Principles and Creative Strategies in TESOL

TESOL COMMUNIVERSITY TRAINING

COURSEBOOK 2

RHODA T. PEREZ, Ph.D.( TESOL) Linda F. Moore, MA.Ed.

2013

COURSE : PRINCIPLES AND CREATIVE STRATEGIES IN TESOL

DESCRIPTION This course is designed to prepare emerging and practicing teachers of TESOL through application of theories, principles and creative

strategies of teaching-learning English. As a requirement, the teacher-participants are expected to

conduct a practicum or teaching demonstration as well as an evaluation of

their peers’ performance.

OBJECTIVES :

General :: To discuss the various principles, theories and strategies of TESOL

Specific : At the end of the training program, the participants should be able to

To explain the meaning, nature and functions of language and its structural component;

To compare and contrast first language acquisition and second language learning;

To provide optimum linguistics preparation for the prospective TESOL teachers;

To conduct and evaluate a teaching demonstration for each

language /linguistic component/structural area;

To pass a pre-qualifying written and oral test and interview .

( 6 hours)

DAYS TOPIC TASKS TIME

Day 1

What is language?•Structural Areas•Communication

•Standard English•Pronunciation drill/quiz

•NAE & BE Standards•Pronunciation Drills

Lecture

Interaction

Discussion

Quiz

Discussion

Quiz

8 hours

Day 2

What is TESOL

•Approaches to TESOL•Pronunciation Drills/quiz

Lecture

Discussion 8 hours

Day 3

•TESOL Lesson Design•CLT Lesson Planning Sequencing•CLT Criteria•Lesson Planning

Discussion

Discussion/Lecture8 hours

COURSE SCHEDULE

DAYS TOPIC TASKS TIME

Day 4

Teaching Demo•Phonology•Morphology•Post-teaching eval

Teaching Demo•Phonology•Morphology•Post-teaching conference

Teaching Demo

Interaction

Teaching Demo

Interaction

8 hours

Day 5

Teaching demo•Syntax•Lexicon•Post-teaching eval

Teaching Demo (con’t)•Syntax•Lexicon•Post-teaching demo

Teaching Demo

Interaction

Teaching Demo

Interaction

8.hours

Day 6

Teaching demonstration•Semantics•Post-teaching Eval•Closing Program

Awarding of

Certificates 8 hours

System of signals, a set/ code and soundsCognitive-active/linguistic/emotive/affective elementsMeaning in word/words with meaningMessage from sender to receiverVocabulary is its heart. Involves people, culture, educationUseful vocabularyMeaning for interactionExists in a language community.The goal of language is communication

Topic : Lexico-Morpho-Semantic FunctionsContentsContents

Groupings of Words Groupings of Words Nature of Semantic Change Nature of Semantic Change

Functional StylesFunctional Styles

SourceSource: Exploring the System of the English LanguageISBN 986-7688-42-2 ; Adapted from Ludmila Cawdrey

Words can be grouped together into lexico-semantic fields lexico-semantic fields on the basis of their shared meanings that can be of the following types:

similar opposite included different

Hence, synonymic, antonymic, hyponymic and homonymic lexico-semantic fields or groups of words should be distinguished.

Synonymy Synonymy deals with sameness of meaning. AntonymyAntonymy deals with oppositeness of meaning. HyponymyHyponymy refers to the words in which the meaning of one

word is included in the meaning of another word. HomonymyHomonymy deals with different words that are pronounced

and/or spelled in the same way.

Synonymy Synonymy deals with sameness of meaning. SynonymsSynonyms are words conveying the same

notion but differing either in shades (elements) of meaning or in stylistic characteristics .

synonyms may belong to the same part of speech (cf., ridiculous, absurd, inane) or formed by words of different word-classes (cf.,; sleeping, sleep time, to sleep).

Examples: to begin – to start – to – commence (stylistic differences) to tremble - to shiver (from cold) - to shudder (from

disgust) (difference in shades of meanings).

Synonyms may differ in the way of building word-combinations:

to answer (a question) – to reply to (a question); to finish (school) – to graduate from (University); to offer (a concrete thing) – to suggest (an idea).  

Each synonymic group has a dominant element called the synonymic dominantthe synonymic dominant - the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all the other members of the group, cf.: to tremble – to shiver – to shudder.

The synonymic dominant has the following features: 1. high frequency of usage; 2. broad combinability, i.e., an ability of a word

to be used in combinations with various classes of words;

3. broad general meaning; 4. lack of connotations

(to ask – to inquire – to question – to interrogate )

V. Vinogradov (1953) established the following classification of synonyms:

ideographic, stylistic, ideographic-stylistic, contextual, absolute (total) synonyms.

Ideographic Ideographic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in denotations, cf.: a piece – a lump – a slice, to tremble – to shiver – to shudder, anger – fury.

 StylisticStylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in stylistic connotations, cf.: to try – to endeavor (bookish),

to see – to behold (archaic),

sky – heaven (poetic),

a horse – a steed (poetic).

 

Ideographic-stylisticIdeographic-stylistic synonyms differ in semantics, emotional coloring and stylistic references, cf., to say – to pronounce, a head – an onion, money – cabbage.

 Contextual Contextual synonyms are similar only under some specific conditions, cf., negative forms: can’t stand it – can’t suffer it – can’t bear it.

AbsoluteAbsolute (totaltotal) synonyms are words coinciding in their semantics and stylistic characteristics (terms) cf., a noun – a substantive; an inflection – an ending; an oculist – an eye-specialist.

Borrowings from different languages (Latin, French, Italian, etc.): beautiful (Fr) – fair (E); to begin (E) – to commence (Fr) – to initiate (Lat).

Variants in American and British English: elevator - lift, sidewalk – pavement, sweets – candy, cookie – biscuit, apartment – flat, butty – sandwich, heartsome – cheering, snap – packed lunch;

Different styles, technical terms, slang: cordial – heart, optic – eye, lexeme – word, orthography – spelling, phoneme – sound;

Euphemistic and dysphemistic expressions(see next slide)

Euphemisms Euphemisms are synonymic words used to avoid direct unpleasant, improper or offensive things.

DysphemismsDysphemisms are offensive words and expressions that are substituted for inoffensive words.

SourcesSources of euphemisms and dysphemisms are various religious and social taboos, examples:a) Lord; the Maker; Goodness! Good Lord! the Prince of darkness, Old Nick; to depart this life, to be taken, to go to a better world, etc.b) W.C., gentlemen’s room, ladies’ room; to wash one’s hands, etc.c) merry, tipsy, fresh, full, drunk as a Lord, soaked, stewed, boiled, pickled, canned, half-seas-over, intoxicated, etc. d) a liar – an untruthful man, a stupid man - not exactly brilliant; naked – in one’s birthday shirt; sweat - perspiration, etc.

AntonymyAntonymy deals with oppositeness of meaning. Antonyms Antonyms (oppositesopposites) are words that possess

contrasting meanings. Antonymy is very typical of adjectives because

qualitative characteristics are easily compared, while verbs and nouns are not rich in antonyms.

Like synonyms Like synonyms they are interchangeable in the context, they have the same functions and grammatical meaning and are mostly found within one word-class.

Unlike synonyms Unlike synonyms they do not differ in style, dialect and emotional coloring.

Most of the antonyms have unrelated morphological forms: good or bad, big or small, tall or short, etc.

But there also exist words that form morphologically related pairs derived by means of negative or opposable prefixes and suffixes, cf.: pleasant and unpleasant, logical and illogical, rational and irrational, hopeful and hopeless, etc.

Antonyms are generally divided into 4 types: 1. gradable antonyms, 2. complementary antonyms, 3. conversive antonyms, 4. directional antonyms.

1. Gradable antonyms Gradable antonyms are predominantly adjectives that denote qualities subject to classification : high – low, hot – cold, narrow – wide (narrow – narrower – narrowest);

Gradable antonyms usually describe properties in comparison to other properties: short – tall (in comparison to other people).

 2. Complementary (contradictory) antonyms Complementary (contradictory) antonyms appear when the denial, negation of one of the members of the pair applies the assessment (are equivalent) of the other one: male – female, dead – alive, aunt – uncle;

  Complementary antonyms do not allow middle values, any logical middle term: clean – dirty, dry – wet.

3. Conversive antonyms Conversive antonyms appear in a set of words when one member of the pair is referred to the other member: to send - to receive, to take – to give, to buy – to sell.

 Conversives (converses; relational opposites) represent opposite perspectives of the same relations: husband – wife, aunt – niece, nephew, father - son. One of the converses cannot be used without suggesting the other. In most of the cases they express social roles (teacher – student) or kinship relations (father – mother).

 　　 4. Directional antonymsDirectional antonyms, generally adverbs and prepositions,

that indicate opposite spatial directions: up – down, in – out. A subtype of directional opposites is called “reversive” opposites – words that describe two phenomena indicated by opposite directions of development: marry – divorce, enter – leave, appear – disappear.

Wife, right, wide, shallow, feminine, to send, to give, to laugh, to open, to accept, quickly, old, merry, optimist, stranger, talkative, clever, empty, enemy

  (Attention: A polysemantic word may have several

antonyms for each of its meanings: dull – interesting, dull - clever, dull – active; light – heavy, light - strong, light – dark)

Hyponymy Hyponymy refers to the semantic relations of generality generality and inclusioninclusion, cf.: flower: rose, tulip, carnation, forget-me-not.A more specific term is included in the member of a more general meaning: meatmeat: pork, mutton, beef; birdbird: swallow, sparrow, blue tit, blackbird, sea-gull, stork, etc.

