L1.1 Historical Background of Indian Constitution

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    Historical Background of Indian Constitution

    Before 1947, India was divided into two main entities  The British India which consisted of 11 provinces and the Princely states ruled by Indian princes under subsidiary alliance policy. The two entities merged together to form the Indian Union, but many of the legacy systems in British India is followed even now. The historical underpinnings and evolution of the India Constitution can be traced to many regulations and acts passed before Indian Independence.Indian System of Administration

    Indian democracy is Parliamentary form of democracy where executive is responsible to the Parliament. The Parliament has two houses  Loksabha and Rajyasabha. Also the type of governance is Federal, ie there is separate executive and legislature at Center and States. We also have self governance at local government levels. All these systems owe their legacy to the British administration. Let us seethe historical background of Indian Constitution and its development through years.Regulating Act of 1773

      The first step taken by the British Parliament to control and regulate the affairs of the East India Company in India.  It designated the Governor of Bengal (Fort William) as the GovernorGeneral(of Bengal).  Warren Hastings became the first GovernorGeneral of Bengal.

      Executive Council of the GovernorGeneral was established (Four members). There was no separate legislative council.  It subordinated the Governors of Bombay and Madras to the GovernorGeneral of Bengal.  The Supreme Court was established at Fort William (Calcutta) as the Apex Court in 1774.  It prohibited servants of the company from engaging in any private trade oraccepting bribes from the natives.  Court of Directors (governing body of the company) should report its revenue.

    Pitts India Act of 1784

      Distinguished between commercial and political functions of the company.  Court of Directors for Commercial functions and Board of Control for political affairs.  Reduced the strength of the Governor Generals council to three members.  Placed the Indian affairs under the direct control of the British Government.  The companies territories in India were called the British possession in India.  Governors councils were established in Madras and Bombay.

    Charter Act of 1813

      The Companys monopoly over Indian trade terminated; Trade with India open to

    all British subjects.

    Charter Act of 1833

      GovernorGeneral (of Bengal) became as the GovernorGeneral of India.  First GovernorGeneral of India was Lord William Bentick.  This was the final step towards centralization in the British India.  Beginning of a Central legislature for India as the act also took away legislative powers of Bombay and Madras provinces.  The Act ended the activities of the East India Company as a commercial body

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    and it became a pure administrative body.

    Charter Act of 1853

      The legislative and executive functions of the GovernorGenerals Council were separated.  6 members in Central legislative council. Four out of six members were appointed by the provisional governments of Madras, Bombay, Bengal and Agra.  It introduced a system of open competition as the basis for the recruitmentof civil servants of the Company (Indian Civil Service opened for all).

    Government of India Act of 1858

      The rule of Company was replaced by the rule of the Crown in India.  The powers of the British Crown were to be exercised by the Secretary of State for India  He was assisted by the Council of India, having 15 members  He was vested with complete authority and control over the Indian administration through the Vice roy as his agent  The GovernorGeneral was made the Viceroy of India.  Lord Canning was the first Viceroy of India.  Abolished Board of Control and Court of Directors.

    Indian Councils Act of 1861

      It introduced for the first time Indian representation in the institutions like Viceroys executive+legislative council (nonofficial). 3 Indians entered Legislative council.  Legislative councils were established in Center and provinces.  It provided that the Viceroys Executive Council should have some Indians as the nonofficial members while transacting the legislative businesses.  It accorded statutory recognition to the portfolio system.  Initiated the process of decentralisation by restoring the legislative powers to the Bombay and the Madras Provinces.

    India Council Act of 1892

      Introduced indirect elections (nomination).  Enlarged the size of the legislative councils.  Enlarged the functions of the Legislative Councils and gave them the power of discussing the Budget and addressing questions to the Executive.

    Indian Councils Act of 1909

      This Act is also known as the Morley Minto Reforms.  Direct elections to legislative councils; first attempt at introducing a representative and popular element.  It changed the name of the Central Legislative Council to the Imperial Legislative Council.  The member of Central Legislative Council was increased to 60 from 16.

      Introduced a system of communal representation for Muslims by accepting theconcept of separate electorate.  Indians for the first time in Viceroys executive council. (Satyendra PrasadSinha, as the law member)

    Government of India Act of 1919

      This Act is also known as the MontagueChelmsford Reforms.  The Central subjects were demarcated and separated from those of the Provincial subjects.

