Kerosines Jet Fuels

product dossier no. 94/106

I

kerosines/jet fuels

Prepared by CONCAWE's Petroleum Products and Health Management Groups

Reproduction permitted with due acknowledgement CONCAWE Brussels April 1995


II

ABSTRACT

This dossier summarizes the health, safety and environmental data currentlyavailable on kerosines and jet fuels.

KEYWORDS

Kerosine, jet fuel, aviation turbine fuel, toxicity, health, ecotoxicity, biodegradability.

NOTEConsiderable efforts have been made to assure the accuracy and reliability of theinformation contained in this publication. However, neither CONCAWE nor anycompany participating in CONCAWE can accept liability for any loss, damage orinjury whatsoever resulting from the use of this information.

This report does not necessarily represent the views of any company participating inCONCAWE.


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CONTENTS Page

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. PRODUCT DESCRIPTION 2

2.1 COMPOSITION 22.2 USES 3

3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 5

4. TOXICITY 6

4.1. ACUTE TOXICITY 64.1.1. Oral, skin and inhalation 64.1.2. Irritancy and sensitization 7

4.2. SUB-ACUTE/SUB-CHRONIC TOXICITY 84.2.1 Skin 84.2.2. Inhalation 8

4.3. CHRONIC TOXICITY 94.3.1. Non-carcinogenic effects 94.3.2. Carcinogenicity 114.3.3. Genotoxicity 124.3.4. Reproductive toxicity 15

5. HEALTH ASPECTS 16

5.1. INHALATION 165.2. INGESTION 165.3. ASPIRATION 175.4. SKIN CONTACT 175.5. EYE CONTACT 17

6. OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS 18

7. HANDLING ADVICE 19

8. EMERGENCY TREATMENT 21

8.1. INHALATION 218.2. INGESTION 218.3. ASPIRATION 218.4. SKIN CONTACT 218.5. EYE CONTACT 228.6. INFORMATION FOR DOCTORS 22

9. DISPOSAL 23

10. FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS 24

11. ENVIRONMENTAL DATA 25

11.1. PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS 2511.2. PERSISTENCE AND BIODEGRADATION 2511.3. ECOTOXICITY 26

12. REFERENCES 29


IV

APPENDICES

Appendix 1A STRAIGHT-RUN KEROSINES : EINECS ENTRIES 38

Appendix 1B CRACKED KEROSINES : EINECS ENTRIES 39

Appendix 1C OTHER KEROSINES : EINECS ENTRIES 41

Appendix 2 KEROSINES SAMPLES INVESTIGATED BY AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE 44


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PREFACE

This product dossier is one in a series of 11 on the following major groups ofpetroleum products:

- Liquefied petroleum gas

- Gasolines

- Kerosines/jet fuels

- Gas oils (diesel fuels/heating oils)

- Heavy fuel oils

- Lubricating oil basestocks

- Aromatic extracts

- Waxes and related products

- Bitumens and bitumen derivatives

- Petroleum coke

- Crude oil

These product dossiers are being prepared by CONCAWE to provide, for eachmajor product group, comprehensive information covering:

- Product description, uses and typical properties

- Toxicology, health aspects and fire, explosion and environmentalhazards

- Recommended exposure limits

- Advice on handling, emergency treatment and disposal

- Entries in the European Inventory of Existing Commercial ChemicalSubstances (EINECS) which cover these groups


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1. INTRODUCTION

Kerosines are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons, having carbon numberspredominantly in the range C9 to C16 and boiling over the temperature interval 145to 300°C.

The chemical composition of kerosines depends on the nature of the crude oilsfrom which they are derived and the refinery processes that they have undergone.

Kerosines are primarily used in blending jet fuels. They are also used as domesticheating fuels and as solvents.


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2. PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

2.1. COMPOSITION

Kerosine is the generic name for the lighter end of a group of petroleumsubstances known as middle distillates, the heavier end being gas oils. Althoughkerosines are essentially of two types (straight-run and cracked), subsequenttreatments often blur this simplistic distinction.

For the purposes of the EU Existing Substances Regulation, the EINECS entriesfor kerosines were apportioned to three groups : straight-run, cracked and otherkerosines; these groups are given in Appendices 1A, 1B and 1C, respectively.

Kerosines obtained from crude oil by atmospheric distillation are known asstraight-run kerosines. Such streams may be treated by a variety of processes toproduce kerosines that are acceptable for blending as jet fuels. In practice, themajor processes used are hydrodesulphurisation (treatment with hydrogen toremove sulphur components), washing with caustic soda solution to removesulphur components, and hydrogenation to remove sulphur and nitrogencomponents as well as olefins.

Increasingly, kerosines are obtained from petroleum feed stocks by processesusing thermal, catalytic or steam cracking methods. Hydrocracking processes arealso used, in which feed stocks are catalytically cracked in the presence ofhydrogen. Cracked streams often contain high levels of aromatic hydrocarbonsand olefins and these have to be reduced by finishing processes such ashydrogenation or solvent extraction.

Kerosines contain C9 to C16 hydrocarbons, the composition depending on thecrude source, the feed stock to be cracked and the process conditions. Thetypical distillation range of 145 to 300°C for kerosines is such that benzene(boiling point 80°C) and n-hexane (boiling point 69°C) concentrations are alwaysbelow 0.01 % by mass.

The boiling points of the carcinogenic 3 to 7 fused-ring polycyclic aromaticcompounds (PACs) are well above the boiling range of straight-run kerosinestreams. Attempts have been made to determine these compounds, but theirconcentrations have been very low and normally below the limits of detection forthe available methods.

The major components of kerosines are branched and straight chain paraffins andnaphthenes (cycloparaffins), these normally account for at least 70% by volume ofa process stream. Aromatic hydrocarbons, mainly alkylbenzenes andalkylnaphthalenes will not normally exceed 25% by volume of kerosine streams.Olefins are undesirable constituents of kerosines since they are relatively unstableand can cause gum formation when burnt. Accordingly, olefins would not bepresent at more than 5% by volume.


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2.2. USES

The most important use of kerosines is in blending aviation fuels. Such fuels havedemanding specifications, both for civil and military aircraft. In general terms,there are three types of jet fuels:

• kerosine type, usually blends of kerosines.

• "wide cut" type, in which kerosines are blended with low flash naphthas e.g.heavy straight-run naphtha (CAS No. 64747-41-9) to give more volatilefuels embracing the carbon number range C4 to C16.

• high flash point kerosine type, usually blends of kerosines having aminimum closed cup flash point of 60°C.

The common names used for jet fuels and their type allocation as above, arebriefly summarized as follows :

Jet A-1 : Kerosine type used in civil aircraft, aromatic hydrocarboncontent 25% (v/v) maximum. Freezing point -47°C max.

Jet A : as for Jet A-1, but with freezing point of -40°C max. (Note :only available in North America)

Jet B : wide cut type used in civil aircraft, aromatic hydrocarboncontent 25% (v/v) maximum. (Note : very limited availability)

AVTAG/JP-4 : wide cut type used in military aircraft, aromatic hydrocarbons25% (v/v) maximum

AVCAT/JP-5 : high flash point kerosine type used in naval aircraft, aromatichydrocarbons 25% (v/v) maximum

AVTUR/JP-8 : kerosine type used in military aircraft, aromatic hydrocarbons25% (v/v) maximum.

Jet fuels are preparations containing blends of kerosine streams, sometimessupplemented with naphthas together with low concentrations of additives toimprove stability and performance. Typical additives include antioxidants, metaldeactivators, corrosion inhibitors, anti-icing additives, static dissipators andbiocides. All jet fuels must be free of contaminants, particularly water and must bepumpable at very low temperatures. Equally, they must be stable at highertemperatures, since they are distributed in aircraft so as to act as the heat transfermedium for lubricants and hydraulic fluids.

Kerosines are also used as domestic and industrial heating fuels. In the USA,such heating oils are marketed as Fuel Oil N° 1 to meet the specification given inASTM D396. 1 Some of the main parameters from this specification are as follows:

closed cup flash point : 38°C minimum

sulphur content : 0.5% maximum

pour point : - 18°C maximum


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These products may be straight-run distillates or blends of straight-run andcracked streams. They may be hydrodesulphurized, and may contain additives.

Kerosines are also used as solvents in the formulation of a wide range of productsincluding cleaning compositions, insecticides, antifoams and mould releaseagents. The kerosines used in these products are often of a narrower distillationrange than those used in fuels and are often further treated to reduce odour andaromatics content.


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3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Typical physical properties for two kerosines are given in Table 1 and for a rangeof Jet Fuels given in Table 2.

Table 1 Typical properties of kerosines

Property Unit Method Straight-runKerosine(CAS No.

8008-20-6)API 83-09

HydrodesulphurizedKerosine

(CAS No. 64742-81-0)API 81-07

Reference

Pour point °C ASTM D97 -49 - 2

Boiling range °C ASTM D86 125-292 175-284 2

Density at 15°C kg/dm3 ASTM D4052 0.81 0.82 2

Reid vapour pressure at37.8°C

hPa ASTM D323 14 - 2

Closed cup flash point °C ASTM D93 62 * 60 * 2

Kinematic viscosity at20°C

mm2/s ASTM D445 1.5-2.5 1.1-2.5 2

Partition coefficient(octanol/water)

- - 3.3-6+ 3.3-6+ 3

* NB: Data given are from USA samples, typical flashpoints for European kerosines wouldbe in the range 40 - 45°C.