 A word with a general meaning is called a super-ordinate a super-ordinate term or hyperonym hyperonym (flower, meat, bird). A word with a specific meaning is called a hyponym hyponym (rose, tulip, carnation, forget-me-not; pork, mutton, beef; swallow, sparrow, blue tit, blackbird, sea-gull, stork). Words that are in equal relations are called equanemes equanemes (pork – mutton – beef). cf., in a word set star – sun – nova, starstar is a super-ordinate, sunsun and novanova are hyponyms hyponyms to the super-ordinate and equanemesequanemes to each other.

  (A flower, furniture, a bird, a mammal, an insect, a bug)

　

HomonymyHomonymy deals with different words that are pronounced and/or spelled in the same way.the same way.

Homonyms Homonyms are words that are identicalidentical in their sound form and spelling, but are different different in their meanings, cf.,

bank 1 – “an artificial embankment”, bank 2 – “a business establishment authorized to

perform financial transactions”, bank 3 – “a set of similar things arranged in a

row”;  band 1 – “a thin strip of flexible material”, band 2 – “a group of musicians who play together”.

Homonyms are accidental creations accidental creations and their existence leads to confusion and misunderstanding of communication. Sometimes homonyms are used to create humorous situations that are called “a puna pun” - a joke based upon the play of words: - “What’s this, waiter?” – “It’s bean soup, sir” – “Never mind what it has been. I want to know what it is now (G.B. Antrushina, 1985).

Homonyms have specific morphological and lexico-grammatical features.

MorphologicallyMorphologically, homonyms may be subdivided into several groups:

homonyms proper, homophones, and homographs.

 

Morphologically: homonyms proper, homophones, and homographs.

 　　 HHomonyms proper omonyms proper are words that are the same the same in sound in sound

and spelling:and spelling: fit 1 – “perfectly fitting clothes”, fit 2 – “a nervous spasm”. 　　 Homophones Homophones are identical identical in a sound form in a sound form but differ differ in in

spellingspelling: night - knight, piece - peace, scent – cent - sent, sea – see – C;

bee – B. 　　 Homographs Homographs are words that are iidentical dentical in spelling in spelling but

differdiffer in their sound in their sound form: bow [bau] – [bou], lead [li:d] – [led].　　

Some of the homonyms belong to belong to the same the same part of speech, part of speech, others - to to different different word classesword classes, cf.: a match 1 – “a game” (noun) and a match 2 – “a narrow strip of flammable material” (noun); to tear 1 - “to pull apart or into pieces” (verb) and a tear 2 - “a drop of the clear salty liquid” (noun); staunch 1 – “loyal, firm, dependable” (adjective) and staunch 2 – “to stop flowing” (verb). 

Lexico-grammatically,Lexico-grammatically, homonyms may be classified into two classes: 1. full homonyms and 2. partial homonyms.

1.  　

Lexico-grammatically: full homonyms and partial homonyms. 　　 Full homonyms Full homonyms have the same category of parts of the same category of parts of

speech speech and identical paradigm:identical paradigm:a bay 1 – “a body of water partly enclosed by land” (noun), a bay 2 – “a deep prolonged barking” (noun), a bay 3 – “a laurel with stiff, aromatic leaves” (noun).

 　　 Partial homonyms Partial homonyms split into 2 types: 1. Partial lexical homonyms and 2. Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms.

Partial homonyms : partial lexical and partial lexico-grammatical homonyms.

Partial lexical homonyms Partial lexical homonyms are words that belong to the same word class the same word class but are identical identical only in their only in their corresponding formscorresponding forms: to lie (lay, lain) – to lie (lied, lied) (V)to can (canned, canned) – can (could) (V)to hang (hung, hung) – to hang (hanged, hanged) (V)

 Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms may be simple simple and complex. complex.

Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms: simple and complex.

SimpleSimple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words that belong to the same word class and have one identical form in their paradigms, but it is not the same form: found 1 - “to establish” (V),found 2 – Past Indefinite of the verb to find (V).

Complex Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words that belong to different parts of speech and have one identical form in their paradigms: a rose 1 (noun) – rose 2 (Past Indefinite of the verb to rise), left 1 (adjective) – left 2 (Past Indefinite of the verb to leave).

MorphologicallyMorphologically, homonyms may be subdivided into 3 groups:1. homonyms proper2. homophones3. homographs

Lexico-grammatically, Lexico-grammatically, homonyms may be classified into 2 classes: 1. full homonyms 2. partial homonyms:

1) Partial lexical homonyms and 2) Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms:

a) a) simple ppartial lexico-grammatical homonymsb) b) complex ppartial lexico-grammatical homonyms

 

Dock, pelt, alight, foil, tense, peer, spit, hack, patter, bound, pip, castor, fast, toll, pat, bank, tend, bow, pet, tick, snub, pawn, hawk, one, can, tip, bean, snuff, peak, fob, husky, tender, peep, tenor, brake, fawn, hatch, pound, nail, plump, ear, eye, saw, bar, ray, low, lower, post, hold, hull, scale, shock, shot

 Mews (he) – mews, surf – serf, tear – tear, currant – current, hail – hail - hale, rich – to retch, buyer – byre, wind – wind, tale – tail, die – dye, left –left, piece – peace, match – match, knight – night, bow – bough, thought – thought, see – sea – C, shower – shower, week – weak, write – right – rite, bay – bay – bay, buy – by – bye, temple – temple, shy – shy, made – maid, ball – ball, coco – cocoa, navel – naval, bow – bow, husky – husky, toll – toll, slough – slough, sound – sound, pole – pole, paw – pour – pore, a tow – to tow – a toe, main – mane, bound – bound, shock – shock, eye – I, found – found, lie – lie, fast – fast, post – post

 

Meanings of words are never stable. They change.

The change of meaning has 3 aspects:1.1. causescauses of semantic change, 2.2. naturenature of semantic change,3.3. results results of semantic change.

Causes of semantic change answer the question why the word changed its meaning;

Nature of semantic change explains how different changes of meaning took place;

Results of semantic change show what has changed.

Semantic changes are based on associations between 2 meanings: the old meaning and a new one.

The process of development of a new meaning is called “transference of meaning”.

There exist 2 types of transference of meanings:

similaritysimilarity of meaning, and contiguitycontiguity of meaning.

Metaphor is a transference of meanings based on their resemblance or similarity;It’s association of 2 objects, one of which in some way resembles the other.

 There exist various kinds of similarities:

1. physical properties of human beings and objects (or vise versa);

2. specific features of character or behavior of animals and birds to denote human qualities;

3. resemblance of properties of a concrete object and an abstract notion

(examples: see the textbook)

a green bush – a green apple – a green man – green with envy, fruitful tree – a fruitful work, a blooming flower – a blooming health, wings of a bird – wings of an airplane – wings of a mill – wings of joy, leg of a table – leg of a man, bitter cucumbers – bitter thoughts, sour milk – sour smile, warm weather – warm sympathy, hot temperature – hot forehead – hot words – hot jobs

Metonymy is based on the contiguity of meanings.

It is an association of different relations of objects

The simplest case of metonymy is called synecdoche(examples: see the textbook)

1. A well-known soprano was singing “Annie Laurie” (A. Christie)

2. Pint of butter, please.3. His son was away at Cambridge.4. A blue china was standing on the table.5. He married a good inheritance and was quite satisfied.6. A thin elderly woman came out of number 14 (A.

Christie)7. The Rolls Royce is waiting for you to take you to the

yacht (E. Stuckly).8. I had some silver in my purse.9. School began in September.10. Use your eyes, use your ears, use you brain – if you’ve

got any. And if necessary – act. (A. Christie)11. Voices, voices. Everywhere you looked were eyes,

hands, mouths… (E. Courtney)

1. Guests can be introduced to our table.2. I noticed a bright steak of sun on the wall.3. At dinner he saw a new face.4. He dived under the bed and fished out another bottle. (S. Maugham)5. His heart danced with him. (S. Maugham)6. Phillip was all ears. (S. Maugham)7. I told him that sherry, hock and burgundy were being served. (A.

Christie)8. We, Englishmen, do not parade our emotions. (A. Christie)9. At eye level on the white wall facing the desk was a small Renoir (M.

Miller).10. Silk suits you.11. Suddenly, her eyes danced (A. Christie).12. The porter can’t throw any fresh light upon the matter.13. All is so dark to us in this matter.14. 16. I froze there to listen to those old hats.

Functional style Functional style is understood as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication (I.V. Arnold, 1974)

All the circumstancescircumstances may be divided into 2 types: formal and informal.

Accordingly, 2 Functional styles 2 Functional styles are distinguished: Formal Formal Functional style, andInformal Informal Functional styles.

Informal words are traditionally divided into the following types:

colloquial words, cant, jargon, argot, vulgarisms, slang, and dialect words. 　　

Colloquialisms Colloquialisms are familiar words and idioms used in informal speech and writing.They are not common for polite conversation or business correspondence. They are used to emphasize informality and familiarity of a social situation.They are:

shortenings: an exam, a fridge, a flu; phrasal verbs: to make up, to pick up, to go on; colloquial equivalents of common words: a girl (a woman of any age), to kick the bucket (to die). 　　 There are three layers of colloquial words: 1. literary colloquial, 2. familiar colloquial and 3. low colloquial words.

Literary colloquial words Literary colloquial words are used in everyday speech and do not have negative connotations.

　　Familiar colloquial words Familiar colloquial words are used by the young and the semi-educated.

They possess negative coarse connotations: ta-ta (goodbye), shut up (keep silent), etc.

