Angola Thirdly Mozambiquehas better relations with international financial institutions (IFIs) and the donorcommunity than Angola has And fourth MOFA has more tools to work within Mozambique than in Angola such as the JICA office and since 2002 an agree-ment to send volunteers Also following the Mozambique Summit Meeting inJanuary 2007 within the framework of TICAD and after President Guebuzaexpressed support for Japanrsquos permanent membership of the UNSC Japanrewarded Mozambique with more aid (Abe 2007 pp 1ndash2)

As for Angola most donors did not reopen their development aid as an IMFagreement is considered a prerequisite to the renegotiation of debt to official credi-tors in the Paris Club and a significant step towards restoring lsquonormalrsquo relationswith the international financial community (JICA 2005 p 120)

When Angola officially committed to clearing the remaining US$18 millionarrears in November 2007 (Paris Club Report 2008 p 18) MOFA (Sato2009) initiated negotiations for a loan agreement with Luanda which wasconcluded in March 2010

With this first direct loan worth US$234 million the Japan Bank of Inter-national Cooperation (JBIC 2010) is to rehabilitate Angolarsquos textile industry


323

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this is expected to lead to increased business opportunities for Japanese firmsexporting textile machinery and equipment to Angola

The influence of international pressures and domestic interests on JapanrsquosAfrican policy

During the Cold War external pressures were not enough for Japan to change itsaid policy simply because the trade benefits were insufficient to warrant a shift inaid priorities (Rix 2011 p 226) Japan simply readapted its foreign policy to theCold War circumstances

The end of the Cold War in 1989 however caused a structural change in theinternational system whichmdashcombined with the long persisting (outside) pressurein terms of multilateral influence (OECD-DAC UN World Bank)mdashpushed Japanto comply with international aid norms Hence in December 1991 the OECDDAC (2006 pp 24ndash25) urged member countries to promote human rights demo-cratization the rule of law and the reduction of excessive military expenditures In1992 Japan adopted the ODA Charter matching the above principles AlsoAfrican pressures (OAU sanctions) and African leaders through the OAU(AHGRes196) of July 1990 pressed the World Bank and all developed nationsin general to support the creation of a Global Coalition for Africa (GCA) to builda new international partnership in order to support Africarsquos development

All these events positively affected the reframing of Japanrsquos African policy andthe decision to organize the TICAD In addition the downfall of apartheid and theappearance of imminent peace in Angola in 1991 the end of the war in Mozam-bique in 1992 and the severe drought and poverty in most of the SSA countrieschanged the international aid paradigm as donors focused more on sustainedhuman development which emphasizes a lsquosoft-aidrsquo approach to developmentfocused on poverty reduction human resource development and sustainable econ-omic growth (Hirata 2002 pp 68ndash70)

These changes combined with Japanrsquos domestic factors such as the bursting ofthe bubble economy in 199192 bureaucratic mismanagement of ODA public cri-ticism regarding the effectiveness of the aid programme and the demand that ODAbe spent more on BHN forced MOFA to accept MOFrsquos reduction in the ODAbudget (Hirata 2002 p 91 172) Domestic criticisms combined with internationalpressures influenced MOFArsquos acceptance of the lsquonewrsquo international aid regimewhich was also conveyed by Japanese diplomats in Africa It stressed the impor-tance of grassroots aid toward Africa and the contribution of NGOs to reach localcommunities more effectively than the Japanese government (Hirata 2002 p 67)

According to Foreign Minister Yohei Kono (1994) east Asian nations werereaching the point where they no longer needed aid in marked contrast toAfrican countries As the worldrsquos top aid donor Japan could not ignore thepolitical changes the humanitarian crises the millions of refugees and the infec-tious diseases that are collectively called Africarsquos problems as they posed adanger to Africa the entire world and Japan (Ogura 2003 p 60 Awori 2007pp 124ndash126)


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Japanrsquos aid policy needed to clarify political and economic principles that couldreflect the new world order (Sato and Alden 2004 p 5) This was an opportunityfor Japan to develop its own diplomacy which was sidelined by Western democ-racies thus capitalizing on the rising sentiment within Japan that the nation shouldcontribute to world peace by providing personnel something it had not done in theGulf crisis of 199091 (Ogura 2003 p 59)

Until the enactment of the lsquoInternational Peace Cooperation Lawrsquo (PKO Law)and the ODA Charter (1992) Japan did not formally have the tools to engage inpolitical and security-related objectives in Africa and to merge them with aid anddevelopment (Sato and Alden 2004 p 13)

The PKO initiative meant that outside pressure from Asian countries althoughnot the most important determinant in Japanrsquos security decisions affected Japanrsquosown domestic interests within its security policy (Shinoda 2007 p 8) ThereforeJapanrsquos response to Africarsquos problems became material through the sending ofpeacekeepers to consolidate peace in Angola and Mozambique and by hostingthe TICAD

TICAD became Japanrsquos diplomatic flagship to implement its new developmentstrategy with output-oriented targets for Africarsquos development based on globalpartnership and African ownership adopted by the OECDDAC Committee in1996 (Owada 1998 p 4ndash5) However according to Ogura (2003 p 58) Japandefinitely had in mind the political clout of the African bloc when it called forthe TICAD in 1993

Japanese decision-making toward UNAVEM-II and ONUMOZ

Under the new PKO Law Japanrsquos participation in the UNAVEM-II (SeptemberOctober 1992) and the ONUMOZ (May 1993January 1995) were the first suc-cessful cases of Japanrsquos political engagement in Africa However domesticallyit was not a simple decision

According to Sato (1994 p 105) Japanese overall ignorance of the SDFrsquos lackof knowledge about the military and political situation in Mozambique a regionthat still had little relevance for Japan contrasts with Cambodiarsquos PKO involve-ment domestically justified as an issue of direct regional concern (Takagi andRobinson 1991 p 4) and illustrates the past contradictions of Japanrsquos Africanpolicy

Yamaguchi (1993 pp 33ndash34) downplays Satorsquos criticisms arguing that it is upto Japanrsquos diplomats to extend and strengthen the countryrsquos solidarity and diplo-matic relations with Africa in order to acquire a moral diplomatic voice in the UNand to win respect among African countries To demonstrate its diplomatic com-mitment and active role on the ground Japan created the post of ambassador incharge of preventing conflicts in Africa which was given to Morihisa Aoki(Farah 1998 p 41)

Yanaimdashlater Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairsmdashmost politicians and publicopinion opposed Japanrsquos Self Defence Forcesrsquo (SDF) engagement beyond thecountryrsquos frontiers (Farah 1998 p 42)


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According to Ken Kondo (2010) a Japanese diplomat serving in AngolaJapanrsquos participation in the UNAVEM was both an effective way to acquireexperience in PKO activities and to get the Japanese nation acquainted with theJapanese governmentrsquos desire to get more involved in this kind of situationAlso Angolarsquos PKO as a modest participation in an African country that didnot have historical problems with Japan was a good option a kind of lsquotestdriversquo as he explained Finally after the Cold War Japan wanted to broadenthe horizons of its African diplomacy (Kondo 2010) According to Noguchi(MOFA 2010) Angola and Mozambique became priority countries becausethey were considered a model of the three-pillar framework of the TICAD