Table 2 Specification limits for jet fuels

Property Unit Method JetFuels Aand A-1

Jet Fuel B JP-4Wide Cut(Avtag)

JP-5high flashkerosine(Avcat)

JP-8kerosine(Avtur)

Freezing point max. °C ASTM D2386 -47 -50 -58 -46 -47

Distillation range 10%over

°C ASTM D86 205 - - 205 205

Max. Distillation (endpoint)

°C ASTM D86 300 - 270 300 300

Density at 15°C g/ml ASTM D4052 0.775-0.840

0.751-0.802

0.751-0.802

0.788-0.845

0.775-0.840

Reid vapour pressureat 37.8°C max.

hPa ASTM D323 - - 140-210 - -

Closed cup flash pointmin.

°C ASTM D3828 38 - - 60 38

Kinematic viscosity at-20°C max.

mm2/s ASTM D445 8.0 - - 8.5 8.0


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4. TOXICITY

Most of the data available were obtained by the American Petroleum Institute fromstudies in two kerosine samples as part of a programme on the toxicology ofrefinery streams. These two samples were a straight-run distillate kerosine(designated API 83-09) and a hydrodesulphurized kerosine (API 81-07). Details ofthe CAS Numbers and definitions for these 2 samples are given in Appendix 2together with their physico-chemical properties. The API also commissioned workon a product described as deodorized kerosine. Dutch States Mines (DSM) hasinvestigated the acute toxicity of a kerosine derived from a cracking process.Aviation jet fuels have also been studied including Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-4, JP-5 andJP-8.

4.1. ACUTE TOXICITY

4.1.1. Oral, Skin and Inhalation

Acute systemic toxicity data (oral, dermal and inhalation) for a number ofkerosines are summarized in Table 3. The data show that kerosines are of a loworder of toxicity following acute oral, dermal or inhalation exposure. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,

12, 13 Signs commonly observed in the studies after exposure to high doses(hypoactivity, ataxia and prostration) are indicative of central nervous systemdepression. In dermal studies skin irritation was also observed and in theinhalation studies respiratory tract irritation occurred.

Intratracheal administration or artificial aspiration of small volumes (0.1 to 0.2 ml)of kerosine into the lungs of rats, chickens and primates resulted in lung damage(chemical pneumonitis) and/or death. 14,15,16

Table 3 Summary of acute systemic toxicity of kerosines

Material Oral LD50 (rat)g/kg

Dermal LD50(rabbit) g/kg

Inhalation LC50(rat) mg/l

References

Straight run kerosine(API 83-09)

>5 >2 >5 5,6

Hydrodesulphurizedkerosine (API 81-07)

>5 >2 >5.2 7,8

Cracked kerosine(CAS 68477-39-4)

>2 >2 >7.5 9,10,11

Deodorized kerosine ND ND >0.1 12

Jet Fuel A >20 >4 ND 13

ND = Not determined


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4.1.2. Irritancy and sensitization

Irritancy and sensitization data are summarized in Table 4. The data show thatkerosines range from slightly to severely irritant to the skin.

None of the kerosines tested were more than slightly irritant to the eye and nonewere skin sensitizers. 5, 7, 13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23

Upper respiratory tract sensory irritation effects of deodorized kerosine wereinvestigated in mice using the Alarie technique. 12 No more than 50% reduction inrespiratory rate resulted from exposure to either saturated kerosine vapour(reported by author to be around 0.1 mg/l) or aerosol concentrations up to 6.9mg/l. From these observations the investigators concluded that kerosine was nota sensory irritant in the mouse.

Table 4 Summary of skin irritation, eye irritation and skin sensitization data forkerosines

Material Skin Irritation Eye Irritation Sensitization References

Straight run kerosine(API 83-09)

Moderate -severe

(24 hour)

Slight Negative 5


Mild -moderate(24 hour)

Slight Negative 7,17

Cracked kerosine(CAS No.68477-39-4)

Severe(4 hour)

Slight ND 18,19

Jet Fuel A Moderate -severe

(24 hour)

Slight Negative 13

Jet A-1 Mild (4 hour) ND ND 20

Odourless kerosine Mild (4 hour) ND ND 21

Kerosine SG Mild (4 hour) ND ND 22

Hydrocracked kerosine Mild (4 hour) ND ND 23

ND = Not determined


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4.2. SUB-ACUTE/SUB-CHRONIC TOXICITY

A number of studies have investigated the effects of kerosines following repeatedapplications to the skin over 4 weeks or inhalation exposures for several hoursdaily for periods from 4 days to about 10 weeks.

4.2.1. Skin

Repeated dermal application of straight-run kerosine (API 83-09) andhydrodesulphurized kerosine (API 81-07) to the skin of rabbits at doses of 200,1000 and 2000 mg/kg, three times per week for 4 weeks, resulted in moderate tosevere skin irritation, accompanied by flaking, scabbing and ulceration at thetreatment sites, and reduced bodyweight gain. 24, 25 Animals treated with straight-run kerosine at the highest dose demonstrated increased bone marrowgranulopoiesis, testicular tubular hypoplasia and granulomatous liver lesions.These reactions were all considered to be secondary effects associated with thesevere skin irritancy.

In a single dose study with Jet Fuel A, rabbits were dermally treated with6.4 g/kg/day, 5 days/week for 2 weeks and this resulted in severe skin damage atthe treatment areas together with depression and weight loss associated withanorexia. Tissue damage observed in the liver (mottled necrosis and centrilobulardegeneration) kidney and bladder (hyperplasia) was considered to be secondaryto the severe skin irritancy. 13, 26

In a series of studies with middle distillate samples, the following results wereobtained with kerosine streams :

a) a hydrotreated, straight-run kerosine (CAS No. 64742-81-0) when appliednon occluded three times per week to mouse skin for 3 weeks produceddegenerative skin changes, including necrosis and hyperplasia. Theseeffects were well advanced after one week. 27

b) three kerosine samples (two hydrotreated, straight-run kerosines and ablend of 70 % hydrocracked kerosine, (CAS No. 64741-77-1) and 30 %hydrotreated straight-run kerosine) when applied 3 times at 3 day intervalsto mouse skin, all produced inflammation, necrosis of the hair follicles anddegenerative changes in the skin surface, 27 and

c) in a 13 week dermal study, 2 samples of kerosines (a straight-runhydrotreated kerosine and 70/30 blend of hydrocracked/straight-runhydrotreated kerosine) were applied at various dilutions to find a level thatdid not cause skin irritation. A 25% solution of the kerosines in white oilwhen applied at a dose of 50 µl, twice per week for 13 weeks was non-irritant. 28

4.2.2. Inhalation

Rats and dogs were exposed to deodorized kerosine vapour at 3 concentrationsof 0.02, 0.048 and 0.10 mg/l for 6 hours per day over 67 days. 12 Two rats died,one at the high and the other at the middle dose level and at the end of the study,another rat in the high dose group was found to have pleural adhesions withabscess bronchopneumonia. None of the dogs died.


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The same authors 12 also reported slight loss of coordination and skin irritation ofthe extremities as the only effects following exposure of rats to the aerosol ofdeodorized kerosine at a mean concentration of 7.5 mg/l for 6 hours per day over4 days.

Apart from minor sub-acute inflammation of the respiratory mucosa, no treatmentrelated effects were reported for a group of 10 male and 10 female rats exposedto a vapour concentration of 0.024 mg/l of hydrodesulphurized kerosine (API 81-07) for 6 hours/day, 5 days/week for 4 weeks. 29

Reductions in respiratory rate, pulmonary hyperaemia, leucocytosis, monocytosisand decreased erythrocyte sedimentation rate were observed in a study in whichrats, mice, rabbits and cats were exposed to kerosine aerosol concentrations inthe range 0.05 to 120 mg/l for up to 4 weeks. 30 The three kerosines used in thestudy were identified as (i) standard lighting grade, (ii) export grade, type B and(iii) export grade, type A. Histological examination revealed inflammatory changesin the respiratory tract viz., tracheitis, bronchitis and pneumonia.

Noa et al 31 observed aortic "plaques" similar in appearance to earlyatherosclerotic lesions in guinea pigs exposed to kerosine aerosol concentrationsof 0.02, 0.40 and 34 mg/l for 15 minutes per day over 21 days. The kerosine usedwas inadequately characterized and the significance of the results is uncertain.

Rats and dogs were continuously exposed to vapour concentrations of 0.15 and0.75 mg/l of jet fuel JP-5 for 90 days. Light hydrocarbon nephropathy was seen inmale rats only, in a dose related manner, together with related effects includingreduced bodyweight gain, increased kidney to bodyweight ratios and slightlyelevated creatinine and blood-urea nitrogen ratios. 32

In a 60 day study, exposure of male rats to jet fuel JP-5 vapour at a concentrationof 2.9 mg/l and at temperatures of 25°C and 38°C produced light hydrocarbonnephropathy. 33

4.3. CHRONIC TOXICITY

4.3.1. Non-carcinogenic effects

A long term inhalation study 34 was conducted with JP-4 jet fuel vapours usinggroups (100 male, 100 female) of Fischer 344 rats and B6C3F1 mice. Animalswere exposed to 0, 1, or 5 mg/l for 6 hours per day, 5 days per week for 12months. At exposure termination, 10% of the animals were sacrificed, and theremainder were held for an additional 12 month observation period.

There were no consistent or toxicologically significant pharmacotoxic signsobserved in either rats or mice during the in-life exposures which could beattributed to treatment. However, a number of male mice developed severeulcerative dermatitis as a result of dominance fighting and had to be removedearly in the study.