 Low colloquial words Low colloquial words are typical of uncultivated people (G.P. Krapp,

1953): cant, Jargon, and argot. CanCant is the conversational vocabulary used by members of a specific

occupation, profession, sect, class, age group, and interest groups. Jargon Jargon is the secret vocabulary of such sub-groups. Argot Argot is both the cant and the jargon of any criminal group.

Slang Slang comes mostly from cant, jargon and argot words whose popularity has increased and a large number of common people uses or understands them.

　　 Slang has a tendency to be vulgar and offensive.　　 Slang is more common in speech than in writing. 　　 Slang prefers short words, especially monosyllables.

Slang is predominantly a language of males. Many types of slang words, including the taboo, refer primarily to male interests: work, money, politics, sports, women.

Spheres of communication Spheres of communication where slang is used:- money: cabbage, lettuce, kale;- parts of the body: cabbage, cauliflower;- people: apple, cold fish, frog, honey;- drunk person: boiled, fried, pickled;- sexually attractive people: cookie, honey, tomato, peach;- some situations and attitudes: to swallow a story, to ask what’s

cooking;- nonsense: apple-sauce, banana oil, spinach.

Student’s slang Student’s slang is very varied to cram (to study diligently), a bear (a difficult college course), to cut (to miss class), a shotgun (an unexpected exam), to crib (to cheat during an exam), to flunk (to fail to pass an exam), a brain (a smart student), a clod (a stupid student), a bore (a dull lecture), a drag (a boring social evening) (E.

Chaika, 1994).

Formal words Formal words are typical of a formal style and are restricted to formal situations.

Formal words are associated with learned words:

words of scientific prose, officialese, literary learned words and words of poetic diction; archaisms, obsolete words, neologisms and professionalisms (or terms).

　　 Learned words Learned words are sometimes called bookish bookish words words as they are quite often met in written speech. Words of scientific prose Words of scientific prose are characterized by their dry and matter-of-fact connotations: recant, postulate, compile, experimental, conclusive, etc. OfficialeseOfficialese are words of a bureaucratic and pedantic language: to proceed (to go), to inquire (to ask), sufficient (enough), attired (dressed), to obtain (to get), etc. 

　　 Literary learned words Literary learned words are typical of fiction, they are described as refined words: to bechance, to felicitate, elusive, fascination, etc.

　　 Words of poetic diction Words of poetic diction are used in poetry, obtain high-flown, sometimes archaic, connotations: a clarion, a brow (a forehead), to behold (to see), Alas!

Archaic words Archaic words are met in books, in written speech: they are rare in present usage: betwixt (before), save (except), a woe (sorrow), hapless (unlucky), a damsel (a girl), nay (no), thau (you).

Obsolete words Obsolete words completely went out of use: anon (at once), to befall (to happen), etc.

　 Neologisms Neologisms are new words and expressions created for the purposes of naming new things and phenomena: antibiotic, feedback, nuclear fission. They are borrowed from other languages or made according to the productive patterns of word formation:

affixation: de-icer, super-radar, electee, kitchenette, musicdom; compounding: gold-digger, ghost-writter, a walk-up, walk-ins; shortening and blending: telist (telegraphist), coke (coca-cola); conversion: to garage, to force-land, etc. 　　 Terms (professionalisms) Terms (professionalisms) are used in a certain branch of sciences, art,

technology,e.g., in Linguistics – bilingual, allophones, palatalization, componential analysis, hyponymy, synonyms, etc.

Basic vocabulary Basic vocabulary or Standard English Standard English opposes to Informal and Formal vocabulary. It is used and understood by a majority of people under any circumstances or degree of formality, regardless of profession, educational level, social group, geographical location: a table, to go, beautiful, up, down, etc.

The use of the functional styles is characterized by the choice of language means choice of language means suitable for a specific situation of communication.

All the stylistic devices, characteristic of the Functional styles, are organized on several levels:

a level of morphemes – morphological expressive morphological expressive means, means,

a level of words – lexical stylistic deviceslexical stylistic devices, a level of sentences – syntactic expressive meanssyntactic expressive means.

 

  Morphological expressive means Morphological expressive means fall into 2 types: phonetic phonetic expressive means and graphical graphical expressive means.

  PPhonetic expressive means honetic expressive means deal with sound forms

found in poetry:1. onomatopoeiaonomatopoeia - - the use of words, to imitate sounds of

animals, objects or actions: hiss, bowwow, bump, sizzle: …she came down the stairs and shooed me away;

2. alliteration alliteration is a repetition of consonants: From a cheap and chirpy chopper on a big black block [ch,p,b, k];

3. assonanceassonance is a repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables:...Sylken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain [ə:].

Graphical expressive means Graphical expressive means convey in writing people’s emotions expressed by intonation and stress:

1. graphongraphon is the intentional violation of the graphical representation of a word: gonna (going to); Sooper Class Model; Knee-hi; NRG (energy);

2. italicsitalics,, multiplication, capitalization multiplication, capitalization of a word: Allll aboarrrrrd! Help. Help. HELP;

3. morphemic repetitionmorphemic repetition: She unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door;

4. occasional wordsoccasional words: I am an undersecretary in an underbureau.

Lexical Stylistic devices are called tropes tropes and make speech colorful and bright. Among tropes we find the following lexico-stylistic devices:Metonymy:Metonymy: She was a pale eighteen;Metaphor:Metaphor: I found three splendid moons on the plate

(pancakes)SimileSimile – comparison of different objects in the structures

that contain words “like” and “as”: His skin was tight as a drum. She acted like a dog around him.

EpithetEpithet expresses a bright, unexpected, characteristic s of an object: She gave him a you-know-how-dirty-men-are look; an I-and-thou relationship to God.

IronyIrony is created by words with contextual meanings directly opposite to dictionary meanings: She returned the sweet smile of an alligator;

Pun Pun is misinterpretation of a group of words in a sentence: Have you seen any spirits, or taken any? (“supernatural forces” and “ strong drinks”);

Hyperbole Hyperbole (exaggerationexaggeration) is emphasis achieved through overstatement: My vegetable love should grow faster than empires;

Periphrasis Periphrasis (euphemismseuphemisms/ disphemismsdisphemisms) - a roundabout way to express an idea: Sometimes the unbelievable happens.

Antonomasia - Antonomasia - a proper name is used instead of a common noun, or vice versa: Dr Clean Hands appeared in front of us;

ZeugmaZeugma is the use of words that are not connected semantically: She went home in a flood of tears and a silver Nissan. In 1578 he set sail with a group of colonists and Queen Elizabeth’s blessing;

False chain False chain (a variation of zeugma) - a number of semantically disconnected objects are attached to the same verb: the room was furnished with tulips, foreigners and French novels;

OxymoronOxymoron joins two antonymous words: pretty ugly, awfully beautiful, loving hate;

AllusionAllusion – use of words that make the reader think about some historical events, literature, mythology, etc.: The car had the wings of Mercury I thought…

Syntactic stylistic devices make speech emphatic by means of a specific syntactic arrangement of an utterance:

1. Repetition Repetition may be of several types:1) anaphora - ) anaphora - the beginning of a sentence is repeated:...good-bye, Lily, good-bye love,

good-bye silly dreams; 2) epiphora - epiphora - the end of a sentence is repeated: I wake up and I am alone, I talk with

people and I am alone...;3) framingframing – the beginning of a sentence is repeated at the end: She must leave. Today,

now, immediately...Yes, she must leave;4) anadiplosisanadiplosis (catch repetition) – the end of one clause is repeated in the beginning of

the following one: Now he understood. He understood many things...;5) chain repetition (several anadiplosischain repetition (several anadiplosis): Failure meant poverty, poverty meant squalor,

squalor meant destruction;6) successive repetition - successive repetition - closely following repeated units: She felt sure. Sure. Sure.7) simple repetitionsimple repetition - - repetition without specific order of arrangement of words : I

watched him walk away with sickness in my heart - though it was a pleasing sickness.   

2. ParallelismParallelism - similar arrangement of word combinations, phrases and even sentences: On the chair sat an old woman, on the table sat a younger one.

 3. AntithesisAntithesis - juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in parallel constructions: “This pot is cracked. Look!” – “It isn’t cracked,” I said.

 4. InversionInversion - when the predicate precedes the subject, or the object precedes the subject-predicate unity: ...in came Beryl, out bounded Elizabeth after me…

 5. EllipsisEllipsis - omission of one or more members of a sentence: In manner, close and dry. In voice, husky and low.

 6. DetachmentDetachment - singling out one of the secondary members of the sentence: She was crazy about you. In the beginning.

 7. Polysyndeton Polysyndeton is a repeated use of conjunctions: He was wifed in Texas and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousined...

 8. AsyndetonAsyndeton is an omission of conjunctions: Her face blushed, paled, vanished...

 9. Rhetorical questions Rhetorical questions are questions without expecting any answer: Why? Why? Who could ever give a clear answer?

1. I really don’t see anything romantic in proposing. It is very romantic to be in love. But there is nothing romantic about a definite proposal (O. Wilder).

2. …beautifully preserved and written in an impeccably neat penmanship – crimson ink on cream paper -…

3. …and that the greatest story ever told is, in fact, the greatest story ever sold?

4. They were astonishingly stupid (J.K. Rowling).5. Eyes streaming, he swayed, trying to focus on the street to spot

the source of the noise.6. “I love you mucher”.“Plenty mucher? Me tooer”.7. He swallowed the hint with a gulp and a gasp and a grin. 8. We can’t say much about you-know-what, obviously…

(J.K.Rowling)

 

9. All shortcuts have disappeared. Screen. Mind. Both are blank.

10. And yet – and yet – what less could I do? I’ll tell you my story, gentlemen, and then I’ll ask you, as man to man, what less could I do? (A.C.Doyle)

11. A real grooming guru of the class.12. Follow our advice: Drink Pinta Milka Day.13. She unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door.14. Laughing, crying, cheering, chaffing, singing, David Rossi’s

people brought him home.15. He was the culture vulture of the family. 16. “Put – it – away!” uncle Vernon snarled into Harry’s ear. “Now!