Moreover as a leading developed nation Japan had a responsibility to addressproblems in all regions and countries including Africa (Oda 2002 p 45) Japanrsquosparticipation in Angolarsquos PKO even if modest must be considered high risk asthe rival parties were deeply suspicious of their opponentsrsquo commitment to fulfill-ing the terms of the peace agreement (Yamaguchi 1993 p 34 Alden 2007p 147)

Putting constitutional issues aside Japanese policy-makers were divided Onceit became evident that the Cambodia dispatch would not lead to international rec-ognition of Japanrsquos full-scale involvement in international peace some within theSDFrsquos military leadership suggested deployments to both Somalia and Mozambi-que (Brown 1994 p 440)

Prime Minister (PM) Kiichi Miyazawa and defence agency officials down-played Somalia as being too dangerous and showed little interest in sending theSDF to Mozambique However international pressures from former UN Sec-retary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali and requests from Mozambican Ambassa-dor to the UN Pedro Afonso changed Japanrsquos position (Yamaoka 1993)

Also domestic pressures increased Former Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasonecriticised Miyazawa for his reluctance to send the SDF to joint ONUMOZ In hisopinion Japanrsquos dispatch of SDF would not in any circumstances damageJapanrsquos international image (Konno 1993)

The external and domestic pressures suited Parliamentary Vice-Foreign Minis-ter Koji Kakizawa for whom the advantages of Japanrsquos participation inONUMOZ besides fulfilling the UN request for Japanese participation wouldestablish a precedent of SDF deployment to a non-Asian nation making Japana global political power (Brown 1994 p 440)

Therefore MOFA used international and domestic pressure as leverage to nego-tiate with the domestic opposition and also to rationalize the SDF dispatch toAsian countries which feared a resurgence of Japanese militarism (Sato andAlden 2004 p 11) Also Japanrsquos foreign affairs bureaucracy wanted to detachitself as much as possible from US foreign policy and coordinate Japaneseforeign policy with Japanese UN policy (Sato 1994 p 107)

Similarly Foreign Minister Michio Watanabe (1993) stated that Japanrsquos partici-pation in ONUMOZ would prevent criticism that Japan only sends personnel toareas (implying Cambodia) where Japanrsquos interest is involved Also Japanrsquos par-ticipation boosted diplomatic relations with Angola and Mozambiquemdashat that


326

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time there was no embassy in either country as the Japanese Embassy in Zim-babwe was responsible for both countriesrsquo diplomatic and consular matters(Sato 1994 p 108)

On 16 December 1992 the UNSC approved the ONUMOZ However MOFAofficials and opponents of the Mozambique initiative led by Chief Cabinet Sec-retary Yohei Kono and PM Kiichi Miyazawa feared that an expansion ofJapanrsquos new peacekeeping role would undermine fragile domestic support forJapanrsquos participation a final decision was made only in March 1993 after inter-party negotiations between the Foreign Ministry and Liberal Democratic Partymembers (Brown 1994 p 440)

Between May 1993 and June 1995 Japan dispatched a SDF contingent of 53units to Mozambique plus 15 civilians for duty as staff officers movementcontrol units and electoral observers According to Ochiai (2001 p 41) andSato (1994 pp 108ndash110) the underlying motives for Japanrsquos participation inONUMOZ had to do with Japanrsquos need to show the international community par-ticularly the G7 its commitment to international peace and to further strengthenits bid for the UNSC membership Thus its participation was more about Japanrsquosstrategic position in terms of north-north cooperation than north-south assistanceor altruism toward the Mozambican people The Mozambican Ambassador DanielAntonio (2009) disagrees with this Machiavellian view of Japanrsquos participationbecause at that time the reform of the UNSC was on the agenda of neither theUN nor African countries

Major donorsrsquo aid to Angola and Mozambique

Tables 1 and 2 compare the trend volume of Japanrsquos bilateral aid in selected yearswith the top six DAC donors to Angola and Mozambique respectively from 1968to 2009

Japan allocated practically no ODA to Angola from 1968 to 1987 Beginning in1992mdashparticularly after 1997mdashhowever Japan became one of the top donors toAngola ranking third next to the US and Portugal In Mozambiquersquos case Japanwas the top donor in 1968 but after that amounts of aid fluctuated over theyears When compared to the largest providers such as Portugal Italy the USand northern European countries Japan usually ranked around seventh

Tables 1 and 2 also show that Japanrsquos aid volume in Angola while lower than inMozambique has higher significance to Luanda than to Maputo The main reasonfor this is that after the mid-1990s when most donors cut off assistance to AngolaJapan continued supporting the country and is one of the largest aid donors toAngola

Japanrsquos aid volume to Angola is lower than its aid volume to MozambiqueHowever when compared to other DAC donors Japanrsquos rank in Angola ishigher than in Mozambique This is a result of the degree of aid intensitybetween the two countries and because in contrast with Angola where donorcoordination has been weak Mozambique shows a marked stability of donor com-position 19 bilateral and multilateral donors organized in a group referred to as


327

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Table 1 Japan and major DAC Countries ODA to Angola 1968ndash2009

DAC Total ODA Net (Net disbursements US million)

Year 1 Amount 2 A 3 A 4 A 5 A 6 AJapan ODA

amount and rank Total Six Total DAC

1968 Austria -01 FRG 001 Norway -01 0011970 FRG 009 01 -0031975 FRG 12 Sweden 11 Switz 09 Nether 06 Belgium 007 39 401977 Netherl 47 Sweden 16 Austria 04 Norway 03 Switzerl 017 Denmark 013 73 791980 Sweden 169 Netherl 80 USA 70 Denmark 23 Belgium 05 Italy 02 349 3581982 Sweden 152 Denmark 59 Italy 41 Netherl 40 USA 40 Belgium 27 003 thirteenth 359 4031983 Italy 174 Sweden 122 Netherl 89 Denmark 21 USA 20 FRG 14 002 fourteenth 440 4641984 Netherl 166 Sweden 145 Italy 111 Germany 25 Belgium 18 Denmark 13 478 5991985 Sweden 185 Italy 163 USA 70 FRG 25 Canada 18 France 14 475 5961987 Italy 284 Sweden 238 Netherl 156 USA 60 Denmark 60 FRG 60 14 nineth 858 9831990 Sweden 382 Italy 376 Netherl 125 Canada 116 France 111 FRG 101 1211 11031992 Italy 466 Sweden 362 Spain 339 France 269 Portugal 162 Germany 68 30 eleventh 1666 19281994 USA 340 Sweden 322 France 274 GB 251 Italy 191 Germany 182 01 fifteenth 1560 22281995 France 351 USA 310 Norway 288 Sweden 265 Portugal 240 Netherl 233 01 eighteenth 1687 24171996 Spain 418 Sweden 362 Portugal 335 Netherl 301 Germany 253 Norway 252 52 eleventh 1921 29441997 Spain 309 Portugal 294 Sweden 278 Norway 245 USA 220 Netherl 217 128 eighth 1563 22701998 USA 288 Spain 252 Portugal 239 Norway 231 Sweden 225 Japan 179 179 sixth 1414 21441999 USA 481 Spain 358 Italy 250 Japan 220 Portugal 198 Norway 198 220 fourth 1705 25172000 USA 373 Japan 215 Sweden 171 Norway 166 Spain 162 Portugal 134 215 second 1221 18902001 USA 34 Japan 207 Netherl 205 Norway 175 Sweden 134 Portugal 119 207 second 1180 17942002 USA 1056 Netherl 408 Japan 272 Norway 222 Germany 165 Portugal 144 272 third 2267 28642003 USA 1529 Japan 331 Portugal 237 Italy 281 Norway 242 Netherl 211 331 second 2831 37212004 Portugal 7155 USA 1212 Japan 255 Norway 248 France 219 Netherl 160 255 third 9249 101572005 USA 672 Japan 263 France 236 Spain 161 UK 141 Netherl 128 263 second 1601 24762006 France -979 Spain -665 USA 328 Italy -313 Norway 233 Portugal 208 124 eighth -1188 -5522007 Netherl -492 USA 396 Italy -306 Japan 231 Norway 214 Portugal 193 231 fourth 236 8562008 USA 426 Italy 320 Portugal 191 Norway 177 Japan 177 Spain 135 177 fifth 1426 20982009 USA 415 Spain 202 Norway 178 Portugal -98 Germany 84 Japan 67 67 sixth 848 1314