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Among the reported findings were :

(1) body weights of exposed male rats were lower than those of controls for theentire study period. Body weights of exposed female rats and mice were notreduced in comparison to controls.

(2) some clinical chemistry and haematological values in treated animals weresignificantly different from controls but these did not form a consistentpattern and fell within the range of normal biological variation or historicalcontrols.

(3) liver and kidney weights were significantly elevated in treated male ratswhen expressed as a percentage of body weight. The gross organ weightsthemselves were not different from controls. In female rats, spleen to bodyweight ratios were reduced with respect to controls.

The only consistent pathological change noted was evidence of a mild,progressive nephropathy in the kidneys of the male rats. As noted in Section4.2.2 however, these changes are restricted to the male rat and are associatedwith hyaline droplet formation. Effects of this kind are not considered clinicallyimportant for humans.

There was no evidence of Jet Fuel JP-4 induced respiratory toxicity, and noincrease in pulmonary neoplasms. Benign hepatocellular adenomas were slightlyincreased in high-dose female mice, but the trend was reversed in male mice.Other pathological findings were regarded as equivocal or comparable withexpected biological variation. The study did not demonstrate either target organtoxicity or carcinogenesis with clinical implications for humans.

In chronic dermal toxicity studies with hydrodesulphurized kerosine, 81-07 andstraight-run kerosine, 83-09, 50 µl was applied topically (twice weekly) to mice forperiods ranging from 3 to 24 months. Among mice, sacrificed after 3 monthstreatment, signs of skin irritation (including mild to moderate desquamation andscabbing) were observed. Histopathological examination of exposed skin showedsigns of chronic irritation including inflammatory cell infiltration, acanthosis,fibrosis, hyperkeratosis and scab formation. Apart from these dermal findingsincreases in the weights of kidney, liver and lung were observed. These wereexpressed both as actual organ weight increases and as increases, relative tobody weight. However, no treatment-related histopathological findings werereported. 35, 36 Similar findings were reported at 12 months. In addition, someanimals showed skin ulceration and one squamous cell carcinoma was found witheach material. 37, 38

In a long-term skin painting study with Jet Fuel JP-5 in B6C3F1 mice, no chronictoxic effects were found. 39

Both Jet Fuel JP-4 and Jet Fuel A were also tested in dermal carcinogenicitystudies. 40 The samples were painted onto the backs of male and femaleC3H/HeN mice three times per week for 2 years. Signs of chronic toxicity weredetermined and tumour formation was recorded (see Section 4.3.2). The authorsreported severe irritation in all treated animals but apart from these inflammatoryand skin degenerative changes, no other signs of toxicity were described.


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4.3.2. Carcinogenicity

Data available on the dermal carcinogenicity of kerosines are summarized inTable 5. In addition, initiation/promotion studies on kerosines have shown them tohave weak promoting but not initiating activity. 41

In the long-term studies, repeated applications of kerosines caused moderate tosevere skin damage (including necrosis) as well as an incidence of tumors afterlong latency periods. An exception to this was the NTP study on jet fuel JP-5. It islikely that in the other cases, the amounts of kerosine applied exceeded themaximum tolerated dose with respect to excessive damage to skin tissue.A severe reaction of mouse skin to kerosine has been confirmed in the preliminaryphase of a CONCAWE study of the role of irritation in development of tumours. 28

Because 3-7 ring polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs), the components ofpetroleum hydrocarbon mixtures generally regarded as being responsible for, orassociated with dermal carcinogenic activity, are either absent from kerosine orpresent only in extremely low concentrations, a non-genotoxic mechanism is themost likely explanation for the late development of tumours in the long-termstudies. Ingram and Grasso 44 have suggested that many substances, includingpetroleum middle distillates such as kerosines, produce dermal tumors by asecondary mechanism probably related to skin irritancy. Support for the possibilityof a non-genotoxic mechanism appears to be provided by

a) the general lack of activity of kerosines in genotoxicity assays (see Section4.3.3.) and

b) the results of initiation/promotion studies 41, 42, 43 and

c) CONCAWE preliminary studies on the role of irritancy in production of skintumors. 27


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Table 5 Summary of mouse skin carcinogenicity studies with kerosines / jet fuels

Material tested Dosingregime (no.of animals)

Duration Result Meanlatency(weeks)

References

Straight-run kerosine(API 83-09)

50 µl2 x per week

(50)

> 2 years 20 tumours(19 malignant,

1 benign)

76 45

Hydrosulphurizedkerosine (API 81-07)

50 µl2 x per week

(50)

> 2 years 27 tumours(26 malignant,

1 benign)

77 46

Straight-run distillate(177-288°C) crude C(naphthenic)

50 mg2 x per week

(50)

102 weeks 14/30 withtumours

70 47,48

Straight-run distillate(177-288°C) crude B(paraffinic)

50 mg2 x per week

(50)


62 47,48

Jet Fuel JP-4 25 mg3 x per week

(50)


85 40

Jet Fuel A 25 mg3 x per week

(50)


79 40

Jet Fuel JP-5 500mg/kgbw

5 x per week(100)

103 weeks no tumours - 39

4.3.3. Genotoxicity

Results of in vitro genotoxity assays with kerosines and jet fuels in bacteria, yeastand cultured mammalian cells are summarized in Table 6. In total, 20/23 assaysgave negative results. A straight run kerosine, API 83-09 was positive in a mouselymphoma study 51 in the presence of Aroclor 1254-induced rat liver activationmixture 59 and the same substance gave an equivocal result in the absence ofactivation. In an NTP study, 39 jet fuel induced mutations in mouse lymphomaL5178Y TK+/- cells in the presence of an exogenous metabolic system whetherderived from rat or mouse liver.

Results of in-vivo mutagenicity assays with kerosines and jet fuels aresummarized in Table 7. Of the eight studies conducted, six gave negative results.Samples of a hydrodesulphurized kerosine given by intraperitoneal injection andJet Fuel A administered by inhalation gave positive results. 55, 56


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Table 6 In vitro genotoxicity studies with kerosines / jet fuels

Material tested Testprocedure

Vehicle Withactivation

Max.concn.

Result Withoutactivation

Max.concn.

Result Ref.


Mouselymphoma

ethanol 37.5 nl/ml -ve 62.5 nl/ml -ve 49

Hydrosulphurizedkerosine (API 81-07)

Sisterchromatidexchange(SCE) in

CHO cells

acetone 50 nl/ml -ve 400 nl/ml -ve 50

Straight-run kerosine(API 83-09)

Mouselymphoma

acetone 210 nl/ml equivocal 6.7 nl/ml +ve 51

Straight-run kerosine (2 samples, CAS8008-20-6)

Ames(modified)

DMS0extract

NT - 50 µl /ml -ve 27

Hydrotreated kerosine(CAS No. 64742-81-0)

Ames(modified)

DMS0extract

NT - 50 µl /ml -ve 27

Straight-run kerosine(CAS No. 8008-20-6)

Ames(Standard)

DMS0 5 µl /plate -ve 5 µl /plate -ve 52


Mouselymphoma

acetone 130 nl/ml -ve 65 nl/ml -ve 52


Yeast strainSaccharo-

mycescerevisiae D4

DMS0 5 µl /plate -ve 5 µl /plate -ve 52

Deodorized kerosine Ames(standard)

DMS0 NR -ve NR -ve 53

Hydrotreated kerosine,CAS No. 64742-47-8

Ames(modified)

DMS0extract

NT - 50 µl /ml -ve 54

Jet Fuel A Ames(standard)

ethylacetate

40 mg/plate -ve 40mg/plate

-ve 55

Jet Fuel A Mouselymphoma

ethylacetate

200 nl/ml +ve 1200 nl/ml -ve 55

Jet Fuel JP-5 Mouselymphoma

NR 10 mg/plate -ve 10mg/plate

-ve 39

CHO = Chinese hamster ovaryDMSO = Dimethyl sulphoxideDMSO extract = Test done with DMSO extract of materialNT = Not testedNR = Not recorded


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Table 7 In vivo genotoxity studies in kerosines / jet fuels

Material tested Test procedure Exposureroute

Dosage Results Ref.

Hydrodesulphurizedkerosine,(API 81-07)

Rat bonemarrow

cytogenetics

i.p. 0.3, 1.0 and3.0 g/kg

negative 49

Hydrodesulphurizedkerosine, 81-07(API 51-07)

Mouse bonemarrow

cytogenetics

i.p. 0.4, 2.0 and4.0 g/kg

positive inmales only

56

Straight-run kerosine,83-09(API 83-09)

Rat bonemarrow

cytogenetics

i.p. 0.3, 1.0 and3.0 g/kg

negative 57


Rat bonemarrow

cytogenetics

i.p. 0.04, 0.13 and0.4 ml/rat

negative 52


Rat bonemarrow

cytogenetics

i.p. 0.02, 0.06 and0.18 ml/rat

injected on 5consecutive

days

negative 52

Deodorized kerosine Mouse and ratdominant lethal

assays

i.p. negative 58

Jet Fuel A Rat dominantlethal assay

inhalation 100 and 400ppm, 6 hoursper day for 8

weeks

negative 59

Jet Fuel A Rat bonemarrow

cytogenetics

inhalation 100 ppm for 20days, 400 ppm

for 5 days

positive 55


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4.3.4. Reproductive toxicity

Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to atmospheres containing either0.76 or 2.6 mg/l (106 or 365 ppm) of kerosine for 6 hours per day on days 6 to 15of gestation. No adverse effects were observed in the dams or their progeny. 60.

