Labour defended

8/12/2019 Labour defended

1/26

Labour Defended against the Claims of Capital Or theUnproductiveness of Capital proved with Reference to thePresent Combinations amongst Journeymen

Thomas odgs!in

"#$%

&OT'

(& all the debates on the law passed during the late session ofParliament) on account of the combinations of wor!men) muchstress is laid on the necessity of protecting capital* +hatcapital performs is therefore a ,uestion of considerableimportance) which the author was) on this account) induced toe-amine* .s a result of this e-amination) it is his opinion thatall the benefits attributed to capital arise from co/e-isting ands!illed labour* e feels himself) on this account) called on todeny that capital has any 0ust claim to the large share of thenational produce now bestowed on it* This large share he hasendeavored to show is the cause of the poverty of the labourer1and he ventures to assert that the condition of the labourer cannever be permanently improved till he can refute the theory) andis determined to oppose the practice of giving nearly everythingto capital*

Labour Defended .gainst the Claims of Capital

Throughout this country at present there e-ists a serious

contest between capital and labour* The 0ourneymen of almostevery trade have combined to obtain higher wages) and theiremployers have appealed to the legislature for protection* Thecontest is not only one of physical endurance) or who can standout longest) but of argument and reason* (t is possible for thewor!men to force their masters into compliance) but they mustconvince the public of the 0ustice of their demands* The presshas) at present) a great influence over public ,uestions1 and byfar the greater and more influential part of it is engaged on theside of the capitalist* Through it) however) and through publicopinion) must the 0ourneymen find their way to the legislature*They may possibly terrify their masters) but they can only obtainthe support of any influential persons by an appeal to reason* Tosuggest some arguments in favour of labour against capital) is mychief motive for publishing the present pamphlet* The labourers are very unfortunate) ( conceive) in beingsurrounded by nations in a worse political condition than we are)and in some of which labour is still worse paid than here*Labourers are still more unfortunate in being descended frombondsmen and serfs* Personal slavery or villanage formerlye-isted in 2ritain) and all the living labourers still sufferfrom the bondage of their ancestors* Our claims are conse,uentlynever tried by the principles of 0ustice* The law/giver and thecapitalist always compare our wages with the wages of otherlabourers1 and without adverting to what we produce) which seems

the only criterion by which we ought to be paid) we are instantlycondemned as insolent and ungrateful if we as! for more than wasen0oyed by the slave of former times) and is now en0oyed by thehalf/starved slave of other countries*


2/26

2y our increased s!ill and !nowledge) labour is now probablyten times more productive than it was two hundred years ago1 andwe are) forsooth) to be contended with the same rewards which thebondsmen then received* .ll the advantages of our improvements goto the capitalist and the landlord* +hen) denied any share in ourincreased produce) we combine to obtain it) we are instantlythreatened with summary punishment* &ew laws are fulminated

against us) and if these are found insufficient we are threatenedwith laws still more severe* Combination is of itself no crime1 on the contrary) it isthe principle on which societies are held together* +hen the3overnment supposes its e-istence threatened) or the country indanger) it calls on us all to combine for its protection*4Combinations of wor!men4) however) it says through 5r us!isson)4must be put down*4 6re,uently has it contracted alliances withother governments or made combinations to carry on war and shedblood1 fre,uently has it called on the whole nation to combinewhen the ob0ect has been to plunder and massacre the unoffendingsub0ects of some neighbouring state and fre,uently have suchcombinations had heaped on them all the epithets of the

vocabulary of glory* &o other combination seems un0ust ormischievous) in the view of 3overnment) but our combinations toobtain a proper reward for our labour* (t is a heinous crime inthe eyes of a legislature) composed e-clusively of capitalistsand landlords) and representing no other interests than theirown) for us to try) by any means) to obtain for ourselves and forthe comfortable subsistence of our families) a larger share ofour own produce than these our masters choose to allow us* .llthe moral evils that ever plagued a society have been anticipatedby the ministers from our persevering in our claims* To put downcombinations they have departed from principles held sacred forupwards of two hundred years* They have made also a law handing