Notes a) A - Amount b) FRG - Federal Republic of Germany GB - Great Britain Netherl - Netherlands Swit - Switzerland c)Total Six Countriesfrac14 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6) d) no aid e) DAC-Development Assistance Committe Source Compiled by the author specifically for this study SeeOECDQWIDS -Query Wizard for International Development Statistics (selected years) httpstatsoecdorgqwids Accessed December 29 2010

PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

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Table 2 Japan and Major DAC Countries ODA to Mozambique 1968ndash2009

DAC Total ODA Net (Net disbursements US millon)

Year 1 Amount 2 A 3 A 4 A 5 A 6 AJapan ODA amount

and rank Total Six Total DAC

1968 Japan 001 Sweden 001 001 first 002 0021970 Denmark 01 Australia 004 Switzerl 004 FRG 002 Austria -005 Norway 007 022 0221975 Norway 90 Denmark 07 Norway 05 Japan 04 Switzerl 03 Australia 03 04 fourth 112 1141977 Sweden 264 Denmark 85 Norway 61 USA 8 UK 5 Netherl 33 21 seventh 573 6591980 Sweden 358 Netherl 183 Denmark 114 UK 108 USA 9 Japan 51 51 sixth 904 11481982 Sweden 462 Netherl 295 Norway 164 Japan 77 Denmark 51 UK 33 77 fourth 1082 16061983 Sweden 367 Norway 179 Netherl 168 USA 13 Denmark 82 Japan 75 75 sixth 1002 16041984 Sweden 306 Netherl 291 USA 160 Norway 148 Denmark 9 Japan 63 63 sixth 1058 21681985 USA 470 Sweden 339 Italy 28 Nethert 248 Norway 212 France 203 44 eleventh 1752 21691987 Italy 1353 USA 55 Sweden 545 Netherl 506 France 394 UK 353 176 nineth 3701 53531990 Sweden 1361 Italy 1061 France 718 USA 62 Norway 523 UK 432 170 thirtneenth 4715 75031992 Italy 2499 Portugal 161 Sweden 972 France 801 Norway 731 USA 52 387 nineth 7133 100681994 Italy 938 Swden 735 USA 730 Norway 721 Japan 434 Netherl 417 434 fifth 3975 73301995 Germany 1109 USA 96 Portugal 624 Sweden 542 Norway 522 Denmark 455 398 eighth 4212 69821996 Sweden 613 Norway 518 Porbigal 514 Denmark 468 USA 45 UK 354 301 eighth 2917 55191997 Portigal 894 UK 725 USA 710 Norway 547 Sweden 521 France 45 381 eighth 3847 62161998 Italy 1106 Germany 852 USA 705 Portugal 615 UK 53 Nsway 495 406 nineth 4303 71271999 USA 706 Japan 633 Portugal 527 Germany 516 Denmark 515 Spain 514 633 second 3411 59322000 USA 1155 UK 827 Netherl 616 Gemany 478 Denmark 463 Nsway 382 200 nineth 3921 62352001 UK 1852 USA 998 Netherl 902 France 868 Portugal 725 Germany 485 335 tenth 5830 72022002 Italy 4465 France 4316 USA 1597 Germany 1569 Japan 697 Germany 520 697 fifth 1316 166102003 USA 1354 Denmark 672 UK 636 Sweden 565 Norway 541 Netherl 472 353 nineth 4240 69712004 USA 1099 Sweden 679 Denmark 676 UK 659 Norway 616 Ireland 486 194 eleventh 4215 73132005 USA 960 UK 808 Sweden 793 Nethert 645 Canada 562 Germany 426 148 nineth 4194 76022006 USA 1088 Japan 1068 UK 993 Sweden 917 Denmark 711 Germany 648 1068 second 5425 93832007 USA 1533 UK 1156 Sweden 1035 Nethert 807 Norway 801 Ireland 687 277 twelveth 6019 107322008 USA 2266 UK 1978 Sweden 1196 Norway 966 Denmark 872 Spain 784 238 eleventh 8062 134122009 USA 2556 Germany 1137 Denmark 1045 Netherl 993 Sweden 988 Norway 804 606 eighth 7523 12876

Notes a) A ndash Amount b) FRG - Federal Republic of Germany Netherl - Netherlands Swit - Switzerland c) Total Six Countnes = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +5 + 6) d) no aid e) DAC - Development Assistance Commute Source Compiled by the author specifically for this study and based on the followingsource See QECD - QWWS - Query Wizd for Intemational Development Statstics (selectedyears) Available at httpstasoecciorgqwidsAccessed December 29 2010

JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

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014

the G19 provide general budget support (GBS) (Fischer Bosten and Lledop 248) In view of the Rome and Paris Declarations the donors started to harmo-nize their actions in Mozambique for GBS in 1999 By the end of 2006 GBS inMozambique accounted for 95 of aid in the Official Development Aid Mozam-bique database if observers USAID and Japan are included (Fischer Bosten andLledo p 249 252)

Aid characteristics

Tables 3 and 4 present data on loan grant aid and technical assistance amounts toAngola and Mozambique from 1974 to 2009 Overall Mozambiquersquos politicalcloseness to the West and the earlier implementation of the IMF programmeexplains the higher volume of grant aid This contrasts with Angola whichreceived the first significant grant from Japan only in 1992 the year of electionsAlso setbacks in the Angolan peace process and the countryrsquos governance pro-blems contrast with Mozambique a model country for the World Bank and theIMF It was identified under the heading Heavily Indebted Poor Countries(HIPC) in April 1998 and reached the completion point (CP) in June 1999 result-ing in debt relief amounting to US$37 billion and higher volumes of aid (JICA2000 p 95) Also while Mozambique is classified as a low human developmentcountry Angola is not Therefore Angola does not qualify for much grant aid apolicy to which Japan adheres

From 1974 to 2009 Japanrsquos ODA payments to Angola accounted for US$279millions while Mozambiquersquos aid inflows totalled US$841 million (Table 3ndash4)Despite the different volume of aid between them Figures 1ndash2 show a correlationbetween key political years and the increase in Japanese aid to both countries forexample the end of conflict peace talks elections ceasefire and UNSC non-mem-bership of Angola This means that in addition to the humanitarian and develop-ment purposes of Japanrsquos ODA diplomatic and political interests are alsoimportant factors