A similar study was conducted with Jet Fuel A, in which pregnant Sprague-Dawleyrats were exposed to 0, 100 and 400 ppm on days 6-15 of gestation. 61 Noadverse effects were reported in the dams or their offspring.


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5. HEALTH ASPECTS

Under normal industrial conditions of storage, handling and use, kerosines will notpresent a risk to health provided excessive skin contact is avoided. In domesticuse, there is a significant risk of lung damage occurring if liquid is aspirated intothe lungs as a result of vomiting following accidental swallowing of kerosine.

There is no significant health risk from exposure to vapour during the normalhandling of kerosine and jet fuel, as they have low volatility at ambienttemperatures. Wide cut jet fuel however, is much more volatile and may presentan inhalation hazard during tanker filling, distribution and aircraft refuellingoperations. However, the use of this fuel is in decline.

5.1. INHALATION

Over the normal range of ambient temperatures, the vapour pressure of kerosineis too low for significant concentrations of vapour to accumulate. However, acombination of use in confined spaces and at elevated temperatures may result inthe build-up of high concentrations of kerosine vapour. Prolonged exposure toincreasing vapour concentrations may result in narcotic effects leading tounconsciousness.

The spray application of products containing kerosine will result in exposure tohigh concentrations of kerosine mist consisting of a mixture of vapour andaerosol; 62 this will cause irritation of the upper respiratory tract.

Wide cut jet fuels are highly volatile and exposures to high concentrations ofvapour can rapidly cause narcotic effects. A number of publications have dealtwith exposure to jet fuel vapour. 63, 64, 65

5.2. INGESTION

The ingestion of kerosines and jet fuels is very rarely encountered in industrial useof these products. However, there are many recorded cases of the accidentalingestion of kerosine by children in domestic situations. These incidents usuallyoccur because the liquid is contained in either unlabelled or incorrectly labelledcontainers. A brief review of reported cases has been made by IARC. 4

The taste and smell of kerosine will usually limit ingestion of kerosine to smallamounts. Although kerosine is of low acute oral toxicity, spontaneous vomiting is acommon reaction to its ingestion and this gives rise to a serious risk of aspirationof the liquid into the lungs. Ingestion may also cause irritation of the mouth, throatand gastrointestinal tract. Such effects are highly unlikely, but may occur ifingestion is the result of exposure to high concentrations of kerosine mists. Thediagnosis of kerosine ingestion is by the characteristic smell of the breath. Centralnervous system effects such as convulsions and coma have occurred followingingestion; the mechanism giving rise to these effects has not been defined. 16


17

5.3. ASPIRATION

Aspiration of small amounts of liquid kerosine into the lungs, either directly, or as aconsequence of vomiting following ingestion, results in pneumonitis which cancause breathing difficulties and is potentially fatal.

5.4. SKIN CONTACT

The hydrocarbons present in kerosines and jet fuels will remove natural fats fromthe skin and repeated or prolonged contact will result in drying, irritation,erythema, cracking and possibly dermatitis. These conditions are only likely toresult in situations where poor personal hygiene is practised.

Allergic reactions to kerosines and jet fuels are rare and when they do occur, arelikely to be due to additives rather than hydrocarbons.

Accidents resulting in prolonged skin contact with kerosines or jet fuels may giverise to severe skin irritation and even chemical burns, especially with wide cutaviation kerosine.

5.5. EYE CONTACT

Kerosine or jet fuel liquids entering the eye will cause transient irritation. The sameeffect may be caused by kerosine mists and prolonged exposure may result inconjunctivitis.


18

6. OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS

No widely accepted short or long-term vapour standards exist for kerosines,although ACGIH and other bodies have set occupational exposure limits forspecific hydrocarbons and for Stoddard Solvent. 66 Examples of 8 hour timeweighted average (TWA) TLVs for these hydrocarbon vapours are as follows :

Trimethylbenzene 25 ppm (123 mg/m3)

Naphthalene 10 ppm (52 mg/m3)

Nonane 200 ppm (1050 mg/m3)

Stoddard solvent 100 ppm (525 mg/m3)

Wide cut jet fuels contain many more hydrocarbons for which various bodies haveset occupational exposure limits. These include benzene, toluene, xylenes and n-hexane. In terms of the standards proposed by ACGIH for complex hydrocarbonmixtures, the nearest equivalents are as follows :

VM & P Naphtha 300 ppm (1370 mg/m3)

Rubber solvent (Naphtha) 400 ppm (1590 mg/m3)

Although a realistic upper concentration limit for kerosine aerosol is 5 mg/m3, theliquid droplets vapourize readily, and traditional methods for monitoring oilaerosols are not effective for characterizing kerosine exposures. Therefore, in thepractical situation, measurements of kerosine vapour are likely to be thecontrolling parameter in assigning an occupational exposure limit.

Two papers relating to the analysis of jet fuel in air have been published. 67, 68


19

7. HANDLING ADVICE

With sensible precautions in handling and use, kerosines pose minimal health andsafety hazards to individuals, particularly in view of the closed systems used inmany situations. However, in all situations involving the storage, handling and useof kerosine, it is recommended that the following precautions should be observed:

• Advise individuals handling or using kerosine of the hazards and the properprocedures and precautions to be taken; this must include health effectsand recommendations on emergency treatment.

• Eliminate sources of ignition from areas where kerosine is stored, handledor used. In the event of a fire involving kerosine, the most effectiveextinguishing agents are dry chemical powder, foam or CO2. Water jetsshould never be used, but waterfog may be used by properly trainedfirefighters for large fires. For small fires, sand or earth may be useful forcontainment.

• Avoid spillages. Should they occur, sand and earth are useful materials forcontainment and absorption. Where the possibility exists for significantvaporization, in particular with the more volatile wide-cut aviation kerosines,precautions are required to avoid the build-up of high vapour concentrationsand to minimize inhalation exposure, for example through the use of goodventilation and personal respiratory protection.

• Store kerosines in properly labelled containers and do not transfer tounsuitable, unlabelled or incorrectly labelled containers such as soft drinkbottles. All containers should be kept out of the reach of children and keptproperly sealed when not in use.

• Ensure that the cleaning, inspection and maintenance of storage tanks isundertaken as a specialized operation conducted by experienced workers.Such tasks demand the implementation of strict confined-space entryprocedures and precautions to guard against the risks of asphyxiation andother effects of excessive vapour exposures. These procedures include theissuing of permits, gas-freeing of tanks, the use of manned harness andlifeline, and wearing air-supplied breathing apparatus. An appropriate safetycode should be consulted for detailed advice. 69

• In situations where significant aerosol/vapour is generated and cannot beeliminated through engineering modifications, install local/general exhaustventilation to maintain airborne concentrations below the recommendedexposure levels.

• Avoid repeated or prolonged skin contact to prevent drying, cracking,irritation and dermatitis. If such contact is likely, impervious gloves andother protective clothing should be worn. If the need to carry out delicatemanipulations makes the wearing of gloves impracticable, contact withkerosine should be minimized as far as possible and care should be takento ensure proper skin cleaning by washing thoroughly with soap and water,followed by application of a skin re-conditioning cream.


20

Kerosine-soaked clothing should be drenched with water and removed asquickly as possible. Overalls and protective clothing should be changedregularly and dry-cleaned or laundered before re-use.

• Because of low conductivity of kerosine, electrostatic charges may begenerated during pumping and tank filling operations. Ensure electricalcontinuity of all equipment by proper bonding.

• In situations where misting or splashing of kerosine into the eyes is apossibility, wear goggles or face shields. In typical working environments,vapour/aerosol exposures are unlikely to result in a significant inhalationhazard. Under unusual circumstances of high exposure where respiratoryprotection is deemed to be necessary, protection against both aerosol andvapour (i.e. a dual aerosol/organic vapour air-purifying respirator) should beconsidered.


21

8. EMERGENCY TREATMENT

8.1. INHALATION

In the unlikely event of symptoms arising from inhalation of kerosine vapour,remove the casualty to fresh air taking all appropriate steps, possibly including theuse of breathing apparatus, to avoid exposing rescuers to a contaminatedatmosphere. Precautions should also be taken to avoid aggravation of anyexisting injuries.

Keep the casualty warm and at rest. If unconscious, place in the recovery positionand give oxygen if available. Monitor breathing and pulse. If necessary, assistbreathing, preferably by an exhaled air method. Give external cardiac massage ifnecessary.

Obtain medical assistance urgently.

8.2. INGESTION

If kerosine has been ingested, do not give anything by mouth and DO NOT inducevomiting.

If the victim is unconscious, place in the recovery position to protect the airway ifvomiting begins. (Note : Spontaneous vomiting is a likely consequence ofingestion and carries the risk of aspiration).

Obtain medical assistance urgently.

8.3. ASPIRATION

If there is any suspicion that aspiration of even a small amount of liquid kerosineinto the lungs has occurred, either directly, or as a result of vomiting afteringestion, obtain medical assistance immediately. Observe breathing and assist ifnecessary. Give oxygen if available.

8.4. SKIN CONTACT

Where significant skin contact has occurred, wash affected skin areas thoroughlywith water, using soap, if available. Drench contaminated clothing in water andremove as soon as possible, keeping clear of any sources of ignition. (Note :Contaminated clothing should be dry-cleaned or laundered before re-use. Badlycontaminated footwear should be discarded).

If irritation persists, obtain medical advice.