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      The scheme of dual governance, Dyarchy, was introduced in the Provincial subjects.  Under dyarchy system, the provincial subjects were divided into two parts  transferred and reserved. On reserved subjects Governor was not responsible to the Legislative council.  The Act introduced, for the first time, bicameralism at center.  Legislative Assembly with 140 members and Legislative council with 60 members.  Direct elections.  The Act also required that the three of the six members of the Viceroys Executive Council (other than CommanderinChief) were to be Indians.  Provided for the establishment of Public Service Commission.

    Government of India Act of 1935

      The Act provided for the establishment of an AllIndia Federation consisting of the Provinces and the Princely States as units, though the envisaged federation never came into being.  Three Lists The Act divided the powers between the Centre and the units initems of three lists, namely the Federal List, the Provincial List and the Concurrent List.  The Federal List for the Centre consisted of 59 items, the Provincial List for the provinces consisted of 54 items and the Concurrent List for both consisted of 36 items

      The residuary powers were vested with the GovernorGeneral.  The Act abolished the Dyarchy in the Provinces and introduced Provincial Autonomy.  It provided for the adoption of Dyarchy at the Centre.  Introduced bicameralism in 6 out of 11 Provinces.  These six Provinces were Assam, Bengal, Bombay, Bihar, Madras and the United Province.  Provided for the establishment of Federal Court.  Abolished the Council of India.

    Indian Independence Act of 1947

      It declared India as an Independent and Sovereign State.

      Established responsible Governments at both the Centre and the Provinces.  Designated the Viceroy India and the provincial Governors as the Constitutional (normal heads).  It assigned dual functions (Constituent and Legislative) to the ConstituentAssembly and declared this dominion legislature as a sovereign body.

    Points to be noted

    constitution of india

      Laws made before Charter Act of 1833 were called Regulations and those madeafter are called Acts.  Lord Warren Hastings created the office of District Collector in 1772, but j

    udicial powers were separated from District collector later by Cornwalis.  From the powerful authorities of unchecked executives, the Indian administration developed into a responsible government answerable to the legislature and people.  The development of portfolio system and budget points to the separation of power.  Lord Mayos resolution on financial decentralization visualized the development of local selfgovernment institutions in India (1870).  1882 Lord Ripons resolution was hailed as the Magna Carta of local self government. He is regarded as the Father of local selfgovernment in India.

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      1921 Railway Budget was separated from the General Budget.  From 1773 to 1858, the British tried for the centralization of power. It was from the 1861 Councils act they shifted towards devolution of power with provinces.  1833 Charter act was the most important act before the act of 1909.  Till 1947, the Government of India functioned under the provisions of the 1919 Act only. The provisions of 1935 Act relating to Federation and Dyarchy werenever implemented.  The Executive Council provided by the 1919 Act continued to advice the Viceroy till 1947. The modern executive (Council of Ministers) owes its legacy to the executive council.  The Legislative Council and Assembly developed into Rajyasabha and Loksabhaafter independence.

    Constitutional Development During British Rule in India: Mahesh Shantaram | Category : British India

    This article throws light on the four major acts passed for constitutional development during British Rule in India.

    The acts are: 1. Indian Councils Act of 1892 2. MorleyMinto Reforms, 1909 3. Re

    forms Act of 1919 4. Government of India Act, 1935.

    Advertisements:Act # 1. Indian Councils Act of 1892:

    By the Councils Act of 1861 a few Indians could be members of the Councils which had the power of enacting laws only.

    The Councils had not the power of control-ling the executive or the right of interpellation.

    Advertisements:

    With the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885 there was a persistent demand for inclusion of larger number of Indians, on the basis of election, inthe Councils and other related rights and powers.

    During the administration of Lord Dufferin a Commission was appointed to examine the demands of the Congress. Pursuant to the report and recommendation of the Commission Lord Cross the then Secretary of State for India got the Indian Councils Act of 1892 passed by the Parliament.

    By the Act of 1892 the membership of the governor generals Council and of the provincial councils was increased. But the mem-bers were to be nominated as before; the principle of election was not conceded. The only exception was that the District Boards and the Municipal Boards which were allowed to nominate members to th

    e Councils indirectly followed the principle of election, for, the members of the District Boards and the Municipal Boards were them-selves elected representatives.

    The powers of the Councils were also enhanced in some measures. Formerly the members of the Councils could express their opinion in matters of taxation. But in, the Act of 1892 they were allowed to discuss the government budget, and put question to the Executive on certain matters of administration.