Aid type and sectoral distribution

Tables 5 and 6 show that Japanrsquos grant aid programme to Angola and Mozambiqueis a mix of software (social development and social infrastructure) aid and hard-ware (economic infrastructure) aid The absence of Japanrsquos loans is explained bytheir poverty rates However Mozambiquersquos loan and the loan that Japan is cur-rently negotiating with Angola are especially significant firstly because the Japa-nese ODA budget is shrinking and secondly because of the Japanese policy of notproviding loans to countries whose debt has been reduced under the HIPC initiat-ive thus illustrating the priority of Mozambique as a recipient of Japanese aid

In both countries Japanrsquos aid policy has high relevance to the needs of Angolaas specified in the I-PRSP (Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper) and toMozambiquersquos PARPA I and PARPA II (designation for PRSP) and to Japanrsquoshigher-level aid policies such as the ODA Charter ODA Mid-Term Policy


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(1999 and 2005) and Japanrsquos Action Plan for Implementing the Paris Declarationof February 2005 and the TICAD

The bulk of Japanese assistance for both countries has been focused on healthand medical equipment agriculture education grassroots projects and socialinfrastructure such as the construction of primary schools and housing for low-income people Also the renewal of basic infrastructuresmdashcommunications

Table 3 Japanrsquos ODA Disbursements to Angola 1975ndash2009

($US million)Year Loan Aid Grant Aid Technical Cooperation Total

1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279

Source Compiled by the author based on Japanrsquos Official Development Assistance White Paper(selected years) (Tokyo Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs)


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waterworks roads and bridgesmdashand renovation of ports and transportation showsthat there is little sectoral variation of Japanese assistance to both countries

Since the adoption of HS as a pillar of Japanese foreign policy in 1998 laterincorporated in the lsquoTICAD Tenth Anniversary Declarationrsquo Japanese ODA toAngola and Mozambique after 2000 reveals another recent trend in Japanesedevelopment aid which is the introduction of HS grassroots projects

Table 4 Japanrsquos ODA Disbursements to Mozambique 1975ndash2009


1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



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014

Technical assistance in both countries concentrated on the areas of health carebasic infrastructure and agriculture with Japan accepting trainees from bothcountries and dispatching 36 Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers (JOVC) toAngola in 2006 and 23 to Mozambique in 2005 (JICA 2005 p 121 JICA2009 p 3)

In the entire period Mozambiquersquos 162 projects contrast with Angolarsquos 75 pro-jects because while Mozambique received Japanese ODA from 1974 to 2009Angola only received it from 1989 to 2009

TICAD and Japanese aid to Angola and Mozambique

MOFA organized the first TICAD in 1993 and has hosted follow-up conferencesevery five years since Central to Japanrsquos diplomatic policy in Angola and Mozam-bique are the TICADrsquos three pillars human-centred development povertyreduction through economic growth and the consolidation of peace Of thepillars three reasons justify the prevalence of the third over the first two thus con-stituting the source of Japanese pro-activism after the Cold War as Yasutomo(1995 p 184) notes rather than adapt to external stimuli MOFA attempts toshape the environment to suit its foreign policy Firstly the third pillar ends

Figure 1 Japanrsquos ODA to Angola 1982ndash2010Note Authorrsquos own analysisSource UN (2002 and 2003) Sato (MOFA 2009) JBIC (2010)

Figure 2 Japanrsquos ODA to Mozambique 1982ndash2009Note Authorrsquos own analysisSource JICA (2000) TCSF (2005) (Antoio 2009) Sato (MOFA 2009) Japanese Embassy inMozambique (July 2010)


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with Japanrsquos past form of providing development assistance Secondly the effectof having the third pillar is that it institutionalizes a peacebuilding role for Japa-nese ODA that did not exist during the Cold War Thirdly Japanrsquos assistance toAngola and Mozambique so-called fragile states shows consistency with thedomestic policies already mentioned with the TICAD as a new key feature ofJapanese assistance to Africa and with international norms as reflected in theUNSC Resolution1325 (October 2000) which urges member states to ensuremechanisms for the prevention management and resolution of conflicts

In tandem Japanrsquos acknowledgement that the process of rebuilding a country isslow and must be supported by the countryrsquos self-reliance was addressed in itsMedium-Term Policy (1999) in the G8 Miyazaki Initiative on Conflict Preventionof July 2000 on the revised ODA Charter in 2003 in the TICAD through the needfor conflict prevention peacebuilding and human security in developmentassistance

If this role gains broad acceptance on the international stage then Japanrsquos lsquosoft-powerrsquo projection in the international arena will increase (Kuriyama 2000

Table 5 Sectoral distribution of Japanrsquos ODA to Angola 1974 - 2009 (Number of Projects)

Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009

Small-scale grant aid 2 Food aidaid for increased food production yes yes yesEmergency relief (Refugees and IDPs) yes yes yesDebt relief Roads and bridges (maintenance reconstruction) 2 Rehabilitation of Harbour Facilities (Ports) 3Transportation Energy and Electrification Telecommunications (radio phone network) 3 2Waterworks (Irrigation) Water supply 1 2Agri culture Forestry Fishery Mining and Industry Education Construction (Housing Primary Schools) 2 5Medical Care Health (diseases) Medical Equipment 5 10Social Services (basic human needs) Grassroots Projects (supports NGOs projects) 6 3Grant Assistance for Japanese NGO Projects (Demining) 4Grassroots Human Security Projects (DDR IDPsRethgees

Agriculture Water Vocational training Education Health) 1 24

Sub-total (projects) 22 53Total projects (1974-2009) 75

Note a) Disarmament Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) b) Internally Displaced Persons(IDP) c) Completed as of Fiscal Year 2009 Source Compiled by the Author as original referencesfor use inks research study based on Japans Official Development Assistance Report (selectedyears) Tokyo MOFA TICAD IV Annual Progress Report 2009 Tokyo MOFA


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014

p 217ndash218) But this depends on whether the international community accepts orrecognizes Japanrsquos role The TICAD has been recognized both by donors and reci-pients as a forum committed toward Africarsquos development In addition theTICAD embraces a broader conception of national interest covering politicaleconomic developmental social environmental and peacebuilding issues in themost problematic region in the world and is co-organized by the UN GCAand the World Bank To strengthen TICADrsquos international acceptance theJapanese government adopted human security as its foreign policy later a priorityarea of the TICAD Therefore TICADrsquos approach has made Japanrsquos role moreinternationally acceptable and consequently has boosted Japanrsquos lsquosoft powerrsquo inthe international arena

To date Japan has still not formulated a Country Assistance Programme (CAP) andCountry Assistance Strategy for either Angola or Mozambique Therefore the twobilateral aid policy dialogues between Japan and Mozambique which were held in1994 and 2007 respectively are considered the basic aid policy to Mozambique

Table 6 Sectoral distribution of Japanrsquos ODA to Mozambique 1974-2009 (Number of Proiects)

Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009

Small-scale grant aid 1 Food aidaid for increased food production yes yes yesEmergency relief (Natural disaster Refugees and IDPs) yes yes yesAssistance for Economic Adjustment Efforts yesRoadsBridges (maintenancereconstructionupgrading) 3 9 6Rehabilitation of harbours (Ports) 1 5 3TransportationDevelopment Corridor 1 4 Energy Electrification (power distribution network) Telecommunications (radio phone network) 1 Waterworks (Irrigation) Water Supply 3 6Agriculture Forestry Fishery 2 Mining and Industry Education (RehabilitationEquipment of Primary Schools) 2 3Construction (Housing PrimarySecondary Schools) 9Medical Care Health (diseases) Medical Equipment 1 4 2Social Services (basic human needs)Grassroots Projects (supports NGOs projects)