us over to the magistrates li!e vagabonds and thieves) and we areto be condemned almost unheard) and without the privilege andformality of a public trial* .ll that we are compelled to suffer) all that we have hadinflicted on us) has been done for the advantage of capital*4Capital4) says 5r us!isson) 4will be terrified out of thecountry) and the misguided wor!men) unless they are stopped intime) will bring ruin on themselves and on us*4 4Capital)4 saysthe 5ar,uis of Lansdowne) 4must be protected* (f its operationsbe not left free) if they are to be controlled by bodies ofwor!men) it will leave this for some more favoured country*4Capital) if we believe these politicians) has improved 'ngland)and the want of capital is the cause of the poverty andsufferings of (reland* Under the influence of such notions) nolaws for the protection of capital are thought too severe) andfew or no persons) e-cept the labourers) see either improprietyor in0ustice in the fashionable mode of despising his claims) andlaughing at his distresses* (n fact the legislature) the public at large) and especiallyour employers) decide on our claims solely by a reference to theformer condition of the labourer) or to his condition in othercountries* +e are told to be contented) because we are not ,uiteso badly off as the ragged (rish peasants who are suffering undera more grievous system even than the one which afflicts us* 2ythem also we are destined to suffer1 for they are imported here

in crowds) and beat down the wages of our labour* +e can have nohope) therefore) either of convincing the public or of callingthe blush of shame into the chee! of those who are opulent by ourtoils) and who deride the poverty and sufferings they cause) by


3/26

referring to the customs of any other society) either in timespast or present* To obtain better treatment the labourers mustappeal from practice to principle* +e must put out of view howlabour has been paid in times past) and how it is now paid inother countries) and we must show how it ought to be paid* This)( admit) is a difficult tas!) but the former condition of thelabourer in this country) and his condition at present in other

countries) leaving us no criterion to which we can or ought toappeal) we must endeavour to perform it* The claims of capital) are) ( am aware) sanctioned by almostuniversal custom1 and as long as the labourer did not feelhimself aggrieved by them) it was of no use opposing them witharguments* 2ut now) when the practice e-cites resistance) we arebound) if possible) to overthrow the theory on which it isfounded and 0ustified* (t is accordingly against this theory thatmy arguments will be directed* +hen we have settled the ,uestion)however) as to the claims of capital or labour) we shall haveproceeded only one step towards ascertaining what ought now to bethe wages of labour* The other parts of the in,uiry will) (trust) be entered into by some of my fellow/labourers) and (

shall content myself at present with e-amining the claims of thecapitalists) as supported by the theories of political economy* ( admit that the sub0ect is somewhat abstruse) but there isa necessity for the labourers to comprehend and be able to refutethe received notions of the nature and utility of capital* +agesvary inversely as profits1 or wages rise when profits fall) andprofits rise when wages fall1 and it is therefore profits) or thecapitalist7s share of the national produce) which is opposed towages) or the share of the labourer* The theory on which profitsare claimed) and which holds up capital) and accumulation ofcapital to our administration as the mainspring of humanimprovement) is that which ( say the labourers must) in their own

interest) e-amine) and must) before they can have any hope of apermanent improvement in their own conditions) be able to refute*They) indeed) are so satisfied that by their e-ertions all thewealth of society is produced that no doubt on the sub0ect hasever entered their minds* This is not) however) the case withother people) and whenever the labourers claim larger wages) orcombine to do themselves 0ustice) they hear) both from thelegislature and the Press) little or nothing about the necessityof rewarding labour) but much about the necessity of protectingcapital* They must therefore be able to show the hollowness ofthe theory on which the claims of capital) and on which all theoppressive laws made for its protection are founded* This will) (hope) be a motive with them for endeavouring to comprehend thefollowing observations) as it is my e-cuse for directing them)not so much to show what labour ought) as to what capital oughtnot to have* 4The produce of the earth)4 says 5r Ricardo // 4.ll that isderived from its surface by the united application of labour)machinery and capital is divided among three classes of thecommunity1 namely) the proprietor of the land) the owner of thestoc! or capital necessary for its cultivation) and the labourersby whose industry it is cultivated*4 8Principles of Political'conomy) Preface) p* ") $nd 'd*9 4(t is self/evident)4 says 5r 57Culloch) 4that only threeclasses) the labourers) the possessors of capital) and the

proprietors of land) are ever directly concerned in theproduction of commodities* (t is to them) therefore) that allwhich is derived from the surface of the earth) or from itsbowels) by the united application of immediate labour) and of