    Advertisements:

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    Although the Councils Act of 1892 was an improvement upon the former Councils Act, it did not meet the demands of the people. Majority of the members of the Councils were still nominated by the government. However, in the newly formed Central Council the presence of leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Rashbehari Ghosh, Asutosh Mukerjee, Surendranath Banerjee etc. made the discussions and deliberations lively and if their criticism could not control the government, at least succeeded in influencing it to some extent.Act # 2. MorleyMinto Reforms, 1909:

    Intensity of Congress move-ment and persistent demand by Congress for constitutional reforms, coupled with the fear complex generated in the British by the revo-lutionaries made the government introduce reforms of 1909. Morley was the Secretary of State and Minto was the governor general and viceroy, hence the reforms of 1909 are known as MorelyMinto reforms.

    These reforms provided for the association of the qualified Indians with the government to a greater extent in deciding public questions. One seat in the governor generals Executive Council was reserved for an Indian member. S. P. Sinha, later Lord Sinha was the first Indian to attain that honour. The number of membersof the Executive Councils of Bombay and Madras was raised to four. Although there was no provision for reserving any seat for any Indian in the Executive Councils of the provinces, Raja Kishori Lai Goswami was appointed a member of the Executive Council of Bengal.

    The most striking feature of the Act of 1909 was the introduction of important changes in the composition and functions of the Legis-lative Councils. The number of additional members of the Central Legislature was raised from sixteen to a maximum of sixty of whom not more than 28 were to be officials.

    The governor general was empowered to nominate three nonofficials to representcertain speci-fied communities and could as well nominate two more members. The remaining 27 seats were to be filled in by nonofficial elected members. The membership of the Provincial Councils was also in-creased and whereas in the Central Legislature the nominated members constituted the majority, in the Provincial Legislatures provision was made so that elected members were in the majority. The Act of 1909 gave separate electorate to the Muslims.

    The Legislative Councils under the new Act were given the power to discuss the budget, to move resolutions, to discuss the problems of the country and adopt resolutions on those matters. The government could, however reject any of such proposals or resolutions. About the native states, military department, foreign relations, the Legisla-tive Councils could not move any resolutions.

    The MorleyMinto reforms had no doubt marked an important step in the constitutional progress of India, they did not give Parlia-mentary government to India. These naturally did not come upto the satisfaction of the Indian people and their discontent continued unabated.Act # 3. Reforms Act of 1919:

    Within five years of the introduction of the MorleyMinto Reforms the First World War broke out. Two schemes were put forward one by Gokhale and another by theCon-gress and the Muslim League jointly. To satisfy the widespread demand of the Indians for constitutional reforms, as also in recognition of their loyal services to the British government during the First World War Mr. Edwin Montagu, Secretary of State for India made the famous announcement in the House of Commons on August 20, 1917 that the policy of His Majestys Government with which the government of India are in complete accord, is that of the increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administra-tion and the gradual development of selfgoverning institutions with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible go

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    vernment in India as an integral part of the British Empire.

    Mr. Montagu came to India towards the end of 1917 to ascertain public opinion in the country and after an extensive tour, published in April, 1918 the report on Indian constitutional reforms commonly known as MontaguChelmsford Report. Mr.Chelmsford was the governor general. The report formed the basis of the reformsof 1919, which became effective in 1921.

    The reforms Act of 1919 made a clear division of the functions of the Central and the Provincial Governments. The Centre was entrusted with defence, foreign affairs, principal railways and strategic communications, public debt, posts and telegraphs, currency and coinage, commerce, civil and criminal laws, allIndia services, certain research institutions etc.

    The Provincial Governments were entrusted with the functions in respect of internal law and order, administration of justice and jails, forest, irrigation, inspection of factories, supervision of labour, famine relief, land revenue administration, local self government, education, medical department, public health andsanitation, agri-culture, public works, development of industries, excise and coopera-tives. The sources of incomes and heads of revenue of the Central and Provincial Governments were also delimited.

    The governor general remained, as before, directly responsible to the Secretaryof State and the Parliament and not to the Indian Legislature. The Executive Cou

    ncil of the governor general was enlarged. Although not provided for in the Act, in practice three Indians were chosen as members of the Executive Council.

    The Central Legislature was made bicameral, i.e., with two chambers: the Council of State and the Legislative Assembly. The members of the Executive Council could be members of one or the other house of the legislature, nominated by the governor general. The Upper House, i.e., the Council of State was to have 60 members of whom 34 were to be elected and not more than 20 were to be officials.

    The Lower House, i.e., the Legislative Assembly was to consist of 140 members, later raised to 145. 105 were to be elected, 26 nominated officials and 14 nominated nonofficials. Election to both houses was direct and franchise was on highproperty qualification. The life of the Upper House was five years and of the Lo

    wer House three years. The Upper House was to have a President to be nominated by the governor general from among its members and the Lower House was to have aPresident and a Deputy President. For the first four years the President of theLower House was to be appointed by the governor general and thereafter to be elected by the House.