20 8

Grant Assistance for Japanese NGO Projects Grassroots Human Security Projects (Mine Action WaterConstruction of Schools HealthSanifition Agriculture)

57

Sub-total (projects) 8 50 4Total projects (1974ndash2009) 162

Note a) Basic Human Needs (BUN) b) Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) (c) Complete as ofFiscal Year 2009Source Compiled by the Author as original references for use in this study based on Japanrsquos ODAWhite Papers (selected years)Tokyo MOFA MOFA TICAD IV Annual Progress Report 2009


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014

The first policy dialogue over grant aid and technical cooperation put priority onsocial development and the eradication of poverty as the main fields of the dialo-gues later specified at TICAD IImdashTokyo Agenda for Action (TAA) in 1998 Thepriority areas for Japanrsquos assistance were agriculture the social sector and humanresource development (TCSF 2005 p 2) The second policy dialogue betweenJapan and Mozambique identified rural development human-resource develop-ment and governance as the three new priority areas of Japanese assistance(MOFA 2009 p 3)

In the absence of any aid policy dialogue between Tokyo and Luanda Japaneseaid policy is organized around three main pillars economic development conso-lidation of peace and HS which match the TICAD framework The reconstruc-tion and renewal of basic infrastructures agriculture and human-centreddevelopment DDR and democratization and health and food security are themajor priority areas within Japanese assistance pillars (JICA 2009) Also follow-ing TICAD I (1993) landmine removal assistance in Southern Africa Angola andMozambique and assistance in the area of governance became priority areas forJapanrsquos assistance in line with the TAA in 1998 (JICA 2007 p 60)

In addition cooperation between Japan the UNSC and the Economic andSocial Council resulted in the creation of an Ad Hoc Working Group for ConflictPrevention and Resolution in Africa in January 2002 (UN 2002) In this workinggroup Japan strongly advocated that to solve conflicts in Africa it would promoteat TICAD III (2003) the linkage between election assistance DDR and post-conflict reconstruction and development in an imperative (UN 2002 p 10)Since its reform as an lsquoindependent administrative institutionrsquo in 2003 JICA hasdesignated peacebuilding assistance as a priority area in Angola MozambiqueEthiopia Uganda Tanzania and Zambia (JICA 2003 p 11)

TICAD III confirmed the importance of HS and the consolidation of peace forAfricarsquos development In 2004 Angola was selected by JICA as a pilot country topromote HS in Africa as part of the DDR process Following the Japanese com-mitment at TICAD IV to doubling African ODA by 2012 JICA programmeexpenses by country (Fiscal 2008) in Africa have become the third largest inMozambique (yen43 billion) after Tanzania and Kenya and the sixth largest inAngola (yen41 billion) after Zambia and Senegal

TICAD IV proved to be a very useful forum for promoting economic tiesbetween Japan and Angola Just before the conference started the Angolan min-isterial team met with the governor of JBIC Koji Kanami to discuss financialcredit for Japanese firms interested in working in Angola (African Echo 2010)The chairman of the JapanAngola Parliamentary League Senator TetsuroYano also revealed that Japan needs Angolarsquos natural resources In turnAngola would get technology through cooperation with mutual advantages

Replicating Asian experiences

In the Meiji era Japan applied the Western model of industrialization to its owneconomic development although it continued to value its own principles of


336

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spiritualism and nationalism which emphasized authoritarian developmentalismrather than individualism and free competition (Watanabe 1998 p 205) Simi-larly according to Sato (2010 p 18) in the TICAD Japan proposed thatAfrican countries learn from Asiarsquos experiences through lsquoself-helprsquo effortssince they were not able to find any alternative development plans

Thus after the anti-state ideology of the 1980s in the next decade there was ashift in Africa back towards a policy emphasizing poverty reduction as the ultimateobjective of development The donor community particularly Japanmdashwhich hasacted differently in Asia and Africa acknowledging the linkage that aid and infra-structure development had in Asia where recipient governments gave priority toinfrastructuremdashare mobilizing more financial resources for Africarsquos infrastructuredevelopment (Jerve and Nissanke 2008 pp 37ndash38)

The key to poverty reduction is recognizing the positive (not extensive) inter-vention of the state to emphasize both economic growth through infrastructureand help in developing the private and public sector This matches Tokyorsquosown state-led approach of development As a result JICA and JBIC throughthe TICAD have been supporting cross-border infrastructure assistance withinthe New Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) to promote Africanregional integration (JICA 2007 p 10 52)

Since 2001 JBICrsquos most significant projects in Mozambique were the US$150million financing of the Mozambique Aluminum Smelting Project (MOZAL) atwo-step project development loan for the construction of transmission lines tocarry power from South Africa to Mozambique and the Montepuez-LichingaRoad Project in 2009

Within the infrastructure assistance sphere JICA shifted its emphasis fromlsquohardwarersquo support to incorporating the lsquosoftwarersquo components within theconcept of human security stressing the empowerment of local communitiesand citizens as indispensable components of state security Development shouldbe community-based comprehensive and cross-sectoral This involves not onlyimproving roads and streamlining situations at border crossings between countrieslinking the people and the state but also transnational road construction to linklandlocked countries sharing borders within an integrated approach in infrastruc-ture development

An example is the multinational Nacala road corridor project which linksMozambique Malawi and Zambia and was financed by the AfDB JBIC JICAand EXIM Bank of Korea The Nacala corridor incorporates the HS conceptbecause the creation of multifunctional roadside facilities known as lsquomichinoekirsquohelp local communitiesrsquo self-reliance by providing job creation and public ser-vices together with the construction of infrastructure (JICA 2008)

This corridor all 1033 kilometres of it is one of the priority projects of theSouthern Africa Development Community (SADC) region and is consistentwith NEPAD It is also in line with Mozambiquersquos PARPA II which focuseson the improvement of the road network to foster the integration of the nationaleconomy and improve the countryrsquos connection to ports and SADC marketsThese projects demonstrate the applicability of the Asian experience to Africa


337

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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

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rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014

based on JICArsquos concept of human security and represent a departure fromJapanrsquos traditional approach of post-war reconstruction extended to Asiancountries (Ogata 2008 p 4 pp 24ndash6)

In Angola JICArsquos (2006 p 8) project for the renewal of the Lobito and Namibeport facilities in line with TICAD IV contributes to the promotion of economicactivities in SSA by providing landlocked countriesmdashDRC Zambia Zimbabweand Botswanamdashwith a gateway port to the west coast These inland countries areconnected to the Port of Lobito and the Benguela railway (also to be renovated)to make up the Lobito corridor which is expected to play a vital role in improvingtransportation to and from landlocked countries in sub-Saharan Africa

Another example of regional cooperation was the creation of the Zambia-Malawi-Mozambique Growth Triangle (ZMM-GT) in 1999 According to theMinistry of Finance of Zambia (Malambo 2000 p 49) this initiative realizesthe final results of the TICAD II agenda aimed at reducing the cost of market frag-mentation deepening and integrating trade and promoting other developmentcooperation efforts The concept of the growth triangle adapted from Asiatakes into account the ongoing lsquoSpatial Development Initiativesrsquo and the pro-motion of transport corridors underway in Southern Africa for economic develop-ment like the Maputo Development Corridor (South Africa and Mozambique)