22

8.5. EYE CONTACT

If the eyes have been affected they should be flushed gently with copiousamounts of cold water, for up to 10 minutes. If irritation persists, obtain medicaladvice.

8.6. INFORMATION FOR DOCTORS

Administration of liquid medicinal paraffin may reduce absorption of kerosine fromthe intestinal tract. Gastric lavage must only be performed after cuffedendotracheal intubation, in view of the risk of aspiration and subsequent chemicalpneumonitis, for which antibiotic and corticosteroid therapy may be indicated.


23

9. DISPOSAL

Kerosines are primarily used as fuels and it is seldom necessary to dispose oflarge quantities. When disposal is necessary, for example, after recovery fromspillages or from tank cleaning, this is best done by incineration, or by burning inan operating boiler. Alternatively, the kerosine may be re-distilled for use as a fuelor solvent.

Advice on handling waste or spilled material can be obtained from previouslypublished CONCAWE reports. 70, 71, 72, 73


24

10. FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS

Kerosines usually have closed-cup flash points above 38°C, and this same limit isspecified for a number of jet fuels. Wide cut jet fuels have much lower flash points(<21°C). High flash jet fuels are formulated to have flash points above 60°C.

For kerosines, the lower flammability limit in air is about 0.6% by volume and theupper explosive limit is about 6% by volume. Similar figures apply for jet fuelsblended from kerosines, but wide cut jet fuels may have lower explosive limits ofabout 1% by volume.

The auto-ignition temperature for a typical kerosine is about 230°C. However, thespecifications for jet fuels are such that they must be thermally stable to at least atemperature of 245°C.

With wide cut jet fuels, there is a risk that because their vapours are heavier thanair, they may accumulate at low levels in poorly ventilated areas and pose anignition hazard. Such explosive vapour air mixtures may travel substantialdistances to remote ignition sources.

In fighting large fires, foam or water fog are suitable extinguishing agents. Forsmall fires use of foam, dry powder, carbon dioxide, sand or earth is advised;water jets should not be used, but water fog may be employed by competent fire-fighters.


25

11. ENVIRONMENTAL DATA

11.1. PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Kerosines contain C9 to C16 hydrocarbons, but because the number of isomers isso large, there are no known analytical studies that have attempted to identify theindividual hydrocarbons in the same way that has been done for gasolinenaphthas. For the samples identified as API 83-09, straight-run kerosine and API81-07, hydrodesulphurized kerosine, the concentrations of the generic types ofhydrocarbons have been identified 2 together with the n-paraffins and thepolycyclic aromatic components, most of which were undetectable.

Kerosines have very low water solubilities, but the fraction that is soluble is knownto consist predominantly of aromatic hydrocarbons. 74, 75

11.2. PERSISTENCE AND BIODEGRADATION

When kerosines and jet fuels escape into the environment due to leakages orspillage, most of the constituent hydrocarbons will evaporate and will bephotodegraded by reaction with hydroxyl radicals in the atmosphere. Atkinson 76

has calculated the half-lives in air for many of the individual hydrocarbons found inkerosines under these conditions and all are less than one day.

The less volatile hydrocarbons in kerosines and jet fuels will persist in theaqueous environment for longer periods. 77 They remain floating on the surface ofthe water; those that reach soil or sediment biodegrade relatively slowly. 78, 79

Very few biodegradation studies of kerosines or jet fuels in water have beenpublished and none are known that have used the 28 day method described inOECD guidelines. The BOD values of kerosine in fresh and sea water were 41%and 36% of the theoretical oxygen demand, respectively after 5 days in thepresence of nutrient salts; however, without nutrient salts in sea water, the BODwas only 2% after 5 days and had not changed after 10 days (80). In a literaturereview of the biological degradation of the non-volatilized fractions of jet fuels, itwas concluded that it was not possible to predict rates of biodegradation in thefield from laboratory tests. 81

Following a spill of aviation kerosine in a stream, BOD values increased anddissolved oxygen concentrations decreased during the following month, althoughelevated sediment hydrocarbons were detected for up to 14 months. 82 Theseresults were consistent with studies in which Jet Fuel JP-4 was mixed withsediment; the results indicated that the sediment associated components weremore resistant to volatilization and microbial attack. 78, 79, 83

The most useful data for evaluating the persistence of kerosines has been fromstudies of soil contaminated with jet fuel. Biodegradation of Jet Fuel JP-4 hasbeen reported in soils from four different climatic areas with removal rates varyingfrom 2 to 20 mg/kg soil/day, soil venting being a particularly good remediationtechnique. 84 The half-life of jet fuel at 27°C was reported as greater than 12weeks in sand and loam soils, but 3.5 weeks in a clay loam soil; bioremediationwith nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers significantly reduced the persistence ofjet fuels in clay loam soil. 85 Of 60 different micro-organisms isolated from soilcontaminated by Jet Fuels JP-4, JP-5 and AVGAS leaking from storage tanks, 40


26

were able to grow on JP-5 as a sole carbon source; selective biodegradation ofhydrocarbons occurred. 86 Soil contaminated with jet fuel over a period of 5 to 10years developed adapted microbial species able to use jet fuel as a carbonsource; addition of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients enhanced biodegradationas did soil aeration. 81 These findings were confirmed in another study whichshowed that microbial number and fungal mycelial length increased in surface soilcontaminated with jet fuel, although oxygen limitation reduced microbialresponses in sub-surface soil. 88

11.3. ECOTOXICITY

The ecotoxicity data for kerosines and jet fuels to fish, invertebrates and otherspecies are summarized in Tables 8, 9 and 10, respectively.

The assessment of these data is complicated by the variety of methodologiesinvolved. Most data come from experiments in which a "water soluble fraction"(WSF) has been prepared by mixing kerosine with the aqueous test medium (e.g.25 to 50 ml kerosine with 1 litre of medium). After standing, the aqueous phase isseparated and dilutions of this medium are used in testing the species understudy. The results are expressed either as (a) the dilution, or % WSF, or (b) theconcentration of dissolved hydrocarbons expressed in mg/l.

With these types of study, it is not possible to convert the quoted result to theamount of product that must be added to a given volume of aqueous medium toproduce the effect. The advised method for the ecotoxicity testing of petroleumproducts is to find the amount of test substance that must be equilibrated with thetest medium to produce a specified level of effect. This is the so-called "loadingrate". 89

Reported LC50/EC50 values expressed as measured dissolved hydrocarbonconcentrations in diluted WSFs are usually in the range 10 to 100 mg/l. Only twostudies have been done using the recommended methodology for petroleumproducts; these produced LC50 values of 13.5 mg/l for zebrafish (Brachydaniorerio)100 and 1.4 mg/l for the marine crustacean, (Chaetogammarus marinus). 106

Sub-lethal effects in fish in response to jet fuels have been observed in a fewstudies. For example, lesions in fish tissues e.g. gill, pseudobranch, kidney andnasal mucosa, have been reported from exposure to Jet Fuel JP-4; the severityand intensity were a function of concentration and exposure time. 109

A few reports have described biological effects following spillages of kerosine andjet fuels. Populations of benthic organisms and fish recovered within 6 months,following spillages of aviation kerosine into a stream. 82 Escape of kerosine froma burst pipeline killed much of the local vegetation and aquatic life within 4 days inthe area contaminated by the spillage. Regeneration of the aquatic life startedafter about 165 days. 110 Marine sediments contaminated as a result of Jet FuelJP-5 spillage have been reported to contain residues that are still lethal to juvenileclams for more than 5 years afterwards. 111

There is evidence for moderate bioaccumulation of the hydrocarbons present inthe WSF of Jet Fuel JP-8. At the end of a 128 day chronic toxicity study,bioconcentration factors of 159 and 112 were estimated for flagfish (Jordanellaflondiae) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), respectively. In a furtherstudy at a single dilution of the WSF, a bioconcentration factor of 130 was foundfor flagfish after 112 days exposure. Rapid depuration occurred in fuel free water,


27

the hydrocarbon levels in flagfish tissue declining by 90% within 14 days. 98

Bioaccumulation of hydrocarbons in fish has also been reported as a kerosine -like taint in sea mullet (Chelon labrosus). 112 Preferential metabolism anddegradation of n-alkanes is reported to occur leaving iso-alkanes and otherhydrocarbons in sea mullet tissue. 113

The low order of toxicity of aviation kerosine to bird eggs is considered to be dueto the absence of high molecular weight polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons. 114

Direct toxicity and fouling of sea birds from jet fuel can occur if birds dive throughfloating layers following a spillage. 115

Phytotoxic effects of jet fuel have been reported following exposure of plants tosprays or vapours. Water soaked lesions and foliar necrosis developed dependingon the extent of exposure to Jet Fuel JP-4. Lack of seed germination andinhibition of seedling growth may also occur. 116

Table 8 Summary of fish toxicity data for kerosines and jet fuels

Species Material Concentration Effect Ref.