    The Central Legislature had the power to make laws for the whole of British India. Prior permission of the governor general was necessary to introduce bills incertain matters. If any bill recom-mended by the governor general be thrown out or amended unsatis-factorily by either house, the governor general might certify the bill as essential for the safety and tranquillity of British India in which case the original bill would take effect.

    The governor general was empowered to promulgate ordinance in case of emergencywhich would remain in force for six months unless reduced into Act by the legislature. There were votable and nonvotable grants. Interest on loans and sinkingfund charges, salaries or pensions of persons appointed by His Majesty, of theSecretary of State etc., were non votable giants.

    Each province had a governor at the head of the executive government. He was appointed by His Majesty. The reforms Act of 1919 introduced a dual government or diarchy in the Provincial Exe-cutive. The governor with his Executive Council was invested with authority over Reserved Subjects for the administration of which th

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    e he was responsible to the governor general and Whitehall and not to the legislature.

    The Transferred Subjects were placed in charge of the governor generals, and his ministers who were to be appointed from among the provincial legislature. Important matters like law and order were included in the Reserved Subjects, whereaseducation, health and sanitation, local self government etc., were included in the Transferred Subjects. It is evident that in the Transferred Sub-jects those subjects were included the mismanagement of which would not affect the British butthe people of the country.

    As regards the power of the governor in matters of bills intro-duced in the Provincial Legislature there is similarity with the powers of the governor general. As regards Reserved Subjects the power of the provincial legislature was strictlylimited. Insofar as the Transferred Subjects were concerned the Provincial legislature couldcut down, or refuse any demand.

    The Act of 1919 gave real responsibility to the representatives of the people although in a limited sphere of administration. Judged from truly democratic stand point, the Act had certain defects both in the Central and Provincial Governments. Yet it must be agreed that the Act was an important step forward in the constitutional pro-gress of India.

    The Act of 1919 did not meet the demands of the Indians, since real power was al

    l vested in the hands of the governor general and the governor. Demand for constitutional reforms naturally conti-nued. Greatest objection to the Act was that bydividing the provin-cial administration into Reserved and Transferred halves, it gave power without responsibility into the hands of the governor general and thegovernor and responsibility without power into the hands of the provincial legislatures.Act # 4. Government of India Act, 1935:

    In 1927 that British govern-ment appointed a Commission under the Chairmanship ofSir John Simon, earlier than provided in the Act of 1919 to report on the working of the reforms of 1919. As all the seven members of the Commission were British, the Congress, the liberals and important section of the Muslims boycotted itwhen it reached India in 1928. There was also a wider ground on which the Congre

    ss took its stand.

    It held that it was not in accord with the principle of selfdetermina-tion to have constitutional changes effected on the recommendations of a Commission appointed by an outside authority and without any Indian member on it. Lord Irwin, thethen governor general wrote to Ramsay MacDonald, the British Prime Minister belonging to the Labour Party which had come to power in 1929 that after the pub-lication of the report of the Simon Commission a conference of the representatives of British India and of the Indian states should be held before final decisions were taken.

    This suggestion was accepted. The report of the Commission was published in May, 1930 which re-commended responsible government in the provinces, transfer of poli

    ce, justice to ministers responsible to the legislature, legislatures to be formed on the basis of wider franchise. In Centre there was, however, to be complete British authority and control. It also envisaged an allIndia federation including the native States. The British government then summoned a Round Table Conference in London in 1930. The second session met in 1931 and the third session in1932. But no tangible results could be obtained.

    However, on the basis of the report of the Simon Commission and discussions in the Round Table Conference, the British govern-ment drafted its proposals for the reform of the Indian constitution which were embodied in a White Paper published

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    in March, 1933. A Joint Committee of both the Houses of the Parliament examinedand approved of the proposals subject to certain modifications. On the report of this Committee a bill was prepared and the Government of India Bill, 1935 was drafted, which became Act with minor modifications, on August 2, 1935.

    The Act of 1935 embodied two main principles: first an allIndia Federation comprising governors provinces, Chief Commis-sioners provinces and federating Indian native States, secondly, provin-cial autonomy with a government responsible to the elected legislature.

    All powers hitherto before exercised by the Secretary of State were resumed by the Crown and redistributed between the Central and the Provincial Governments.

    As regards the Indian States the powers of paramountcy were to be exercised henceforth by His Majestys representative and not by the government of India. Important departments like foreign affairs, ecclesiastical affairs and defence were tobe administered by the governor general under the supervision of White Hall alone.