Conclusion

International pressures with multilateral and bilateral sources have shaped Japanrsquosforeign aid policy to Angola and Mozambique However during the 1950s and1960s external pressures were not enough to overcome Japanrsquos commercial andresource interests in Angola and Mozambique In the 1970s the influence of inter-national factors such as the oil crisis and decolonization affected Japanrsquos owninterests now defined in the context of the US-Japan alliance hindering the allo-cation of ODA In the early 1980s international pressure became difficult tosustain and reactive changes occurred in Japanrsquos aid policy Humanitarian aidincreased with the share of grant aid exceeding that of yen loans in Africa par-ticularly after 1984

In the 1990s the end of the bipolar system and of geostrategic interests in Africaprovided Japan with an opportunity to promote its own national interests Giventhat traditionally Japanese aid policy was known for avoiding political and secur-ity issues participation in UNAVEM-II and ONUMOZ represented a proactivechange in Tokyorsquos African policy as Japanese awareness of African problemsassumed greater importance in Japanrsquos summit diplomacy aimed at a new equili-brium between international and domestic demands

Japanrsquos security and development approach through PKO and the TICAD arelinked to lsquorealisticrsquo domestic policy goals such as political security prestigeand determination to become a political power International pressures combinedwith the new external and domestic reality demonstrate the shift in Japanrsquos foreignand domestic interests with Japanrsquos passive political attitude during the Cold Warand MOFArsquos pro-activism after the Cold War


338

Dow

nloa

ded

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014

Angola and Mozambiquersquos war-torn economies have become Japanrsquos testingground to merge peacebuilding with development in a way that is more in accord-ance with the liberalist paradigm than with Japanrsquos non-interventionist approachto international politics

Japanrsquos aid relationship to Angola has more political and strategic contours thanits relationship to Mozambique conforming to neorealist theory that claims statesseek not only power but also national economic interests which are important forsecurity This explains Japanrsquos recent relationship with Angola a country that his-torically did not have a long-term relationship with Japan The political benefits toJapan seem to have compensated for the costs of providing aid to a country thatmost donors appear to have forgotten

Donors have never exercised the kind of power in Angola that they have inMozambique Renzio and Hanlon (2009 p 265) showed how donors haveimposed policy choices in Mozambique despite clear resistance from MaputoAngola refuses to be subservient to IFIs however the Ministry of Financeadmits that because of this standstill with the IMF Luanda lost much-needed bilat-eral assistance and many commercial investment possibilities from Japan (Morais2004 p 7) The political context of aid-giving to both countries also shows thatdemocracy good governance transparency peace and political stability matterif successful reform ownership is to be achieved

According to the Mozambican Ambassador the TICAD has succeeded in refo-cusing international attention on African problems and Mozambique as well(Antonio 2009)

The TICAD has also allowed a constant bilateral debate between Mozambiqueand Japan which was strengthened when Koji Kakizawa former Minister ofForeign Affairs visited Maputo in January 1993 to promote the process For theMozambican ambassador (Antonio 2009) the merit of the TICAD is Japanrsquosinvolvement in Africarsquos development and promotion of a partnership betweenMozambique and Japanrsquos interests trying to keep the sustainability of aid flows

To a certain extent Angola has benefited more from the TICAD than Mozam-bique has because Angolarsquos definitive peace in 2002 precedes the third TICADwhich stressed the importance of consolidation of peace in fragile states likeAngola DRC or Liberia

Finally the lsquonewrsquo Japanese aid approach although maintaining the politicalstrategic and resource interests of the past has demonstrated qualitative strengthsin peacebuilding human security grassroots projects and also social infrastructuredevelopment by incorporating a regional cooperation approach that was notseen before the TICAD Thus the increase of Japanrsquos lsquosoft powerrsquo results frominternational acceptance of the TICADrsquos new methods to approachingdevelopment

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology(FCT) for the three years of financial support to pursue this research in Japan


339

Dow

nloa

ded

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ida

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rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014

NotelowastAssistant Professor University Lusıada of Porto Portugal Email amakasuraposogmailcom

References

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African Echo lsquoStability in Angola encourages Japanese investmentrsquo 28 December 2010 httpafricanechocoukbusinessnews2-may24shtml

Alden C (2007) lsquoHuman Security and the Limits of International Intervention a Comparison of Post-ConflictAngola and Mozambiquersquo in G Shani M Sato and MK Pasha (eds) Protecting Human Security in a Post911 World (New York Palgrave Macmillan)

Ampiah K (1997) The Dynamics of Japanrsquos Relations with Africa ndash South Africa Tanzania and Nigeria(New York Routledge)

Antonio D (2009) Authorrsquos interview with the Mozambican Ambassador in Japan (Tokyo MozambicanEmbassy 17 April)

Awori DAO (2007) lsquoJapanese ODA and Japan-Africa Relationsrsquo Sogoseisaku Kenkyu 14 (March)pp 121ndash131

Brown E (1994) lsquolsquoJapanese Security Policy in the Post-Cold War Era Threat Perceptions and StrategicOptionsrsquo Asian Survey 34(5) pp 430ndash446

Calder KE (1987ndash88) lsquolsquoJapanese Foreign Economic Policy Formation Explaining the Reactive Statersquo WorldPolitics A Quarterly Journal of International Relations 62(4) pp 517ndash541

Carvalho PMRde M (2006) Portugal ndash Past and Present Foreign Direct Investments Japanrsquos Trade and FDIwith Portugal 1945-1999 (Lisboa Editora Lusiada)

Farah R (1998) TICAD II ndash Africa on the Move (Tokyo Yushodo Co)Fischer F Bosten E and Lledo V (2008) lsquoGovernment-Donor Partnerships Mozambique as a Model of Donor

Coordinationrsquo in JAP Clement and SJ Peiris (eds) Post-Stabilization Economics in Sub-Saharan Africa(Washington DC International Monetary Fund)

Haughton J (2002) lsquoThe Reconstruction of War-Torn Economies and Peacebuilding Operationsrdquo in JBIC Insti-tute (ed) in Development Assistance Strategies in the 21st Century Global and Regional Issues vol 1(Tokyo Japan Bank for International Cooperation)

Hickman J (1993) lsquoCue Taking and the Distribution of Japanese ODA among African Countriesrsquorsquo AfricanDevelopment Review 5(1) pp 62ndash69

Hirata K (2002) Civil Society in Japan ndash The Growing Role of NGOs in Tokyorsquos Aid and Development Policy(New York Palgrave Macmillan)

Inukai I (1993) lsquoWhy Aid and Why Not Japan and Sub-Saharan Africa in BM Koppel andrsquo in RM Orr Jr(ed) Japanrsquos Foreign Aid Power and Policy in a New Era (Boulder CO Westview Press)

Japan Times (1974) lsquoJapan Defying UN in Trade with Southern Africa OAUrsquo 31 OctoberJapan Bank for International Cooperation (2010) JBIC First Buyerrsquos Credit to Angola httpwwwjbicgojp

aboutpress20101125-02indexhtm2Jerve AM and Nissanke M (2008) lsquoAid Effectiveness to Infrastructure A Comparative Study of East Asia and

Sub-Saharan Africa ndash Synthesisrsquo JBIC Research 36ndash4 (July) pp 1ndash43Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) (1989) Basic Design Report on the Project for Building of a

Coastal Transport Vessel for Fishing Products in the Peoplersquos Republic of Mozambique (Tokyo JICA)JICA (2000) lsquoJapanese Aidrsquo in Institute for International Cooperation ndash IFIC The Study on Japanrsquos Official