Before – anyone – sees!” – “Get – off – me!” Harry gasped.17. In 1578 Humphry Gilbert set gait with a group of colonists and

Queen Elizabeth’s blessings.

 

B. WHAT MAKES A LANGUAGE?

Its structural areas or components are:

1. Phonology – vowel and consonant sounds, accent, intonation, stress, phonetics, phonemics, etc.

2. Morphology – word formation, verb inflections, plural form of nouns, class and function words, morphemes, etc.

3. Lexicon – the total collection of words/vocabulary of a language, language registers (formal, informal, slang, technical, colloquial, literary, scientific, etc.

4. Syntax – the grammar of a language, ordering of words or phrases in an utterance, tense aspects, verb forms, etc.

5. Semantics – the study of meanings: denotative, connotative, figurative, cultural, idioms, etc.

6. Pragmatics – refers to how language is used in a society (what is said but not meant, or not actually said, but meant) by a speaker or listeners; presuppositions in a language, shared knowledge, cultural or general perception; observes maxims of quality, of quantity, of relevance, of manner, between and listener; politeness and maintenance of face image.

- Question (comment on; Every teacher is a language teacher).

1.“Communication is a dynamic process of passing information from one person to another.”2.Communication is an interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information.3.Communication is transmitting ideas, information, feelings and thoughts through verbal or non-verbal means.”

What makes communication a process?

- Communication is a dynamic process, involving a number of essential elements and steps that must be effectively carried out.

Basically, communication has three elements: THE SENDER THE MESSAGE THE RECEIVER

SENDER RECEIVER

In this illustration, where does the communication process begin…and end?

1

2

3

4

56

7

involves the following 7 steps:◦1. Ideation – forming the message or

idea in the mind of the sender◦2. Encoding – the sender’s choice of

the appropriate words for the idea◦3. Transmitting – the message

through speech organs, and sound waves

◦4. Hearing – the receiver’s hearing or listening to the message as uttered by the sender

◦5. Understanding – the receiver’s correct perception of what he hears from the sender

◦6. Decoding – the receiver’s creating appropriate words to match the idea or message received

◦7. Feedback – receiver’s response to what is heard, understood, and decoded by means of a question, answer, confirmation, or action/performance.

In a classroom, how is oral communication from the teacher to the students/student to teacher carried out?

When does effective communication between or among teachers and students take place?

A. APPEARANCE, as shown in:-age, profession, economic position, race and culture

1. Artifacts-clothing and jewelry for personal status cars, for social status

2.Physical traits-false fingernails or dyed hair, posture

How does the appearance of teacher or student affect learning?

B. KINESICS- or body language which occurs fromculture to culture, race to race, person to

person.1. Emblems-nonverbal messages2. Illustrators-message drawn in air3. Affect displays-showing emotions4. Regulators-conscious message5. Adaptor-low level consciousness with

nervousness & anxietyHow does the teacher’s or student’s kinesics in the

classroom affect language learning?

C. OCULESICS- Eye contact or eye language

1. Cognitive Oculesics – listener is looking away from the speaker

2. Monitoring Oculesics – listener is looking intently at the speaker’s eyes

3. Regulatory Oculesics – listener’s choice of looking or not looking at the speaker’s eyes

4. Expressive Oculesics – showing emotions or feelings while listening

Oculesics could be culture-based. How does it affect, enhance, or distract from learning?

D. HAPTICS- Body touching or contact

1. Functional/professional - handshake, pat on the shoulder

2. Social/polite - handshake, hug, social kiss,

3. Friendship/warmth – long handshake, friendly hug, touch on the arm, holding hands,

◦ Love/intimacy – affectionate hug, kiss, public display of affection, laying the head on the shoulder, etc.

◦ Sexual – showing intimacies done only in private

What is appropriate and culturally acceptable body contact between teacher and students? Can it affect learning?

E. PROXIMICS- Space & distance between/among communicators while speaking

• 1 ½ feet apart – intimate: relations or topics of a confidential nature

• 1 ½ to 4 feet apart – social or professional: groupings, acquaintances, meetings

• 4 feet to 12 feet – consultative: larger group, lectures, meetings, conferences

In a classroom (from 20 to 50 students), how could the teacher maintain proximics and be effective, especially in language learning?

F. PARA-LANGUAGE Meaningless vocal elements with

speech or verbal mannerisms◦ Filled pauses: “ah,” “uhm,” “uh,”,

“er”◦ Unfilled or a long pause, or a stop◦ Verbal misplaced mannerisms:

“so?” “all right,” “and,” “OK?”In a conversation or a classroom

recitation, how does para-language affect language learning?

LL is an active process Not systematic, but actual Not just linguistic knowledge Involves decision making processes Involves emotional aspects or language ego A developmental process May affect positive transfer from L1 to L2

(First language to second language).

Learning a language other than the first Focuses on processes and products or

performances Draws upon disciplines of linguistics

◦ Psycholinguistics◦ Bio-psycholinguistics◦ Socio-linguistics◦ Applied Linguistics◦ Contrastive comparative Linguistics

Involves principles and second language learning theories

Relates to the teacher’s understanding of learner’s behavior

Involves individual and societal multilingualism and education

Age – the younger/the older/the better? Gender – female/male: A better learner? Social class – Middle class child; working

class child, more successful, more adaptable?

Ethnic identity/cultural distance – the closer to the target language the better?

Children’s creativity in L1 subconscious process can be done in L2

Constant imitation of L2 becomes a habit Children’s verbal behavior tends to match adult

models Children’s speech pattern is reinforced through

approval of the adult models

Comprehension question:ExplainExplain “practice makes perfect or correct practice makes perfect “. Relate it to language teaching.

V.WHY STUDY ENGLISH?ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE

( Nunan, 2005)

COUNTRY GRADE LEVEL

(at which English is introduced as a

compulsory subject)

FREQUENCY OF INSTRUCTION

IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A

GLOBAL LANGUAGE

CHINA GRADE 3, AGE 9

Primary school:2-340-minute lessons/week; secondary school:5-6 45-minute lessons/week

Age for compulsory English lowered from 11-9 in September 2001English teaching emerging as private businessEnglish becoming increasingly significant as university entry requirementEnglish enhancing promotional prospects in the workplace

COUNTRY GRADE LEVEL

(at which English is introduced

as a compulsory

subject)

FREQUENCY OF

INSTRUCTION

IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A

GLOBAL LANGUAGE

HONG KONG

YEAR 1, AGE 6

Primary school:4-6 hours/week;

Secondary school:

7-9 hours/week

Overwhelming concern in government and business sectors that Hong Kong will lose economic advantage if English language skills are not enhanced

COUNTRY GRADE LEVEL(at which English is introduced as a compulsory subject)

FREQUENCY OF INSTRUCTION

IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE

JAPAN 1st year, Age 12

Junior high school: 3 50-minute lessons/ week

From 2002, primary students increasingly exposed to English, especially listening and speaking

COUNTRY GRADE LEVEL

(at which English is introduced as a

compulsory subject)

FREQUENCY OF INSTRUCTION

IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL

LANGUAGE

KOREA Grade 3, Age 9

Grades 3-6:1-2 hours/week;Grade 7-9: 2-4 hours/week;Grade 10-12: 4 hours/week

Compulsory English lowered from age 13-9Huge financial investment in teaching EnglishConcern with negative effects on national identity due to early introduction of English

COUNTRY GRADE LEVEL

(at which English is introduced

as a compulsory

subject)

FREQUENCY OF INSTRUCTION

IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL

LANGUAGE

MALAYSIA Age 7 Primary school:90 min/week;Secondary school: 4 hours/week

Concern with decline in educational standards and competitive economic advantageFear of impact on national language

COUNTRY GRADE LEVEL

(at which English is introduced

as a compulsory

subject)

FREQUENCY OF

INSTRUCTION

IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A

GLOBAL LANGUAGE

TAIWAN Grade 1,Ages 6-7

1-2 hours/week Compulsory English lowered from Grade 5 to Grade 1

COUNTRY GRADE LEVEL

(at which English is introduced as a

compulsory subject)

FREQUENCY OF INSTRUCTION

IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL

LANGUAGE

VIETNAM Grade 6,

Ages 11-12 Grades 6-9: 4 45 minute lessons/week; Grades 10-12: 3 45 minute

lessons/week

English compulsory from junior high school (ages 11-12)

English plays central role in education and employment

English proficiency now required for most professional employment

1. STANDARD ENGLISH DOES NOT HAVE TO BE GOODBUT DOES STANDARD MEAN…

-an authorized model? By whom and where?-an accepted example?-The usual, regularized, accepted kind?-A level of excellence or quality?-A principle of propriety, honesty and integrity?-A recognized authority and competence?

2. STANDARD ENGLISH IS RELATIVELY UNIFORM THROUGHOUT THE ENGLISH SPEAKING WORLD3. STANDARD ENGLISH IS USED IN PUBLIC, FORMAL CONTEXT

(Parliament, law courts, churches, mass media, education, published writing, and diplomatic relations among countries)

4. STANDARD ENGLISH IS USED BY EDUCATED NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKERS AND UNDERSTOOD BY OTHER SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH.5. STANDARD ENGLISH IS USED IN THE PRINT AND BROADCAST MEDIA

and understood by all speakers of English.