Bluegill sunfish(Lepomis macrochirus)

Jet Fuel JP-4 26.2% WSF*<5% WSF

96h LC50NOEL

90,91,9291

Fathead minnow(Pimephales promelas)

Jet Fuel JP-4Jet Fuel JP-4Jet Fuel JP-4Jet Fuel JP-8

18 mg/l (WSF)18.7 mg/l (WSF)18.8 mg/l (WSF)5.5 mg/l (WSF)

96h LC5096h LC5096h LC5096h LC50

93949494

Golden orfe(Leuciscus idus melanotus)

Kerosine 120-175 mg/l LC50 95

Shad(Juvenile)

Kerosine (No. 1 fuel oil) 200 mg/l 24h TLM 96

Tilapia mossambica Kerosine 10 g/l Tolerated 96h 97

Golden shiner(Notemigonus chysolencas)

Jet Fuel JP-8Jet Fuel JP-4

8.0 mg/l (WSF)<32% WSF

96h LC5024h NOEL

9899

Rainbow trout(Salmo gairdnei)

Jet Fuel JP-8 >1.4 mg/l (WSF) 128 day NOEC(mortality)

98

Flagfish(Jordanella floridae)

Jet Fuel JP-8 >1.5 mg/l (WSF) 128 day NOEC 98

Zebrafish(Brachydanio rerio)

Cracked kerosine(CAS No. 68477-39-4)

13.5 mg/l5.6 mg/l

96 h LC5096h NOEC

100100

* Percentage of maximum water soluble fraction


28

Table 9 Summary of invertebrate toxicity data for kerosines and jet fuels


Daphnids(Daphnia magna)


Jet Fuel JET A

15-20% WSF<12% WSF

3.1 mg/l (WSF)

Complete mortality48h NOEL48h EC50

9999101

Daphnids(Daphnia pulex)


33.7% WSF11.9% WSF

73% Survival at 48h50% Mortality at 21

days

9090

Brine shrimp(Artemia salina)

Jet Fuel JP-4 (Monsanto)Jet Fuel JP-4 (Arco)

Jet Fuel JP-4(Friendswood)

Jet Fuel JP-4 (Exxon)

27.3% WSF23.0% WSF13.8% WSF

22.8% WSF

48h LC5048h LC5048h LC50

48h LC50

102102102

102

Polychaeous annelides(Namalyucastis indica

Dendronereides heteropoda)

KerosineKerosine

4 ml/l1.5 ml/l

96h LC5096h LC50

103103

Zoeal mud crab(Rhithropanopeus harrissi)

Jet Fuel JP-5 >25% (WSF) Growth inhibition after 5days

104

Dipteran(Paratanytarus

parthendogenica)

Kerosine 2.2% (WSF) 48h LC50 90

Chironomid larvae Kerosine 470 mg/l 96h LC50 105

Worms(Branchiura sowerbyi)(Aelosoma headleyi)

KerosineJet Fuel JP-4

2 g/l26.3% WSF

Mortality of 1-8% in 96hNon-lethal after 7 days

9790

Gastropod(Thiara tuberrculata)

Kerosine 650 mg/l 96h LC50 105

Tidepool copepod(Tigriopus daidomicus)

Kerosine >0.25 ml/l 15% survival after 8days

77

Marine crustaceans(Chaetogammarus marinus)

Cracked Kerosine(CAS No. 68477-39-4)

1.4 mg/l1.0 mg/l

96h LC5096h NOEC

106106

Table 10 Summary of other species ecotoxicity data for kerosines and jet fuel


Plankton(Cyclops viridis)

(Diaptomus forbesi)

KerosineKerosine

690 ml/l175 ml/l

96h LC5096h LC50

10597

Seaweed-spores(Fucus edentatus)

Jet Fuel JP-4Jet Fuel JP-5Jet Fuel JP-4

1-2 mg/l1-2 mg/l20 mg/l

Some toxicitySome toxicity

Zygote germination butno growth

107107107

Algae(Selenastrum capricornutum)

Jet Fuel JP-5 20 mg/l Zygote germination butno growth

107

Mallard - egg(Anas platyrhynchos)

Jet Fuel >50 µl/egg1-50 µl/egg

LD50No mortality

108108


29

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45. API, (1989) Twenty-four month dermal carcinogenesis/chronic toxicity screeningbiossay of refinery streams in C3H/HeJ mice (AP-190r). Final report. Studyconducted by New Mexico State University. Report N° 36-33220. Washington DC:American Petroleum Institute

46. API (1989) Lifetime dermal carcinogenesis biossay of refinery streams inC3H/HeJ mice (AP-135r). Study conducted by New Mexico State University.Report N° 36-31364. Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute

47. API (1985) The evaluation of the carcinogenicity of certain petroleum fractions.Study conducted by the Kettering Laboratory, University of Cincinnati. Report N°32-30964. Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute

48. Lewis, S.C.et al.(1984) Skin carcinogenic potential of petroleum hydrocarbons:crude oil distillate fractions and chemical class sub-fractions. In: McFarland, H.N.et al (eds) Advances in Modern Environmental Toxicology, Vol. Vl: AppliedToxicology of Petroleum Hydrocarbons, p. 139-150 Princeton NJ: PrincetonScientific

49. API (1984) Mutagenicity evaluation studies in the rat bone marrow cytogeneticassay and in the mouse Iymphoma forward mutation assay. Hydrodesulphurizedkerosine, API sample 81-07. Study conducted by Litton Bionetics, Inc. Report N°32-30240. Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute

50. API (1988) Sister chromatid exchange assay in Chinese hamster ovary cells withAPI 81-07: hydrodesulphurized kerosine. Study conducted by MicrobiologicalAssociates, Inc. Report N° 35-32482 Washington DC: American PetroleumInstitute

51. API (1985) L5178YTK +/- Mouse Iymphoma mutagenesis assay. API samplestraight-run kerosine (CAS 8008-20-6). Study conducted by MicrobiologicalAssociates, Inc. Report N° 32-32745. Washington DC: American PetroleumInstitute

52. API (1977) Mutagenicity evaluation of kerosine. Study conducted by LittonBionetics, Inc. Report N° 26-60017. Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute

53. API (1978) Estimation of the mutagenicity of hydrocarbon fractions using thebacterial assay procedure with mammalian tissue metabolic activation. Report 26-60103. Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute


33

54. Blackburn, G.R. et al (1986) Predicting carcinogenicity of petroleum distillationfractions using a modified Salmonella mutagenicity assay. Cell Biol Toxicol 2,1,63-84

55. API, (1979) In-vitro and in-vivo mutagenicity studies. Jet fuel A. Study conductedby Hazelton Laboratories America, Inc. Report N° 27-30051. Washington DC:American Petroleum Institute

56. API (1988) In-vitro sister chromatid exchange (SCE) assay with API 81-07,hydrodesulphurised kerosine. Study conducted by Microbiological Associates, Inc.Report N° 36-30043. Washington: American Petroleum Institute

57. API (1985) The acute in-vivo cytogenetics assay in male and female rats of APIstraight-run kerosine. Study conducted by Microbiological Associates, Inc. Report32-31769. Washington: American Petroleum Institute

58. API (1973) Mutagenicity study of thirteen petroleum fractions. Report N° 26-60098. Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute

59. API (1980) Mutagenicity evaluation of jet fuel A in the mouse dominant lethalassay. Study conducted by Litton Bionetics, Inc. Report N° 28-31345. WashingtonDC: American Petroleum Institute

60. API (1979) Teratology study in rats. Kerosine. Study conducted by LittonBionetics, Inc. Report N° 27-32175. Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute

61. API (1979) Inhalation /teratology study in rats. Jet fuel A. Study conducted byLitton Bionetics, Inc. Report N° 27-32173. Washington DC: American PetroleumInstitute

62. CONCAWE (1985) Health aspects of petroleum fuels. Potential hazards andprecautions for individual classes of fuels. Report No. 85/51. Brussels:CONCAWE.

63. Davies, N.E. (1964) Jet fuel intoxication. Aerospace Med 35 481-482

64. Knave, B. et al (1976) Long term exposure to jet fuel. An investigation onoccupationally exposed workers with special reference to the nervous system.Scand J Work Eviron Health 3 152-164

65. Dφssing, S. et al (1985) Jet fuel and liver function. Scand J Work Environ Health11 433-437

66. ACGIH (1993) Threshold limit values and biological exposure indices for 1994-1995. Cincinnati OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists


34

67. Thomas, T.C. and Richardson, A. (1981) An infrared analysis method for thedetermination of hydrocarbons collected on charcoal tubes. In: Choudhary, G. (ed)Chemical Hazards in the Workplace. ACS Symposium Series 149, p. 37-48Washington DC: American Chemical Society

68. Eller, P.M. (1984) NIOSH Manual of analytical methods, 3rd Ed. Vol 2. DHHS-NlOSH Publ N° 84-100, p. 1550-1 to 1550-5 Washington DC: US GovernmentPrinting Office

69. European Model Code of Safe Practice in the Storage and Handling of PetroleumProducts (1973) Part 1: Operations. London: Applied Science Publishers

70. CONCAWE (1980) Disposal techniques for spilt oil. Report No. 9/80. Brussels:CONCAWE

71. CONCAWE (1981) A field guide to coastal oil spill control and clean-uptechniques. Report No. 9/81. Brussels: CONCAWE

72. CONCAWE (1983) A field guide to inland oil spill and clean-up techniques. ReportNo. 10/83. Brussels: CONCAWE

73. CONCAWE (1988) A field guide to the application of dispersants to oil spills.Report No. 2/88. Brussels: CONCAWE

74. Frick, C.S. (1984) A discussion of the use of analytical techniques for solublecomponent analysis. Presented at API workshop on: sampling and analyticalmethods for determining petroleum hydrocarbons in groundwater and soil. APIReport N° 34-33101. Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute

75. Coleman, W.E. et al (1984) The identification and measurement of components ingasoline, kerosine and N°2 fuel oil that partition into the aqueous phase aftermixing. Arch Environ ContamToxicol 13 171-178