4/26

capital) or accumulated labour) must primarily belong* The otherclasses of society have no revenue e-cept what they derive eithervoluntarily or by compulsion from these three classes*4 The proportions in which the whole produce is divided amongthese three classes is said to be as follows: // 4Land is ofdifferent degrees of fertility*4 4+hen) in the progress ofsociety) land of the second ,uality 8or an inferior degree of

fertility to land before cultivated9 is ta!en into cultivation)rent immediately commences on that of the first ,uality) and theamount of that rent will depend on the difference in the ,uality)and the amount of that rent will depend on the difference in the,uality of these two portions or land*4 ;Principles of Political'conomy< Rent) therefore) or that ,uantity of the whole produceof the country which goes to the landlords) is) in every stage ofsociety) that portion of this produce which is obtained fromevery district belonging to a politically organi=ed nation) morethan is obtained from the least fertile land cultivated by) orbelonging to) that nation* (t is the greater produce of all theland which is more fertile than the least fertile landcultivated* To produce this surplus would not brea! the bac!) and

to give it up would not brea! the heart of the labourer* Thelandlord7s share) therefore) does not !eep the labourer poor* The labourer7s share of the produce of a country) accordingto this theory) is the 4necessaries and conveniences re,uired forthe support of the labourer and his family1 or that ,uantitywhich is necessary to enable the labourers) one with another) tosubsist and to perpetuate their race) without either increase ordiminution*4 +hatever may be the truth of the theory in otherrespects) there is no doubt of its correctness in thisparticular* The labourers do only receive) and ever have onlyreceived) as much as will subsist them) the landlords receive thesurplus produce of the more fertile soils) and all the rest of

the whole produce of labour in this and in every country goes tothe capitalist under the name of profit for the use of hiscapital* Capital which thus engrosses the whole produce of a country)e-cept the bare subsistence of the labourer) and the surplusproduce of fertile land) is) 4the produce of labour)4 4iscommodities)4 4is the food the labourer eats) and the machines heuses4: so that we are obliged to give that enormous portion ofthe whole produce of the country which remains) after we havebeen supplied with subsistence) and the rent of the landlord hasbeen paid) for the privilege of eating the food we have ourselvesproduced) and of using our own s!ill in producing more* Capital)the reader will suppose) must have some wonderful properties)when the labourer pays so e-orbitantly for it* (n fact) itsclaims are founded on its wonderful properties) and to them)therefore) ( mean especially to direct his attention* >everal good and great men) whom we must all respect andesteem) seeing that capital did obtain all the large share ( havementioned) and being more willing) apparently) to defend and toe-plain the present order of society than to ascertain whether itcould be improved) have endeavoured to point out the method inwhich capital aids production* 6rom their writings ( shalle-tract some passages e-planatory of its effects* ( must)however) beg not to be understood as doing this invidiously* Theonly motive ( have for selecting these authors) as the

representatives of the political economists) is) that they are byfar the more efficient and elo,uent supporters of the doctrine (do not assent to* 5r 57Culloch says: 4The accumulation and employment of both


5/26

fi-ed and circulating capital is indispensably necessary toelevate any nation in the scale of civili=ation* .nd it is onlyby their con0oined and powerful operation that wealth can belargely produced and universally diffused*4 ;.rticle 4Political'conomy4 in >upplement to 'ncyclopedia 2ritannica*< 4The ,uantity of industry)4 he further says) 4therefore notonly increases in every country with the increase of the stoc! or

capital which sets it in motion1 but) in conse,uence of thisincrease) the division of labour becomes e-tended) new and morepowerful implements and machines are invented) and the same,uantity of labour is thus made to produce an infinitely greater,uantity of commodities* 42esides its effect in enabling labour to be divided)capital contributes to facilitate labour) and produce wealth inthe three following ways:// 46irst* // (t enables us to e-ecute wor! that could not bee-ecuted) or to produce commodities that could not be producedwithout it* 4>econd* // (t saves labour in the production of almostevery species of commodities*