◦North American English (NAE)

◦British English (BE) ( See Appendix)

VII. WHAT IS TESOL?

TESOL originally meant Teachers of English for Speakers of Other

Languages, founded in 1966, in Virginia, U.S.A., as an international professional organization for those concerned with the teaching of English as a Second Language or as a Foreign Language.

Today TESOL is both an organization, and a course, or profession, for teaching English to speakers of other languages.

MISSION: to develop the expertise of its members and others involved in teaching English to speakers of other languages and to help them foster effective communication in diverse settings while respecting individual’s language rights.

TESOL OBJECTIVES:

1. Articulates and advances standards for professional preparation and employment, continuing education and student programs;

2. Links groups worldwide to enhance communication among language specialists and practitioners;

3. Produces high quality program services and products for teaching language;

4. Promotes advocacy to further the language teaching profession.

TESOL maintains ESL-ESOL STANDARDS

(ESL – English as Second Language)(ESOL – English for Speakers of other Languages)

ESL standard means that language skills are necessary for social and academic purpose, for the learner’s proficiency in English to lead rich and productive lives.

TESOL emphasizes that: 1. language is for communication.2. learning through individual and societal value of bilingual and

multilingual ESOL students’ native language have a role in L2 cultural, social & cognitive process in language and academic development.

3. language assessment respects the learner’s language and cultural diversity.

ESL STANDARDS refer to the:

Articulation in the English language development needs of ESOL learners

Provisions of directions to educators on how to meet the needs of ESOL students.

Emphasis on the central role of language in the attainment of other standards.

TESOL

TEAL & TEFL TEIL TESP TESL

TEAL & TESL (UK) TESL (C) EAP ECP

TESOL-Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (Umbrella acronym)

TEAL-Teaching English as An Additional Language EASP-…AcademicTESL-Teaching English as a Second Language Special PurposesTEFL-Teaching English as a Foreign Language EGAP- for generalTEIL-Teaching English as an International Language Acad. PurposesTESP- Teaching English for Specific Purposes TENOR-TeachingEOP- English for Occupational Purposes English for No EAP- English for Academic Purposes Obvious Reasons

OTHER AREAS UNDER TESOL

VIII. TESOL APPROACHES & STRATEGIES

A. Development of Language Teaching

1. In the 1960’s, language teaching was a system of rules which learners internalized (task).

a. Learners were to approach L2 norms of native speaker.

b. Mastery of structure was the priority, meaning just a peripheral.

c Focus on syntactic was not much on vocabulary and semantics

2. In the 1970’s, language teaching was a system for the expression of meaning.

a.Focus was on learner’s needs, syllabus needs based, and communicative syllabus.

b..Learners centered education was prioritized;

c. Learner-involvement was the objective in learning process

3..Since 1980’s to the present, Enhancement of the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) complemented with a Conversational Grammar Approach (CGA) and many other strategies

B. TESOL STRATEGIES/METHODOLOGY AND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

1. Memory maintenance using:

» Graduated Interval Recall

» Backwards Buildup Drill

» Stories, drills, and questions

» Cassette tapes

2. The Communicative Approach using:

» Visual Eye Contact

» Biographical Questions

» Biographical Database

3. Chaos Theory • Language students are assigned to think of four-step

instructions, and then the class discusses the differences in instructions given by selected students.

4. Tell the story• Folk tales, ballads, legends, folk songs, myths, epics, etc.

5. The Never Ending Story• Where one student starts and the rest add an event to the

story, until reaching an ending.

6. Educational Kinesiology (Situational Problem Solving)• Uses thematic vocabulary• Accelerates blood flow to the brain• Activates the brain’s vigilance circuit

7. Audio Lingual Method

8. Advanced Audio Lingual Method

9. Sounds and Spellings

How to teach more effectively the 40 phonemes of the English language

10. Community Language Learning

Draw on the combined knowledge of your students to produce new vocabulary and correct grammar patterns.

11. Humorous Stories or Anecdotes

12. Use of Video• How to use BBC or other videos for language models,

information gap activities, prediction, and role-play.

13. Word Frequency Approach• What are the 10 words that make up 33% of all English

usage?• What are the 800 words needed for basic fluency?• Learn useful activities to target these high-frequency words

15. Word Family

16. Creative Genius• Accelerate second language acquisition through activities

which stimulate the creative powers of your students

16. Total Physical Response

17. Musical Dictation

• Activities which capitalize on the memory enhancing quality of music

• Further music related activities to build vocabulary and reinforce grammar.

18. Paraphrasing or Restating

• Creative musical activities to build vocabulary and reinforce grammar

19. Reverse Paraphrasing

• Further music related activities to build vocabulary and reinforce grammar.

• For example, from music to poem/poem to music

20. Drama/Dialogues• How can dramatic gestures and expressive, emotional voices

aid memory retention?

21. Content Based Instruction• Other interdisciplinary subjects taught in English (Science,

Art, Technology, History, Geography, etc.)

22. Using Actual Objects- Direct Method/approach

23. Giving Instructions- using base form of the verb

24. Integrated Nine Skills In a Lesson

Listening, Reading, Grammar, Writing, Speaking, Pronunciation

Spelling, Vocabulary, Comprehension and critical thinking

25. Contextual/Situational Approach

26. Interviewing (Skills in Questioning)

As in Yes-No questions, or Wh and How questions (Who, What, When, Where.

27. Song dictation

28. Song/Poetry Reading/writing

29. Word Portrait/Character Description

30. Vocabulary or Sounds in Color

31. Folktales or Poetry reading/writing

32. Jazz/Rap/Chant

33. Games/puzzle, anagrams, scrabble

34. Problem Solving

35. Vocabulary building/ enhancement

36. Glossary Making- sentence definitions

37. Picture Clues

38. Media Ads /Print & Broadcast

39. Radio Announcing/TV Broadcasting

40. Play Writing/Acting/Directing

Mgmt. Systems Approach

Silent Way Suggesto

pedia

Community Language Learning

Audio-Lingual Approach

Total Physical

Response

Grammar Translation Method

Direct

metho

d

Communicative Language Teaching

Communicative Language Teaching

Whole

Languag

e Approac

h

Individual Instruction

Programme

d Instruction

Basal Readers Approach

Language

Experienc

e Approach

IX. APPROACHES TO TEACHING LANGUAGES THROUGH THE DECADES

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING/LEARNING1. AUDIOLINGUAL

Theory of language Is a system of rule-governed structures hierarchically arranged

Theory of learning Habit formation; analogy not analysis

Objectives Control of structures, sound, form and order, goal: native speaker mastery

Syllabus Grades syllabus; contrastive analysis

Activity types Dialogues & drills, repetition & memorization, pattern practice

Learner roles Directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responses

Teacher roles Central & active teacher dominated methods. Provides direction & pace.

Roles of material Primarily teachers oriented. Tapes & visual, language lab often used.

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING/LEARNING2. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

Theory of language Structural, grammar-bases view of language

Theory of learning L2 learning is same as L1 learning; comprehension before production; reduction of stress

Objectives Teach oral proficiency to produce learners who can communicate uninhibitedly & intelligibly with native speakers

Syllabus Sentence based syllabus with grammatical & lexical criteria but focus on meaning not form

Activity types Imperative drills to elicit physical actions

Learner roles Listener & performer, little influence over the content of learning

Teacher roles Active & direct role ‘the director of the stage play’ with students as actors

Roles of material No basic text; materials & media have an important role later, Initially voice’ action, & gestures are sufficient

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING/LEARNING

3. THE SILENT WAY

Theory of language

Language is composed of elements that has a unique rhythm & spirit. Functional vocabulary & core structure are a key to the spirit of the language

Theory of learning

Processes of learning second language are fundamentally different. L2 learning is an intellectual, cognitive process.

Surrender to be music of the language, silent awareness then active trial

Objectives Near native fluency, correct pronunciation, basic, basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the L2, Learner learns how to learn a language

Syllabus Basically structural lessons planned around grammatical items & related vocabulary. Items are introduced according to their grammatical complexity.

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING/LEARNING

3. THE SILENT WAY

Activity types

Learner responses to commands, questions, and visual cues. Activities encourage & shape oral responses without grammatical explanation or modeling by teacher by teacher.

Learner roles Learning is a process of personal growth. Learners are responsible for their own learning & must develop independence, autonomy & responsibility.

Teacher roles

Teachers must a) teach b) get out of the way. Remain impassive. Resist temptation to model, remodel, assist, direct exhort

Roles of material

Unique materials: colored rods, color coded pronunciation & vocabulary charts.

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING/LEARNING

4. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

Theory of language

Language is more than a system for communication. It involves person, culture, educational developmental communicative processes.

Theory of learning

Involves the whole person. It is a social process of growth

Objectives Non specific objectives. Near-native mastery is the goal

Syllabus No set syllabus. Course progression is topic-based

Activity types Combination of innovative & conventional. Translation, group work, recording, transcription, listening, free conversation

Learner roles Members of a community, Learning is viewed as an individual accomplishment, but something that is achieved collaboratively.

Teacher roles Counseling/parental analogy; provides a safe environment in which students can learn & grow

Roles of material No textbook which would inhibit growth. Materials are developed as course progresses.

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING/LEARNING5. THE NATURAL APPROACH

Theory of language

Essence of language is meaning. Vocabulary not grammar is the heart of the language.

Theory of learning

ACQUISITION-a natural subconscious process. Learning cannot lead to acquisition

Objectives Designed to give beginners & intermediate learner basic communicative skills.