Development Assistance to Southern African Countries vol 3 Mozambique (Tokyo JICA)JICA (2003) Thematic Guidelines on Peacebuilding Assistance (Tokyo JICA)JICA (2005) lsquoReport on South Africa Zambia Tanzania Madagascar Malawi Angola Mozambique and

SACUSADCrdquo in UFJ InstituteJETRO (eds) in The Role of Technical Assistance in Private SectorDevelopment in Southern Africa (Tokyo JICA)

JICA (2006) The Study on Urgent Rehabilitation Program of Ports in the Republic of Angola (Tokyo The Over-seas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan and ECHO Corporation)

JICA (2007) Project Study on the TICAD Process Review of the Past Achievements and Implications for FutureSuccess (Tokyo Mitsubishi UFJ Research Co and JICA)

JICA (2008) lsquoPresent Conditions and Perspective of African Development from the View Point of Human Secur-ityrsquo 20 February httpwwwjicagojpenglishaboutpresidencyspeeches08022

JICA (2009) lsquoAssistencia Oficial para o Desenvolvimento do Japao na Republica de Angolarsquo (Japanese ODA toAngola) (Luanda Japanese Embassy in Angola)

Kasongo TL (2010) Japan-Africa Relations (New York Palgrave Macmillan)


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Kondo K (2010) Authorrsquos email interview with the Chief of Mission of Japanrsquos Embassy in Luanda Angola24 May

Konno M (1993) lsquoNakasone Pans Miyazawa Over SDFrsquo The Daily Yomiuri 3 MarchKono Y (1994) lsquoPondering the future of ODArsquo The Daily Yomiuri 30 SeptemberKuriyama T (2000) lsquolsquoChallenges for Japanrsquos Foreign Policy Futurersquo Japan Review of International Affairs

14(3) pp 196ndash220Malambo VB (2000) lsquoGrowth Triangles Application in Southern Africa Proposed ZMM-GTrsquo in Zambia-

Malawi-Mozambique Growth Triangle (Namibia Gamsberg Macmillan)Ministerio dos Negocios Estrangeiros (MNEmdashPortuguese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) (1957a) lsquoJapanese trade

with Portugal and overseas territories 1957rsquo doc 16M369A62 (Lisbon MNE)MNE (1957b) lsquoPortuguese Seeking Aid to Develop African Colonyrsquo Asahi Evening News 27 November Doc

M369A62 (Lisbon MNE)MNE (1962) lsquoAssuntos Ultramarinos-AD Consularrsquo Tokyo Portuguese Embassy in Tokyo 1 August 1962

(Lisbon MNE)MNE (1967) lsquoConfidentialrsquo doc EAA Proc 42JAP23 April 1967 (Lisbon MNE)MNE (1974a) lsquoPortugal and Japanrsquos Trade Agreement 1974rsquo doc 42Japan221 Reference 4511 (Lisbon MNE)MNE (1974b) lsquoJapanese assistance and technological cooperation toward Portuguese overseas territoriesrsquo doc

42JAP23 (Lisbon MNE)Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (MOFA) (2003) lsquoVisit by Senior-Vice Minister for Foreign Affairs Tetsuro

Yano to the Republic of Angolarsquo Section III httpwwwmofagojpannouncepress200330304htmlMOFA (2009) Country Assistance Evaluation of Mozambique (Tokyo MOFA)Morais JP de (2004) lsquoAngola and the IMFrsquo (London Chatham House)Morikawa J (1997) Japan and Africa Big Business and Diplomacy (London Hurst amp Company)Mukonoweshuro EG (1991) lsquolsquoJapanese Commercial Interests in Contemporary Africarsquo International

Relations 10 pp 251ndash265Nippon Keidanren (2008) lsquoOn the Improvement of Japanrsquos Global Investment Environment Toward the Cre-

ation of a Legal Framework for Japanese Foreign Investmentrsquo httpwwwkeidanrenorjpenglishpolicy2008017proposalhtml

Noguchi H (2010) Authorrsquos interview Second Africa Division (Tokyo MOFA 18 June)OAU (1990) AHGRes196 (XXVI) Resolution on International Cooperation for African Economic and Social

Recovery and Development Twenty-sixth Ordinary Session 9ndash11 July Addis Ababa Ethiopia httpwwwunecaorgcodaSpeechesJanneh090306html

OECDDAC (2006) The History of OECDrsquos Development Assistance Committee (Paris OECD)Ochiai T (2001) lsquolsquoBeyond TICAD Diplomacy Japanrsquos African Policy and African initiatives in conflict

responsersquo African Studies Monographs 22(1) pp 37ndash52Oda H (2000) lsquoCurrent Conditions and Problemsrsquo in IFIC (ed) The Study on Japanrsquos Official Development

Assistance to Southern African Countries vol 3 Mozambique (Tokyo JICA)Oda H (2002) lsquoJapan-Africa Relations in the Twenty-First Centuryrsquo Gaiko Forum (Winter) pp 42ndash46OECDQWIDS (Query Wizard for International Development Statistics) httpstatsoecdorgqwidsOgata S (2008) lsquoInfrastructure Development and Human Securityrsquo in Francois Bourguinon and Boris Plesko-

vik (eds) Rethinking Infrastructure for Development (Washington DC World Bank)Ogura K (2003) lsquoA New Outlook on Africa Reconsidering Japanrsquos Foreign Policyrsquo Gaiko Forum 183

(October) pp 57ndash63Orr RM Jr (1990) The Emergence of Japanrsquos Foreign Aid Power (New York Columbia University Press)Owada H (1998) lsquoGlobal Partnership towards the 21st Century New Development Strategy and the Role of

International Organizationsrsquo in in Donor Coordination and the Effectiveness of Development Assistance(Tokyo United Nations University)

Owoeye J (1992) Japanrsquos Policy in Africa (New York The Edwin Mellen Press)Paris Club (2008) lsquoAnnual Report 2007rsquo (Paris Club de Paris)Paul MA de S (2002) lsquoJapanrsquos African Ambitionsrsquo African Geopolitics 6 (Spring) pp 1ndash5Renzio P and Hanlon J (2009) lsquoMozambique Contested Sovereignty The Dilemmas of Aid Dependencersquo in

L Whitfield (ed) The Politics of Aid African Strategies for Dealing with Donors (New York Oxford Uni-versity Press)

Rix A (2011) Japanrsquos Economic Aid ndash Policy-Making and Politics (London Croom Helm)Sato M (1994) lsquolsquoJapanese Strategy in Africa The Case of Mozambiquersquo Review of African Political Economy

21(59) pp 105ndash110Sato M and Alden C (2004) lsquolsquoLa diplomatie japonaise de laide et lAfriquersquo Afrique Contemporaine 4(212)

pp 13ndash31


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ida

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1 O

ctob

er 2

014

Sato M (2010) lsquoAn Historical Analysis of Japanrsquos Aid Policy to Africarsquo in Howard P Lehman (ed) Japan andAfrica ndash Globalization and Foreign Aid in the 21st century (New York Routledge)

Sato T (2009) Authorrsquos interview Second Africa Division (Tokyo MOFA 17 April)Schraeder PJ Hook SW and Taylor B (1998) lsquoClarifying the Foreign Puzzle ndash A Comparison of American