76. Atkinson, R. (1990) Gas-phase tropospheric chemistry of organic compounds: areview. Atmos Environ 24A, 1-41

77. Barnett, C.J. and Kontogiannis, J.E. (1975) The effect of crude oil fractions on thesurvival of a tidepool copepod, Tigriopus Californicus. Environ. Pollut 8 45-54

78. Spain, J.C. and Sommerville, C.C. (1985) Biodegradation of jet fuel by aquaticmicrobial communities. Report N° EPA/600/D-85/084. Gulf Breeze, FA: USEnvironmental Protection Agency

79. Spain, J.C. and Sommerville, C.C. (1985) Fate and toxicity of high density missilefuels RJ-5 and JP-9 in aquatic test systems. Chemosphere 14 239-248

80. Bridie, A.L. and Bos, J. (1971) Biological degradation of mineral oil in sea water. JInst Pet 57 270-277

81. Carlson, R.E. (1981) The biological degradation of spilled oil fuels; a literaturereview. US Air Force of Scientific Research, Air Force Engineering and ServiceCentre, Report N° ESL-TR-81-50


35

82. Guiney, P.D. et al (1987) Environmental impact of an aviation kerosine spill onstream water quality in Cambria Country, Pennsylvania. Environ Toxicol Chem 6,977-988

83. Spain, J.C. (1983) Degradation of jet fuel hydrocarbons by aquatic microbialcommunities. US Air Force of Scientific Research, Air Force Engineering andService Centre, Report N° ESL-TR-83-28

84. Miller R.H. et al (1990) Enhanced biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons inthe unsaturated zone. Paper presented at Society of Environmental Toxicologyand Chemistry (SETAC) 11th Annual Meeting, 11-15 November, Arlington VA

85. Song, H.G.et al (1990) Bioremediation potential of terrestial fuel spills. ApplEnviron Microbiol 56 652-656

86. Swindoll, C.M. (1988) Biodegradation of JP-5 aviation fuel by sub-surfacemicrobiological communities. NTIS N° AD-A192 743/3/XAD

87. Yong, R.N. and Mourato, D. (1987) Stimulation of microbial biodegradation in a jetfuel contaminated soil. Report N° EPA 600/9-81/0/8F, p. 131-147 Gulf Breeze FA:US Environmental Protection Agency

88. Song, H.G. and Bartha, R. (1990) Effects of jet fuel spills on the microbialcommunity of soil. Appl Environ Microbiol 56 646-651

89. CONCAWE (1992) Ecotoxicological testing of petroleum products: testmethodology. Report No. 92/56. Brussels: CONCAWE

90. Cairns, J. et al (1985) A novel approach for predicting sub-lethal effects oftoxicants to aquatic organisms. Final report. Report N° AFOSR-82-0059. Studyconducted by Virginia State University for Air Force Office of Scientific Research

91. Doane, T.R. et al (1984) Comparison of biomonitoring techniques for evaluatingeffects of jet fuel on bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus). In: Pascoe, D. andEdwards, R.W. (eds.) Freshwater biological monitoring, p. 103-112

92. Cairns, J. et al (1984) Sub lethal effects of JP-4 on aquatic organisms andcommunities. Report N° AFOSR-TR-84-0118. Study conducted by Virginia StateUniversity for Air Force Office of Scientific Research

93. Fisher, J.W. et al (1983) Biological monitoring of bluegill activity. Wat Res. Bull. 19, 2 211-215

94. Fisher, J.W. et al (1985) Toxic effects of petroleum and shale JP-4 and JP-8aviation fuels on fathead minnows. Wat Res Bull 21, 1 49-52

95. Von Juhnke, I. and Ludemann, D. (1978) Ergebnisse der Untersuchung von 200chemischen Verbindungen auf akute Fishtoxizität mit dem Goldorfentest. Z.Wasser-u Abwasser- Forsch 11 161-164

96. Boylan, D.B. and Tripp, B.W. (1971) Determination of hydrocarbons in seawaterextracts of crude oil and crude oil fractions. Nature 230 44-47

97. Saha, M.K. (1983) Toxicity of petroleum products to plankton, worm and fish.Environ Ecol 1 61-62


36

98. Klein, S.A. and Jenkins, D. (1983) The toxicity of jet fuels to fish-II. The toxicity ofJP-8 to flagfish (Jordanella floridae) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) andgolden shiners (notemigonus chysoleucas). Wat Res 17 1213-1220

99. Cooper, R.C. et al (1988) Environmental quality research fate of toxic jet fuelcomponents in aquatic systems. Report N° AFAMRL-TR-81-101. Study conductedby University of California for Air Force Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory

100. DSM Kunstoffen BV (1989) The acute toxicity of C9 resinfeed to Brachydaniorerio. Study conducted by TNO. Report N° R89/225. Beek: DSM

101. Haley, M.U. and Landis, W.G. (1989) Toxicity of Jet A to selected aquaticorganisms. Report N° AD-A208 243., Aberdeen Proving Ground MD: US ArmyArmament Munitions Chemical Command

102. Cooper, R.C. et al (1982) Fate of toxic jet fuel components in aquatic systems.Report N° AFAMRL-TR-82-64. Study conducted by University of California for AirForce Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory

103. Jaweir, H.J. and Habash, A.H. (1987) Toxicity of water-soluble hydrocarbons ofkerosine to polychaeaous annelides from Shat Al -Arab. J Biol Sci Res 18 111-122

104. Laughlin, R.B. and Guard, J.N.H. (1981) Hormesis: A response to lowenvironmental concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons. Science 211 705-707

105. Panigrahi, A.K. and Konar, S.K. (1989) Acute toxicity of some petroleum pollutantsto plankton, fish and benthic organisms. Environ Ecol 7 44-49

106. DSM Kunststoffen BV (1987) The acute toxicity of C9 resinfeed to the crustacean,Chaetogammarus marinus. Study conducted by TNO. Report N° R87-378. Sittard:DSM

107. Steele, R.L. (1977) Effects of certain petroleum products on reproduction andgrowth of zygotes and juvenile stages of the alga, Fucus edentatus de la pyl(phaeophyceae:fucales). In: Fate and Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbons inMarine Ecosystems and Organisms. Proceedings of a symposium, p. 138-142Wolfe, D.A. (ed). New York: Pergamon Press

108. Hoffman, D.J. and Albers, P.H. (1984) Evaluation of potential embryotoxicity andteratogenicity of 42 herbicides, insecticides abd petroleum contaminants tomallard eggs. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 13 15-27

109. Latendresse, J.R. and Fisher, J.W. (1983) Histopathologic effects of JP-4 aviationfuel on fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 30536-543

110. Das, P.K.M.K., Panigrahi, A.K. and Konar, S.K. (1985) Effects of accidentalspillage of petroleum product on terrestial and aquatic ecosystem. Environ Ecol 3603-611

111. Dow, R.L. (1978) Size-selective mortalities of clams in an oil spill site. Mar PollBull 9 45-48


37

112. Connell, D.W. (1974) A kerosine-like taint in the sea mullet, Mugil cephalus(Linnaeus). I. Composition and environmental occurrence of the taintingsubstance. Aust J Mar Freshw Res 25 7-24

113. Connell, D.W. (1974) A kerosine-like taint in the sea mullet, Mugil cephalus(Linnaeus). II. Some aspects of the deposition and metabolism of hydrocarbons inmuscle tissue. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 20 492-498

114. Albers, P.H. and Gay, M.L. (1982) Unweathered and weathered aviation kerosine:chemical characterisation and effects on hatching success of duck eggs. BullEnviron Contam Toxicol 28 430-434

115. Eppley, Z.A. and Rubega, M.A. (1989) Indirect effects of an oil spill Nature 340513

116. Granett, A.L. and Taylor, O.C. (1981) The phytotoxicity of designated pollutants.Report N° AFAMRL-TR-81-28 Study for Air Force Aerospace Medical ResearchLaboratory


38

APPENDIX 1A

STRAIGHT-RUN KEROSINES : EINECS ENTRIES

EINECS No. CAS No.

232-366-4 8008-20-6Kerosine (petroleum)

A complex combination of hydrocarbons produced by the distillation of crude oil. Itconsists of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C9through C16 and boiling in the range of approximately 150°C to 290°C (320°F to554°F).

265-191-7 64742-88-7Solvent naphtha (petroleum), medium aliph.

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained from the distillation of crude oilor natural gasoline. It consists predominantly of saturated hydrocarbons havingcarbon numbers predominantly in the range of C9 through C12 and boiling in therange of approximately 140°C to 220°C (284°F to 428°F).

265-200-4 64742-96-7Solvent naphtha (petroleum), heavy aliph.

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained from the distillation of crude oilor natural gasoline. It consists predominantly of saturated hydrocarbons havingcarbon numbers predominantly in the range of C11 through C16 and boiling in therange of approximately 190°C to 290°C (374°F to 554°F).

295-418-5 92045-37-9Kerosine (petroleum), straight-run wide-cut

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained as a wide cut hydrocarbon fuelcut from atmospheric distillation and boiling in the range of approximately 70°C to220°C (158°F to 428°F).


39

APPENDIX 1B

CRACKED KEROSINES : EINECS ENTRIES

265-194-3 64742-91-2Distillates (petroleum), steam-cracked

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by the distillation of the productsfrom a steam cracking process. It consists predominantly of unsaturatedhydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C7 throughC16 and boiling in the range of approximately 90°C to 290°C (190°F to 554°F).