Syllabus Based on selection of communicative activities & topics derived from learner needs.

Activity types Allowing comprehensible input, about things in the here-and now. Focus on meaning not form.

Learner roles Should not try & learn language in the usual sense, but should try & lose themselves in activities involving meaningful communication

Teacher roles Primary source of comprehensible input. Must create positive low-anxiety climate.

Roles of material Materials come from real things rather than textbooks. Primary aim is to promote comprehension & communication.

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING/LEARNING6. SUGGESTOPEDIA

Theory of language

Conventional, memorization of whole meaningful texts is recommended

Theory of learning

Learning occurs through suggestion, when learners are in a deeply relaxed state. Baroque music is used to induce this state.

Objectives To deliver advanced conversational competence quickly.

Syllabus 10 units courses consisting of 1,200 words dialogues graded by vocabulary & grammar

Activity types Initiatives, question & answer, role play, listening exercises under deep relaxation

Learner roles Must maintain a passive state and allow the materials to work on them (rather than vice-versa)

Teacher roles To create situations in which the learner is most suggestible & prevent material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception & retention. Must exude authority & confidence

Roles of material Consists of texts, tapes, classroom fixtures & music. Texts should have force, literary quality, and interesting characters.

APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING/LEARNING

7. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)

Theory of language

Language is a system for the expression of meaning; primary function-interaction and communication

Theory of learning

Activities involving real communication; carrying out meaningful tasks; and using language which is meaningful to the learner.

Objectives Objectives will reflect the needs of the learner; they will include function skills as well as linguistic objectives

Syllabus Will include some/all of the following; structures, functions, notations, themes, tasks. Ordering will be guided by learner needs.

Activity types Engage learners in communication, involve processes such as information sharing, negotiation of meaning & interaction

Learner roles As negotiator, inter actor giving as well as taking

Teacher roles Facilitator, needs analyst, counselor, process manager

Roles of material Primary role in promoting communicative language use; task based materials, authentic

K

I L

A

K-Knowledge Considerations Input/output assumption Language Content/topic Language functions Texts Student response

I-Instructional Considerations

Teacher input Methods, materials,

programs, Technologies &

educational Environment Time & scheduling

techniques Plans for reporting

L-Learner Considerations• Ages, proficiency levels, developmental

stage• Societal expectations• Learner’s self-perception• Prior learning experiences (schema)• Preferred Learning styles• Strategies, environments, & groupings

A-Administrative Considerations• Choice of instructional models• Scale, pace, & styles of educational

delivery• Plans for execution• Evaluation• Promotion• Environmental Development• Institutional Image

Listening

Reading * Speaking

Pronunciation

Vocabulary

Spelling ,writing , grammar

Integrated 8 language skills from stage 1

1.Elicitation Stage – bringing out new language structures meaningfully (story, poem, songs, dialogs, jazz, games, etc.)

2.Explanation stage (highlighting of forms) – explaining what, when, why and how of the newly elicited language items with rules/tips.

3.Controlled Practice – a teacher-directed activity for learners’ mastery of new structure through drills, Q&As and on-the-spot error correction for correct feedback.

4.Skills Work stage – allows teacher to check on learners’ language skills integrated from stage 1 through their feedback.

5.Free stage – a learner-centered tasks to test the acquired skills, free interaction and communication with fluency and accuracy.

1. Meaning, not memorized rules, is paramount.2. Dialogues center on communication.3. Functions are contextualized and not memorized.4. Language learning is learning to communicate.5. Comprehensible pronunciation is sought; grammatical

explanation is not over-emphasized.6. Translations may be used only when needed.7. Communicative competence is desired.8. Language is created by learner often through trial and

error.9. Learners are expected to interact.10. Judicious use of native language is acceptable where

feasible.11. Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired.12. Fluency is the primary goal.

1. Is the lesson appropriate to the learner’s age and proficiency? If not, can it be adapted?

2. Does the lesson have a single focus?

3. Is the lesson based on an instructional objective or student need? If the main reason for the lesson is the activity, there may be problems of sequencing.

4. Does the lesson address a real communicative problem?

5. Does the lesson have a real world (or at least school practice) outcome?

6. Does the lesson begin inductively and later move to a more deductive footing? (the deductive segment provides clarity)

7. Is there a mix of acquisition and learning activities?

8. Have learners been provided with all the language, skills, and knowledge they need to carry out every activity?

9. Do you have a language presentation—is it a piece of authentic discourse? (Beware of lessons that begin “Today students, we are going to study…”)

10. Do all activities occur in a realistic communicative context? (e.g., only playwrights and screenwriters write dialogues)

11. Do all activities have a clear goal other than “to practice the language” or “it’s good for you”? NOTE: this is especially important for pair and group work and all concluding communicative activities

12. Will learners easily imagine themselves (either now or in the future) engaging in these kinds of activities in English?

13. Are settings and vocabulary fields for all activities in the lesson consistent?

14. Are there opportunities for choice?

15. If you’ve provided choice, have you also provided criteria for making a choice? (e.g., if you give “also”, “in addition to”, “beside”, “furthermore” and “moreover”, will students have a guide for figuring out which to choose?)

16. Does language practice move from more controlled activities (for mastery) to freer, more communicative practice (so students can use the language skill/feature in naturalistic practice that solves real-world problems).

17. Is there attention paid to recursiveness (both within the lesson and in relation to other lessons—past and future?)

18. In content lessons, have you done a mini-discourse analysis to look at the language features that are

particularly useful for participating in that lesson? --have you created activities to help learners

notice them? --are your activities structured to allow learners

to practice that language in an obvious way while they’re succeeding in the

lesson

I. LANGUAGE ITEMS: Singular and Plural Nouns

(sounds of plural noun ending)

II. LANGUAGE SKILLS: Listening, speaking, reading, writing

(INTEGRATED) vocabulary,grammar, spelling, pronunciation,

III. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson the

students will be able to:

a. identify singular and plural nounsb. use them correctly in function,

forms, sounds, and meaning c. identify and use descriptive

adjectives correctly in real life situations.

IV. PAST LESSON: Voiced and voiceless

vowels and consonantsV. TEACHING AIDS AND RESOURCES: Pictures or actual

objectsSide By Side, Molinsky & Bliss

Motivation: Pre-Elicitation (People’s Clothing)

STAGE 1 Elicitation through Games: “Give me what I want”Singular and Plural nouns of man’s and

woman’s clothing

(1. Skills: Ex. Give me a coat. Give me two coats. Listening, Give me a glove. Give me two gloves. Pronunciation Give me a glass. Give me two glasses. Speaking )

(Students in groups are expected to give what the teacher wants.)

MOTIVATION: Pre-Elicitation Stage

Identifying Clothes

STAGE 2: EXPLANATION OF FORMS AND SOUNDSHighlighting Different Sounds of Plural

Nouns

1. Final sounds of plural nouns: /-s/, /-z/, /-Iz/

a. Singular nouns: Plural nouns: Group 1 final /-s/ sounds

a hat hats a belt beltsa skirt skirts

a jacket jackets a sock socks

(Students repeat after the teacher’s pronunciation of these nouns)

Group 2 final /-z/ sounds a shoe shoes a glove gloves an umbrella umbrellas an earring earrings

a tie ties

(Students repeat after the teacher’s pronunciation of these nouns)

Group 3 final /-IZ/ sound a watch watches

a necklace necklaces a purse purses a dress dresses

(Students repeat after the teacher’s pronunciation of these nouns)

The teacher asks the students the different ending sounds of the plural form of nouns.

Making requests or commands with singular and plural nouns:Ex.

Please give me a raincoat. Give me two raincoats.

Please give me an umbrella. Give me umbrellas.

Please give me a purse. Give me two purses.

Would you mind passing me the spoon? Pass the spoons.Could you make a doll’s dress? Make a doll’s

dresses.

Article A or An is used for singular nouns.

3. Asking Wh questions (who, what, when, where, why, and also how) Ex. What’s this? This is a sock. What are these? These are socks.

This is used for only one noun. These are for more than one noun.Note: The object/objects are nearer to the speaker.

Who is wearing a pair of mittens? When do we wear a raincoat? What is the color of your umbrella? Where do you put your stockings? Why are you wearing a pair of boots? How do you wear a scarf?

What’s that? That’s a skirt. What are those? Those are skirts.

That is is used for pointing at a far (only one) object.Those are is used for pointing at far (more than one) objects.

(The class pretends that they are at a department store trying to name the clothing of a mannequin. A pair of students asks and answers questions.)

This is { Model question: What’s this? (Pointing to one object.)

{ Answer: This is a hat.These are { Model question: What are these?

{ (Pointing to more than one object.){ Answer: These are scarves.

The drill continues until all students have had an opportunity to ask and answer questions. Students can change rolls from asking to answering the questions.

-Identify the man’s clothing.

-Give the plural form of each item.

-Identify the girl’s clothing.

-Give the plural form of each item

STUDENTS’ A pair of studentsCONVERSATIONAL uses the followingDRILLS NO.1 dialogue.

The list of words is used

as answers:Student 1: What’s this?Student 2: This is a ____ Student 1: What are these?Student 2: These are ____

Answer choices:Singular nouns Plural nouns

a rain coat a shoe a watch raincoats shoes watchesa suit an earring a blouse suits earrings blousesa coat a stocking a necklace coats stockings

necklacesa bracelet a glove a purse bracelets(a pair of) gloves

pursesa sock a mitten a dress socks (a pair of) mittens

dressesa belt a sweater a briefcase belts sweaters briefcasesa jacket an umbrella a glass jackets umbrellas

glassesa shirt a pair of shoes a hat shirts boots (a pair of) boots

Note: students must pronounce a final sounds of plural noun (-s, -z, -Iz)

Follow the model questionsand answers.