Japanese French and Swedish Aid Flowsrsquo World Politics 50 (January) pp 294ndash323Shinoda T (2007) Koizumi Diplomacy ndash Japanrsquos Kantei Approach to Foreign and Defense Affairs (Seattle and

London University of Washington Press)Takagi H and Robinson G (1991) lsquoJapan Turns to Cambodiarsquo The Japan Economic Journal 23 March p 4TCSF (TICAD Civil Society Forum) (2005) Mozambique and Japan Civil Society Partnership Workshop

(Tokyo TCSF)United Nations (UN) (1998) United Nations Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeal For Angola (New York United

Nations)UN (2002) lsquoPress Release SC7406 ndash Security Council Holds Day-Long Debate On Conflict Prevention Res-

olution in Africa Security Council 4538th Meeting pp 1ndash20UN (2003) lsquoNote by the President of the Security Councilrsquo United Nations Security Council1188 (December)

pp 2ndash7Watanebe M (1993) lsquoSDF Going On UN Mozambique Mission The Government Decidedrsquo The Daily Yomiuri

27 MarchWatanabe T (1998) lsquoDesigning Asia for the Next Centuryrsquo in K Ohno and I Ohno (eds) Japanese Views on

Economic Development (London and New York Routledge)Yamaguchi H (1993) lsquolsquoNihon gaiko no kadai to shite no Afurika (Africa as a Topic of Japanese Diplomacy)rsquo

Gaiko Forum 63(12) pp 32ndash39Yamaoka K (1993) lsquoMozambique Ambassador Asks For Japanrsquos Help In Peacekeepingrsquo The Daily Yomiuri

13 AprilYasutomo DT (1995) The New Multilateralism in Japanrsquos Foreign Policy (London Macmillan)Yoshida M (ed) (1988) lsquoNihon no Afurika enjo (Japanese ODA to Africa)rsquo Afurika enjo to chiikijiritsu

(African Aid and Regional Independence) (Tokyo Asian Economic Institute)


342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014

Japanrsquos Foreign Aid Policy to Angolaand MozambiquePEDRO MIGUEL AMAKASU RAPOSO DE MEDEIROSCARVALHOlowast

ABSTRACT This article compares Japanrsquos aid policies to Angola and Mozambiquesince 1950 It argues that East-West rivalry prevented Japan from providing aid tothem particularly after 1975 The post-Cold War period enabled Japan to assistthe countriesrsquo transitions from war to peace as part of a peacebuilding approachoriginating in Japanrsquos traditional development cooperation in Asia As recipientcountries of Japanese aid they are contrasting examples of sub-Saharan Africareform ownership and explain why Mozambique is a priority nation to Japan indevelopment terms while Angola until recently was not The article affirmsthat Japanese decision-making with regard to Angola and Mozambique reflectsboth international pressures and domestic interests influenced by internationalfactors and domestic changes It concludes that the TICADrsquos developmentapproach which emphasizes the applicability of the Asian experiences inAfrica peacebuilding and human security as a component of Japanese foreignpolicy has boosted Japanrsquos lsquosoft-powerrsquo role in the international system

Introduction

Angola and Mozambiquersquos independence from Portugal in 1975 inflicted damageon Japanrsquos dual diplomacy between White Africa and Black Africa (Morikawa1997 pp 6ndash7) At the time Angola and Mozambiquersquos Marxist ideologies pre-vented closer relations with Japan as they were entangled in the strategiccontest between the US and USSR Japan supported the US policy in Africa interms of lsquocomprehensive securityrsquo to counter communist subversion in bothcountries Therefore neither country could receive Japanrsquos economic assistanceas their aid providers were the USSR China Cuba and eastern European countries(Owoeye 1992 p 144)

In the 1980s Japan faced continuous international criticism for being too commer-cially oriented highly tied and for not focusing on basic human needs (BHN) Underthe Development Assistance Committee (DACrsquos) pressure in 1989 Japan increasedaid to African countries through a three-year US$600 million untied effort in supportof structural adjustment programmes (SAP) for low-income countries


ISSN 0258-9346 print 1470-1014 online11020315ndash28 2011 South African Association of Political Studies

DOI 101080025893462011580131


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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

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ctob

er 2

014









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Dow

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by [

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ida

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e U

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rsity

] at

14

22 2

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ctob

er 2

014










318

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by [

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ida

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e U

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rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










319

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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

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rsity

] at

14

22 2

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ctob

er 2

014








320

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











321

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

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rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










322

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










323

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









324

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

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] at

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ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

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] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

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ida

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] at

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22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

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by [

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ida

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rsity

] at

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ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

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] at

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ctob

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014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

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ded

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ida

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e U

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rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

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rsity

] at

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22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

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ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

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er 2

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Acknowledgements



339

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ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

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ida

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rsity

] at

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1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

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ida

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] at

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22 2

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ctob

er 2

014















342

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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









316

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









317

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nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










318

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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










319

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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

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22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








320

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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

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rsity

] at

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22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











321

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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










322

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ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










323

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nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









324

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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ida

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e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









317

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










318

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










319

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








320

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











321

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










322

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










323

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









324

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










318

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










319

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








320

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











321

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










322

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










323

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









324

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










319

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








320

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











321

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










322

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










323

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









324

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








320

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











321

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










322

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










323

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









324

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











321

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










322

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










323

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









324

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










322

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










323

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









324

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










323

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









324

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









324

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014











325

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










326

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014










327

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







PM

AR

D

EM

ED

EIR

OS

CA

RV

AL

HO

32

8

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014







JAP

AN

rsquoSF

OR

EIG

NA

IDP

OL

ICY

TO

AN

GO

LA

AN

DM

OZ

AM

BIQ

UE

32

9

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


Aid characteristics







330

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 1976 1977 1978 001 0011979 002 0021980 1981 002 0021982 003 0031983 002 0021984 1985 1986 05 001 051987 13 004 141988 21 21989 1990 001 0011991 19 01 003 21992 00 29 01 31993 2001 002 011 011994 2001 005 007 011995 201 012 01 011996 00 38 14 51997 115 13 131998 143 36 181999 191 29 222000 179 36 212001 182 25 212002 261 11 272003 327 04 332004 240 14 252005 234 29 262006 89 35 122007 231 29 262008 154 24 182009 18 2Total 6 243 30 279



331

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





1975 041976 02 021977 21 211979 08 081980 44 06 004 511981 01 011982 75 02 81983 50 24 01 71984 63 00 61985 20 24 00 41986 12 143 03 161987 01 173 02 181988 12 134 03 151989 27 479 05 511990 205 170 05 171991 206 135 29 161992 212 365 33 391993 213 188 214 161994 2l4 436 11 431995 215 390 23 401996 221 289 33 301997 12 335 34 381998 209 376 39 411999 210 580 63 632000 210 117 93 202001 208 267 76 342002 217 448 31 702003 204 325 31 352004 204 166 33 192005 204 99 53 152006 1017 51 1072007 177 107 282008 176 62 242009 135 14Total 33 727 81 841



332

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








333

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014





Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009






334

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Sector1974ndash1988

1989ndash2000

2001ndash2009


20 8


57




335

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









336

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014









337

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014




Conclusion





338

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014








Acknowledgements



339

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014


References




























340

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014















342

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

ctob

er 2

014
























pp 13ndash31


341

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Flor

ida

Stat

e U

nive

rsity

] at

14

22 2

1 O

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Documents

Japan's Foreign Aid Policy to Angola and Mozambique