    The governor general and the governors of provinces were invested with special powers in respect of functions transferred to the control of ministers for whichthey were responsible to the British Parliament. Thus even under the Act of 1935 the constitutional status of India was that of dependency though it was gradually gravitating towards that of a Dominion.

    The Congress opposed the Act of 1935 on the ground that in it governor general and the governors were given power of controlling and overriding the activities of the legislatures and the ministries. It was after Lord Linlithgow had given an assurance that no inter-ference would be made in day to day functioning of the governments that the Congress agreed to work out only the selfgovernment in provinces.

    In the election held in 1937 the Congress got absolute majority in seven provinces, in Assam and Sind Congress obtained single majo-rity. Out of eleven provincesin as many as nine the Congress formed ministry whereas in Punjab and Bengal the Muslim League came out with single majority.

    The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950. Since then, the day is celebrated as Republic Day. However, before 1950, 26 January was called Independence Day. Since 26 January 1930, it was the day on which thousands of people, in villages, in mohallas, in towns, in small and big groups would take the independence pledge, committing themselves to the complete independence of India from British rule. It was only fitting that the new republic should come into being on that day, marking from its very inception the continuity between the struggle for independence and the adoption of the Constitution that made India a Republic.

    The process of the evolution of the Constitution began many decades before 26 January 1950 and has continued unabated since. Its origins lie deeply embedded in

    the struggle for independence from Britain and in the movements for responsibleand constitutional government in the princely states.

    On 19 February 1946, the British government declared that they were sending a Cabinet Mission to India to resolve the whole issue of freedom and constitution making. The Cabinet Mission, which arrived in India on 24 March 1946, held prolonged discussions with Indian leaders. On 16 May 1946, having failed to secure an agreement, it announced a scheme of its own. It recognized that the best way of setting up a constitutionmaking machinery would 'be by election based on adult franchise; but any attempt to introduce such a step now would lead to a wholly un

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    acceptable delay in the formulation of the new constitution. Therefore, it was decided that the newlyelected legislative assemblies of the provinces were to elect the members of the Constituent Assembly on the basis of one representative for roughly one million of the population. The Sikh and Muslim legislators were to elect their quota based on their population.

    It was only after this process had been completed that the representatives of all the provinces and those of the princely states were to meet again to settle the Constitution of the Union. The Congress responded to the Cabinet Mission scheme by pointing out that in its view the Constituent Assembly, once it came into being, would be sovereign. It would have the right to accept or reject the Cabinet Mission's proposals on specifics.

    The Constituent Assembly was to have 389 members. Of these, 296 were to be fromBritish India and 93 from the princely Indian states. Initially, however, the Constituent Assembly comprised only of members from British India. Elections of these were held in JulyAugust 1946. Of the 210 seats in the general category. Congress won 199. It also won 3 out of the 4 Sikh seats from Punjab. The Congress also won 3 of the 78 Muslim seats and the 3 seats from Coorg, AjmerMerwara, andDelhi. The total Congress tally was 208. The Muslim League won 73 out of the 78Muslim seats.

    At 11 a.m., on 9 December 1946, the Constituent Assembly of India began its first session. For all practical purposes, the chronicle of independent India began

    on that historic day. Independence was now a matter of dates. The real responsibility of deciding the constitutional framework within which the government and people of India were to function had been transferred and assumed by the Indian people with the convening of the Constituent Assembly. Only a coup d'etat could now reverse this constitutional logic.

    207 members attended the first session. The Muslim League, having failed to prevent the convening of the Assembly, now refused to join its deliberations. Consequently, the seventysix Muslim members of the League stayed away and the four Congress Muslim members attended the session. On 11 December, Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected the permanent Chairman; an office later designated as President of the Assembly.

    The third session was held from 28 April to 2 May 1947 and the League still didnot join. On 3 June, the Mountbatten Plan was announced which made it clear that India was to be partitioned. With India becoming independent on 15 August 1947, the Constituent Assembly became a sovereign body, and also doubled as the legislature for the new state. It was responsible for framing the Constitution as well as making ordinary laws. The work was organized into five stages: first, committees were asked to present reports on basic issues; second, B.N. Rau, the constitutional adviser, prepared an initial draft on the basis of the reports of thereports of these committees and his own research into the constitutions of other countries; third, the drafting committee, chaired by Dr Ambedkar presented a detailed draft constitution which was published for public discussion and comments; fourth, the draft constitution was discussed and amendments proposed; fifth, and lastly the constitution was adopted.