4Third* // (t enables us to e-ecute wor! better) as well asmore e-peditiously*4 5r 5ill7s account of these effects) though not so precise)is still more astounding* 4The labourer)4 he says) 4has neitherraw materials nor tools* These are provided for him by thecapitalist* 6or ma!ing this provision the capitalist of coursee-pects a reward*4 .ccording to this statement) the capitalistprovides for the labourer and only) therefore) e-pects a profit*(n other parts of his boo! it is not the capitalist who provides)but the capital which wor!s* e spea!s of capital as aninstrument of production co/operating with labour) as an activeagent combining with labour to produce commodities) and thus he

satisfies himself) and endeavours to prove to the reader thatcapital is entitled to all that large share of the produce itactually receives* e also attributes to capital power ofaccumulation* This power or tendency to accumulate) he adds) isnot so great as the tendency of population to augment // and onthe difference between these two tendencies he and other authorshave erected a theory of society which places poor 5other &aturein no favourable light* +ithout troubling myself to ,uote more passages from theseauthors) or to transcribe the opinion of other writers) ( shallproceed to e-amine the effects of capital1 and ( shall begin withcirculating capital* 5r 57Culloch says) 4without circulatingcapital)4 meaning the food the labourer consumes) and theclothing he wears) 4the labourer never could engage in anyunderta!ing which did not yield an almost immediate return*4.fterwards he says) 4that division of labour is a conse,uence ofprevious accumulation of capital)4 and ,uotes the followingpassage from Dr >mith) as a proper e-pression for his ownopinions:// 42efore labour can be divided) 7a stoc! of goods ofdifferent !inds must be stored up somewhere) sufficient tomaintain the labourer) and to supply him with tools for carryingon his wor!* . weaver) for e-ample) could not apply himselfentirely to his peculiar business) unless there was beforehandstored up somewhere) either in his own possession) or in that of

some other person) a stoc! sufficient for his maintenance) andfor supplying him with the materials and implements re,uired tocarry on his wor!) till he has not only completed) but sold hisweb* This accumulation must evidently be previous to his applying


6/26

himself for so long a time to a peculiar business*74 The only advantage of circulating capital is that by it thelabourer is enabled) he being assured of his present subsistence)to direct his power to the greatest advantage* e has time tolearn an art) and his labour is rendered more productive whendirected by s!ill* 2eing assured of immediate subsistence) he canascertain which) with his peculiar !nowledge and ac,uirements)

and with reference to the wants of society) is the best method oflabouring) and he can labour in this manner* Unless there werethis assurance there could be no continuous thought) aninvention) and no !nowledge but that which would be necessary forthe supply of our immediate animal wants* The weaver) ( admit)could not complete his web) nor would the shipwright begin tobuild his ship) unless he !new that while he was engaged in thislabour he should be able to procure food* . merchant certainlycould not set out for >outh .merica or the 'ast (ndies unless hewere confident that during the period of his absence he and hisfamily could find subsistence) and that he would be able at theend of his voyage to pay all the e-penses he had incurred* (t isthis assurance) this !nowledge) this confidence of obtaining

subsistence and reward) which enables and induces men tounderta!e long and complicated operations) and the ,uestion is)do men derive this assurance from a stoc! of goods alreadyprovided 8saved from the produce of previous labour9 and ready topay them) or from any other source? ( >.LL '&D'.@OUR TO >O+ T.T T(> .>>UR.&C' .R(>'> 6RO5 .3'&'R.L PR(&C(PL' (& T' CO&>T(TUT(O& O6 5.&) .&D T.T T''66'CT> .TTR(2UT'D TO . >TOCA O6 CO55OD(T('>) U&D'R T' &.5' O6C(RCUL.T(&3 C.P(T.L) .R' C.U>'D 2B CO/'(>T(&3 L.2OUR* The labourer) the real ma!er of any commodity) derives thisassurance from a !nowledge he has that the person who set him towor! will pay him) and that with the money he will be able to buy