Student 1: Is this your blouse? Student 2: No, it isn’t. (For singular object)Student 1: Are these your shoes?Student 2: No, they aren’t. (For plural

objects)

(Use the same list in drill 1 answering questions)

Drill No. 2

D. SKILLS WORKSTAGE 4: Now, use the same list of nouns in saying something about the clothing of the man or woman. Next, use an adjective from the list below to describe the person.

Ex. Question: Is this your purse?Answer: No, it isn’t. But I think it’s

colorful.Question: Are these your earrings?Answer: No, they aren’t but I think they

arebeautiful.

(For expansion drills, the students may be provided with descriptive adjectives (such as those below) for men’s and women’s clothing, such as colorful, beautiful, expensive, stylish, affordable, simple, attractive, etc.)

Note: Skills work from stages 1 to 5

attractive colorful affordablefashionable old expensivegorgeous bold unusualfancy bright classicsmart tight prettycute loose simplestylish long short

E. FREE STAGE: Students are now expected to write a description of any of the clothing of people in class or someone they admire, then tell the class what they have written about.

VII. ASSIGNMENT / HOMEWORK:Look in your clothes cabinet. List all the different kinds of clothing. Using the three columns of end-sounds of the plural nouns, write the appropriate word.

Singular noun Plural noun end sounds

/-s/ /-z/ /-Iz/Ex: dress

dressesglove gloves

1.2.3.4.5.

2. Then say something about the

clothing in your list. Please follow this pattern:

Ex. This is my dress. It is colorful. These are my dresses. They are colorful.

(The students’ answers can be expanded to more descriptive sentences.)

I. LANGUAGE ITEM: Inflections of adjectives (comparative form)

II. LANGUAGE SKILLS: Listening , speaking, reading , writing, spelling,

vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar

III. TEACHING AIDS: charts, pictures, reading materialsIV. OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the

students will be able to:

1. identify the morphemes used for comparative and superlative forms of adjectives; and

2. create meaningful sentences using the inflections in comparing items.

V. PROCEDURE:Stage 1: Elicitation

-Let the students form a straight line-Let them identify the tallest student.-Record their responses.

Stage 2: Highlighting New Forms Show picture of 3 clowns

Let the students identify which is the short, shorter, and the shortest among them. Ex. _______________ is short.

_______________ is shorter. _______________ is the shortest of all.

Rob Hob Bob

1. Among the 3 clowns, who is the shortest?

2. Between Hob and Rob, who is shorter?

3. What letters are added to the word short to compare two, and three clowns?

Answers: suffix –er is added to short to compare two

clowns suffix – est is added to

compare three clowns

Stage 3: Controlled Practice Show the picture of 3 books. Let the

students identify which book is thick, thicker, and thickest.

Let the students make a dialogue for the picture

Ex. The blue book is thick.

The yellow book is thicker.

The red book is the thickest.

Activity 1: Group students by 3’s to look for 3 objects in the classroom and compare them by size, height, color, weight or texture.Example: size - big, bigger, biggest

- small, smaller, smallest color - dark, darker, darkest - light, lighter, lightest height- tall, taller, tallest

- short, shorter, shortest weight- heavy heavier, heaviest

- light, lighter, lightest texture - soft, softer, softest

- rough, rougher, roughest- smooth, smoother,

smoothest

Activity 2: Use your comparison in complete sentences.Example: Sarah’s flower is pretty.

Joann’s flower is prettier, but Ann’s flowers are the prettiest.

Stage 4: Skills Work Show picture of Pam, Ann, & Jill. Let the students identify who is thin, thinner, thinnest. Let the students match the sentences with the

picture.Ex. Pam, Ann and Jill are friends.

Ann is thin.Pam is thinner than Ann.But Jill is the thinnest

among them.

ANN PAM JILL

Stage 5: Free Stage1. Show the picture of the racing animals.

Let the students fill in the blanks to complete the story.Ex. The rabbit is fast.

The deer is faster than the rabbit.The lion is faster than the deer.The lion is the fastest.

2. Now, let the students make their own comparison of things, animals, or people.

VI. EVALUATION: There are things that are cheaper than Mimi’s bear.

Can you tell the class which is cheaper?

Ex. Mimi’s teddy bear is cheap.The doll is cheaper than Mimi’s teddy

bear.But the apple is the cheapest.

P 10.00 P 5.00 P 2.00

VI. ASSIGNMENT:Give the comparative endings of the following:

1. light2. long3. big4. small5. heavy

Use them in comparing three items at home.(For higher grade learners this lesson can be

expanded or reinforced with longer adjectives appropriate for their level.)

Edited by Rhoda T. Perez, Ph.D. (TESOL)

hai!wεlkəm

/ i /

/ I /

/ eI /

/ ε /

/ æ /

/ зr /

/ ^ /

/ a /

/ u /

/ U /

/ o /

/ au /

/ /

/ aI / / I /

(IPA SYMBOLS)

For IPA Symbols, please refer to notes on NAE & BE Standards.

Minimal Pairs – Lesson 1( Adapted from Silliman University Handbook)

/ I / / i /or /iy/

bit beatrid readdid deedlive leavehit heatlist leastship sheepit eat

Lesson 1

beat the dog which bit him

read and be rid of it

did a good deed

leave to live elsewhere

Either read the book or get rid of it

List at least the important items

When are they going to ship the sheep

Did you buy it to eat?

Lesson 2

/ i / or /iy/ / e / or /ey/beat baitread raidsheep shapesee saypea payseek sakemeet matewheel whalesteal staleheel hailfield failed

Lesson 2

beat the can of bait

read about the raid

fine shape of the sheep

see what he has to say

pay for the peas

The whale rests on the platform with a wheel.

You waste your time when you steal stale bread.

He hurt his heel with hailstones.

Lesson 3

/ε / or /ey/ / I /bet bitpen pinred ridten tinhead hidbell billsell sillBen beencheck chickleft liftbetter bitter

Lesson 3

stick pins and writing pens

rid yourself of red paint

ten tin soldiers

This bird hid its head under its wing.

Ben has been to London.

What’s left is still too heavy to lift.

This bitter pill will make you feel better.

Miss Maria is responsible for the mess.

Lesson 4

/e/ or /ey/ / ε /bait betage edgemain mendate debtwait wetdeign dentale tellshade shedbraid bredtrade tread

Lesson 4

bet on the bait

on the edge of old age

men in the main office

the date to pay the debt

Tell us the tale all over please.

Did you get through the gate on time?

Write your age at the edge.

It was late but they let us in just the same.

Lesson 5

/e/ or /ey/ / æ /bait bathate hatKate catlame lambpane panrate ratsame Samdame damclaim clam

Lesson 5

bat meat for bait

hate her hat

Kate’s cream-colored cat

The lame lamb

Did you put the pan close to the windowpane?

He is the same Sam that we always knew.

She hated the wind that blew her hat off.

The cat belongs to Kate.

IN A CANYON SAT A CANNER(Oh, my Darling Clementine)

In a canyon sat a cannerTapping, tapping on a pan;Oh, he had a happy mannerAnd he flapped his hat to fan.

In a saddle rode young AdamHe was galloping along,But the old man came and stopped himAnd he burst into a song.

Lesson 6

/æ/ / ε /bat betdad deadsad saidlass lesssat setband bendpat petlad ledpan pen

Lesson 6

the bettor is the batter

his dead dad

said something sad

more lads less lasses

The band marched around the bend briskly.

Give me a pen not a pan.

Do you like to pat my pet?

He is sad, that’s what he said.

THERE’S A PACKAGE(Oh, my Darling Clementine)

There’s a package. There’s a package.

There’s a package in the mail.It’s wrapped in yellow paper,

And the twine is like a tail.Three stamps are in the corner,

One red, the other pale.There’s a package.There’s a package.

There’s a package in the mail.

Lesson 7

/ a / / æ /pot patsock sackcop capblock blackmop mapnot gnatjob jabsod sadrot ratlock lack

Lesson 7

pat the clay pot

put the sock in the sack

cop with a blue sap

play with black block

The cop lost his cap.

I found the sock in the sack.

You’ll be hot if you go without a hat.

Drive the cat away for my cot.

Lesson 8

/ ə / / a /cup copduck dockcut cothut hotnut notshut shotdull dollluck lockcome calmrut rot

Lesson 8

the coffee cup of the cop

ducks by the docks

the canvas cot that’s cut

hot if you stay in the hut

The duck swims under the dock.

We heard shot and hurriedly shut the door.

No, that’s not a nut.

Tourist come when the sea is calm.

Lesson 9

/ o / or /ow/ / /boat boughtcoat caughttoll tallcoal callhole hallflow flawload laudphone fawnbowl ballbold bald

Lesson 9

bought a motor boat

caught the man in the red coat

tall man near the toll bridge

call for the coal miner

His coat goat caught in the thorny bush

Did you phone him about the straw fawn?

The bold man fought a bald-headed giant condor.

The tall stranger refused to pay the toll.

Lesson 10

/ o / or /ow/ / u / or /uw/boat bootrole rulestole stoolroad rudemoan moonpole pooljoke jukedome doomcoal coolblow blue

Lesson 10

one boot on the boat

a rule for the movie role

stole the stool

rude man by the road

Measure the depth of the pool with the pole

You can do child’s sculpture with a dough.

At noon the office will make the information known

Can you blow the blue candles out?

Lesson 10

The black cat yawnsOpens her jaws,Stretches her legsAnd shows her claws.