270-728-3 68477-39-4Distillates (petroleum), cracked stripped steam-cracked petroleum distillates, C8-10fraction

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by distilling cracked strippedsteam-cracked distillates. It consists of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers inthe range of C8 through C10 and boiling in the range of approximately 129°C to194°C (264°F to 382°F).

270-729-9 68477-40-7Distillates (petroleum), cracked stripped steam-cracked petroleum distillates,C10-12 fraction

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by distilling cracked strippedsteam-cracked distillates. It consists predominantly of aromatic hydrocarbonshaving carbon numbers in the range of C10 through C12.

270-737-2 68477-54-3Distillates (petroleum), steam-cracked, C8-12 fraction

A complex combination of organic compounds obtained by the distillation ofproducts from a steam cracking process. It consists predominantly of unsaturatedhydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C8 throughC12.

285-507-7 85116-55-8Kerosine (petroleum), hydrodesulfurized thermal cracked

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by fractionation fromhydrodesulfurized thermal cracked distillate. It consists predominantly ofhydrocarbons predominantly in the range of C8 to C16 and boiling in the range ofapproximately 120°C to 283°C (284°F to 541°F).


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292-621-0 90640-98-5

Aromatic hydrocarbons, C≥10, steam-cracking, hydrotreated

A complex combination of hydrocarbons produced by the distillation of theproducts from a steam cracking process treated with hydrogen in the presence ofa catalyst. It consists predominantly of aromatic hydrocarbons having carbonnumbers predominantly greater than C10 and boiling in the range of approximately150°C to 320°C (302°F to 608°F).

292-637-8 90641-13-7Naphtha (petroleum), steam-cracked, hydrotreated, C9-10-arom-rich

A complex combination of hydrocarbons produced by the distillation of theproducts from a steam cracking process thereafter treated with hydrogen in thepresence of a catalyst. It consists predominantly of aromatic hydrocarbons havingcarbon numbers in the range of C9 through C10 and boiling in the range ofapproximately 140°C to 200°C (284°F to 392°F).

309-866-7 101316-61-4

Distillates (petroleum ), thermal-cracked, alkylarom. hydrocarbon-rich

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by the distillation of thermal-cracking heavy tars. It consists predominantly of highly alkylated aromatichydrocarbons boiling in the range of approximately 100°C to 250°C (212°F to482°F).

309-881-9 101316-80-7Solvent naphtha (petroleum), hydrocracked heavy arom.

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by the distillation ofhydrocracked petroleum distillate. It consists predominantly of hydrocarbonshaving carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C9 through C16 and boilingin the range of approximately 235°C to 290°C (455°F to 554°F).

309-938-8 101316-13-4

Distillates (petroleum ), catalytic-cracked, heavy tar light

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by the distillation of catalyticcracking heavy tars. It consists predominantly of highly alkylated aromatichydrocarbons boiling in the range of approximately 100°C to 250°C (212°F to482°F).

309-940-9 101316-15-6

Distillates (petroleum ), steam-cracked, heavy tar light

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by the distillation of steamcracking heavy tars. It consists predominantly of highly alkylated aromatichydrocarbons boiling in the range of approximately 100°C to 250°C (212°F to482°F).


41

APPENDIX 1C

OTHER KEROSINES : EINECS ENTRIES

265-074-0 64741-73-7Distillates (petroleum), alkylate

A complex combination of hydrocarbons produced by distillation of the reactionproducts of the reaction products of isobutane with monoolefinic hydrocarbonsusually ranging in carbon numbers from C3 through C5. It consists ofpredominantly branched chain saturated hydrocarbons having carbon numberspredominantly in the range of C11 through C17 and boiling in the range ofapproximately 205°C to 320°C (401°F to 608°F).

265-099-7 64741-98-6Extracts (petroleum), heavy naphtha solvent

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained as the extract from a solventextraction process. It consists predominantly of aromatic hydrocarbons havingcarbon numbers predominantly in the range of C7 through C12 and boiling in therange of approximately 90°C to 220°C (194°F to 428°F).

265-132-5 64742-31-0Distillates (petroleum), chemically neutralized light

A complex combination of hydrocarbons produced by a treating process toremove acidic materials. It consists of hydrocarbons having carbon numberspredominantly in the range of C9 through C16 and boiling in the range ofapproximately 150°C to 290°C (302°F to 554°F).

265-149-8 64742-47-8Distillates (petroleum), hydrotreated light

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by treating a petroleum fractionwith hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. It consists of hydrocarbons havingcarbon numbers predominantly in the range of C9 through C16 and boiling in therange of approximately 150°C to 290°C (302°F to 554°F).

265-184-9 64742-81-0Kerosine (petroleum), hydrodesulfurized

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained from a petroleum stock bytreating with hydrogen to convert organic sulfur to hydrogen sulfide which isremoved. It consists of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in therange of C9 through C16 and boiling in the range of approximately 150°C to 290°C(302°F to 554°F).


42

265-198-5 64742-94-5Solvent naphtha (petroleum), heavy arom.

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained from distillation of aromaticstreams. It consists predominantly of aromatic hydrocarbons having carbonnumbers predominantly in the range of C9 through C16 and boiling in the range ofapproximately 165°C to 290°C 330°F to 554°F).

269-778-9 68333-23-3Naphtha (petroleum), heavy coker

A complex combination of hydrocarbons from the distillation of products from afluid coker. It consists predominantly of unsaturated hydrocarbons having carbonnumbers predominantly in the range of C6 through C15 and boiling in the range ofapproximately 157°C to 288°C (315°F to 550°F).

285-508-2 85116-57-0Naphtha (petroleum), catalytic reformed hydrodesulfurized heavy, arom. fraction

A complex combination of hydrocarbons produced by fractionation fromcatalytically reformed hydrodesulfurized naphtha. It consists predominantly ofaromatic hydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C7to C13 and boiling in the range of approximately 98°C to 218°C (208°F to 424°F).

294-799-5 91770-15-9Kerosine (petroleum), sweetened

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by subjecting a petroleumdistillate to a sweetening process to convert mercaptans or to remove acidicimpurities. It consists predominantly of hydrocarbons having carbon numberspredominantly in the range of C9 through C16 and boiling in the range of 130°C to290°C (266°F to 554°F).

295-416-4 92045-36-8Kerosine (petroleum), solvent-refined sweetened

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained from a petroleum stock bysolvent refining and sweetening and boiling in the range of approximately 150°C to260°C (302°F to 500°F).

297-854-1 93763-35-0Hydrocarbons, C9-16, hydrotreated, dearomatized

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained as solvents which have beensubjected to hydrotreatment in order to convert aromatics to naphthenes bycatalytic hydrogenation.

307-033-2 97488-94-3Kerosine (petroleum), solvent-refined hydrodesulfurized


43

309-864-6 101316-58-9Distillates (petroleum), hydrodesulfurized full-range middle coker

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by fractionation fromhydrodesulphurised coker distillate. It consists predominantly of hydrocarbonshaving carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C8 through C16 and boilingin the range of approximately 120°C to 283°C (248°F to 541°F).

309-882-4 101316-81-8Solvent naphtha (petroleum), hydrodesulfurized heavy arom.

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by the catalytichydrodesulfurization of a petroleum fraction. It consists predominantly ofhydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C10 throughC13 and boiling in the range of approximately 180°C to 240°C (356°F to 464°F).

309-884-5 101316-82-9Solvent naphtha (petroleum), hydrodesulfurized medium

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained by the catalytichydrodesulfurization of a petroleum fraction. It consists predominantly ofhydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C10 throughC13 and boiling in the range of approximately 175°C to 220°C (347°F to 428°F).

309-944-0 101631-19-0Kerosine (petroleum), hydrotreated

A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained from the distillation of petroleumand subsequent hydrotreatment. It consists predominantly of alkanes,cycloalkanes and alkylbenzenes having carbon numbers predominantly in therange of C12 through C16 and boiling in the range of approximately 230°C to 270°C(446°F to 518°F).


44

APPENDIX 2

KEROSINES SAMPLES INVESTIGATED BY AMERICAN PETROLEUMINSTITUTE

1. CAS NUMBERS AND DEFINITIONS FOR SAMPLES

API 83-09

CAS No. 8008-20-6 EINECS No. 232-366-4-Kerosine (petroleum) : straight-runkerosine (petroleum).

A complex combination of hydrocarbons produced by the distillation of crude oil. Itconsists of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C9through C16 and boiling in the range of approximately 150°C to 290°C (320°F to554°F).

API 81-07

CAS No. 64742-81-0, EINECS No. 265-184-9-Kerosine (petroleum)hydrodesulphurized. A complex combination of hydrocarbons obtained from apetroleum stock by treating with hydrogen to convert organic sulphur to hydrogensulphide which is removed. It consists of hydrocarbons having carbon numberspredominantly in the range C9 through C16 and boiling in the range ofapproximately 150°C to 290°C (320°F to 554°F).

[Note - API 83-09 was presumably a raw distillate not subjected to any finishingtreatment. The CAS description covering API 81-07 does not indicate whether"petroleum stock" is an atmospheric distillate or cracked stock; either seemspossible].


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2. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

API 83-09 API 81-07

Sulphur, % (m/m). 0.47 0.07

Flash point, °C 62 60

Distillation range °C

Initial boiling point 114 183

10% 164 200

50% 207 223

90% 246 253

95% 254 263

Final boiling point 271 279

Hydrocarboncomposition, % (m/m)

ParaffinsNaphthenesOlefinsAromatics

50.527.4 1.920.2

42.734.6 0.522.2

Documents

Kerosines Jet Fuels