Lifting herselfOn delicate toes.She arches her backAs high as it goes.

She lets herself down,With particular easeAnd pads away,With her tail up in the air.

Lesson 10

/ U / / u / or/uw/full foolsuit sootcould cooedwood wooedlook Luke

ORAL PROFICIENCY TEST SCORING CATEGORIES

GRAMMAR

Errors in Grammar are frequent but can be understood by a native speaker used in dealing with foreigners attempting to speak his language.

Can usually handle elementary constructions quite accurately but does not have thorough or confident control of the grammar.

Control of Grammar is good. Able to speak the language with sufficient structural accuracy to participate effectively in most formal & informal conversations on practical, social & professional topics.

Able to use the language accurately on all levels normally pertinent to professional needs. Errors in grammar are quite rare.

Equivalent to that of an educated native speaker.

I II III IV V

ORAL PROFICIENCY TEST SCORING CATEGORIES

VOC

ABU

L

AR

Y

Speaking vocabulary inadequate to express anything but the most elementary needs.

Has speaking vocabulary sufficient to express himself simply with some circumlocutions

Able to speak the language with sufficient vocabulary to participate effectively in most formal & conversations on practical, social & professional topics. Vocabulary is broad enough that he rarely has to grope for a word.

Can understand & participate in any conversation within the range of his experience with a high degree of precision of vocabulary

His speech on all levels is fully accepted by educated native speakers in all its features. Including breadth of vocabulary & idioms, colloquialism & pertinent cultural references.

I II III IV V

ORAL PROFICIENCY TEST SCORING CATEGORIES

COMP

R

E

H

E

N

S

I

ON

Within the scope of his very limited language experience can understand simple questions & statements allowing for slowed speech, repetition, or paraphrase.

Can get the gist of most conversations of non-technical subjects (i.e. topics which require no specialized knowledge)

Comprehension is quite complete for a normal rate of speech

Can understand any conversation within the range of his experience.

Equivalent to that of an educated native speaker.

I II III IV V

ORAL PROFICIENCY TEST SCORING CATEGORIES

F

L

U

E

NC

Y

(No specific fluency description. Refer to other four language areas for Implied level of fluency).

Can handle with confidence but not with facility most social situations including introductions & casual conversations about current events as well as work, family & auto-bio-graphical information

Can discuss particular interests of competence with reasonable ease. He rarely has to grope for words.

Able to use the language fluently on all levels normally pertinent to professional needs. Can participate in any conversation within the range of his experience with a high degree of fluency

Has complete fluency in the language such that his speech is fully accepted by educated native speakers.

I II III IV V

TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES

(TESOL)

Creative Methods in TESOLEdited by Rhoda T. Peres, Ph.D.,

TESOL

Minimal Pairs - Lesson 1/ b / / v /

base vaserobes rovesberry veryboat votebane vanebury verybe “v”swab suave

Lesson 1 - Phrasesa wide-based vaseroves about in his robesvery delicious berryvote for the swiftest boatFarmers vary in the way they bury trash.The covered cupboard is clean.Very nice berries are sold now.

Lesson 2/ p / / f /

pan fanpine finepool fool pat fatpaint faintlap laughpile filePoe foePerry ferrypea fee

Lesson 2a fine pine treea fool in the poolpat the fat manfaint smell of paintThe missing file was found in the pile of papers.Did you see Perry aboard the ferry?Let’s make the baby on it’s mother lap laugh.

Lesson 3/ f / / v /

fail veilfear veerfeel vealfan vanoffer oversafer savercoffer coverleaf leavebelief believesafe save

Lesson 3fail to conceal the veilfear to veer off the pathsoggy feel of vealfan in the van

Lesson 4/d/ / ð /

den thendoze thosedine thinedare therewordy

worthybread breathetide tithesued soothe

Lesson 4 was in the den then those who doze off easily dare to be there wordy not worthy Those men can doze anywhere they

choose. He sued for hurt feelings that cannot

be soothed. Do you dare to go there, dear?

Lesson 5/ð/ / s / / d / / t /

though sew doe toethere saver dare tearseethe sees seed seatbathe base bade batsoothed sues sued suit

The ticks that bite through thick skin made Dick sick.

I dared to tread on that bridge that seems to hang by just thread.

His soldier friend bade him wait to bathe at the base.

Lesson 5/ θ / / ð /

bath bathebreath breathecloth clothemouth

mouthewreath wreatheteeth teethepath paths

Lesson 5bathe in the bathroombreathe his last breathsome cloth to clothe

The pathfinder led us through many paths.He did not like to bathe in the bathroom.Thank you for telling me something about your method.

Lesson 6/s/ / z /seal zealsink zincsip zipice eyesrice riseplace playsniece kneescease seizepiece peastrace trays

Lesson 6 seal the parcel with zeal sink plate made of zinc eyes cold as ice rise in the price of rice cease to seize the goods A place for plays has been built. My niece broke her knees. I lost trace of the trays.

Lesson 7A. The phoneme / k /

Initial Medial Final

keep twinkle link

keen uncle thinkkeg buckle sinkkey knuckle lickking local stickkit vocal mockkite baker neckcake Quaker

quakecope maker bakecough pucker seek

Lesson 7

Cute Kitty, that curly cat belong to Carl Cla-or, and Claudio Quinto.Coy Candy Colina craves for a curly cape.Clair Calumpang, Carlos Cleto’s cousin, came in with a quaint little crib.

Lesson 7B. The phoneme / g /

INITIAL MEDIAL FINALgape baggage loggaze engage

laggoat angle taggoose single tugguide bugle baggun legal buggrand gurgle mug

Granny’s Grapple gender is gone. Griffy Gray is a great game grabber. Glenda grunted as the guard grappled the gun from

her. Girlie Gato, Gary Galor’s girl, has a glaring little gun.

Lesson 8The phoneme / sh / or / ∫ /

Initial Medial Final

sheep ship pension fashionfresh cash

sheen sham nation usher pushgnash

shin share facial captiondish flash

sure shoot ocean action ashbrush

shave shirt session issueclash rush

◦ She finished washing the dishes.◦ The usher showed us the flashy room.◦ The bishop fought against racial discrimination.◦ A Russian followed the short cut of the shore.

Lesson 9The phoneme / zh / or / /

adhesion leisure garage derisionallusion measure treasure

pleasureazure mirage corsage camouflageexplosion seizure glazier divisioncortege intrusion erosion evasiongarage prestige Asian invasion

A casual explosion was heard. The Asian version is just a

camouflage. Is it a true measure of one’s

treasure? Leisure does not always mean

pleasure. Prestige goes with treasure.

Lesson 9The phoneme / ch / or / Č /

Initial Medial Final

chain chill achieve pitcher catch touchcheer tune merchant culture each peachchance chew richest lecture ditch inchchaste charm future speeches beach witchcheese choosenature question much teach

Lesson 9The phoneme / ch / or / Č /

/ch/ or /Č/ /sh/ or /∫/ /s/cheep sheepseepchain Shane sanechin shin sinchore shore soarchip ship siplatch lash lasscheer sheer seermarch mash masscheck sheik seek

[-kst] [-skt] [-sts] [sk-] [-sks]

next

fixed

taxed

boxed

relaxed

waxed

risked

husked

Masked whisked asked

basked

beasts

wrists

costs

rests

feasts

bursts

skit

scar

scatter scalpel schedule screen

tusks masks discs risks tasks desks

[-sk] [-sp] [-sps] [skr-] [-t∫t]

risk whisk husk bask mask ask

gasp clasp grasp wasp rasp lisp

gasps clasps grasps wasps rasps lisps

scream scream scrub scrap screen scrabble

Matchedapproached

hatched

pitched watched fetched

[sp-] [-∫t] [-zd] [spr-] [str-]

speak spot spoil sparkle space spell

lashed gnashed

pushed fished crushed

rushed

praised bruised razed caused teased pleased

spread sprain sprout sprinkle sprang spray

street strain strength

strong struggle strained

[sm-] [sn-] [sw-] [sl-] [∫r-]]

smile smite smash smother

smirk smoke

sneaky snobbish

snore snore snatch snack

swell swarm swoop swallow swindle sweater

sleek slant slow sling slaughter

sluggish

shrub shrimp shrew shrill shred shrink

[skw-] [-nts] [ðz] [-θs] [-rs]

squirm squall squat squander

squash squeak

rants cents pants grants grunts vents

soothes breathesbathes loathes writhes smoothes

paths baths wraths deaths births moths

inverse immersenurse coarse curse verse

[-rz] [-nt] [-nst] [-t∫] [-nz]

roars tears bores letters mothers

pairs

branch punch inch munch launch lunch

fenced danced sensed convincedsilencedpronounced

church lurch search perch march parch

screens rains brains means joins widens

[-bz] [-ŋz] [-mz]] [-lz] [-ps]

sobs ribs

cabs rubs probes Bob’s

rings songs tongues sings wrongs

lungs

farms psalms spasms schemes creams teams

rolls moles balls fools raffles riddles

lapse laps relapse peeps pups pops

[-ts] [-fs] [-rnz] [-rvz] [-st]

bullets tarts pockets skirts shirts pouts

fifes puffs loafs dwarfs coughs laughs

earns scorns burns turns warns mourns

serves nerves carves curves starves scarves

stressedmissed dressed placed produced reduced

[st-] [-rks] [-lvs] [-vs] [-ldz]

stage style stab stuck star stall

larks barks lurks marks

shirks perks

solves involves shelves revolves dissolves

themselves

drives arrives

loves lives knives wives

fields scolds

holds colds guilds builds