what he re,uires* e is not in possession of any stoc! ofcommodities* as the person who employs and pays him such astoc!? Clearly not* Only a very few capitalists possess any ofthose commodities which the labourers they employ consume*6armers may have a stoc! of corn) and merchants and shipownersmay have a few wee!s7 or months7 supply of provisions for theirseamen) according to the length of the voyage they are tounderta!e1 but) beyond this) no capitalist possesses readyprepared the commodities which his labourers re,uire* epossesses money) he possesses credit with other capitalists) hepossesses) under the sanction of the law) a power over the labourof the slave/descended labourer) but he does not possess food orclothing* e pays the labourer his money wages) and thee-pectation which other labourers have of receiving part of thesewages or other wages) induces them in the meantime to prepare theclothing and food the labourer constantly re,uires* &ot to deal)however) in general terms and abstractions) doing which seems tohave led other writers astray) let us descend to particulars* . great cotton manufacturer) we suppose) for e-ample) a >irRobert Peel) or any other of those leviathans who are so an-iousto retain their power over us) and who) as legislators) either intheir own persons or in the persons of their sons) ma!e the lawswhich both calumniate and oppress us) employs a thousand persons)whom he pays wee!ly: does he possess the food and clothing readyprepared which these persons purchase and consume daily? Does he

even !now whether the food and clothing they receive are preparedand created? (n fact) are the food and clothing which hislabourers will consume prepared beforehand) or are otherlabourers busily employed in preparing food and clothing while


7/26

his labourers are ma!ing cotton yarn? Do all the capitalists of'urope possess at this moment one wee!7s food and clothing forall the labourers they employ? Let us first e-amine the ,uestion as to food* One portion ofthe food of the people is 2R'.D) which is never prepared tillwithin a few hours of the time when it is eaten* The corn ofwhich the bread is made must) of course) have been grown) or one

part of the whole operation) and that the longest part // thatbetween saving the seed and harvesting the ripe grain) which isnecessary to the complete preparation of the food) has beenperformed1 but the corn has afterward to be thrashed) ground)sifted) brought to mar!et and made into bread* 6or thecotton/spinner to be able to attend only to his peculiar speciesof industry) it is indispensable that other men should beconstantly engaged in completing this complicated process) everypart of it being as necessary as the part performed by theagriculturist* The produce of several of the labourersparticularly of the ba!er) cannot be stored up* (n no case canthe material of bread) whether it e-ist as corn or flour) bepreserved without continual labour* The employer of the wor!ing

cotton/spinner can have no bread stored up) for there is noneprepared1 the labouring cotton/spinner himself !nows nothing ofany stoc! of corn being in e-istence from which his bread can bemade1 he !nows that he has always been able to get bread when hehad wherewithal to buy it) and further he does not re,uire to!now* 2ut even if he did !now of such a stoc!) he would probablygive up cotton/spinning and ta!e to preparing food) if he did notalso !now that while he is ma!ing cotton other labourers willtill the ground) and prepare him food) which he will be able toprocure by ma!ing cotton* is conviction that he will obtainbread when he re,uires it) and his master7s conviction that themoney he pays will enable him to obtain it) arise simply from the

fact that the bread has always been obtained when re,uired* .nother article of the labourer7s food is mil!) and mil! ismanufactured) not to spea! irreverently of the operations ofnature) twice a day* (f it be said that the cattle to supply itare already there // why) the answer is) they re,uire constantattention and constant labour) and their food) through thegreater part of the year) is of daily growth* The fields in whichthey pasture re,uire the hand of man1 and) though some herds bedrilled into the habits of obedience more perfect and certainlymore pleasing to see than the obedience of soldiers) yet eventhey re,uire perpetual attention) and their mil! must be drawnfrom them twice a day* The meat) also) which the labourer eats isnot ready) even for coo!ing) till it is on the shambles) and itcannot be stored up) for it begins instantly to deteriorate afterit is brought to mar!et* The cattle which are to be slaughteredre,uire the same sort of care and attention as cows1 and not oneparticle of meat could the cotton/spinner ever procure were notthe farmer) the gra=ier and the drover continually at wor!)preparing meat while he is preparing cotton* 2ut after the meatis brought to mar!et) it is not even then ready for consumption*+e are not cannibals1 and either our wives) or some labourer whoma!es this his business) completes the preparation of the meatonly a few hours) or even minutes) before it is eaten* Of thedrin! of the labourer) that which is supplied by nature neverceases to flow* is beer is prepared only so long before it is

drun! as is necessary to have it good) and) while the e-istingstoc! is disposing of) the brewer is busy creating a freshsupply* There may probably be as much tea imported at one time asserves for a few months) and) while this stoc! is consuming)


8/26

ships are continually arriving with more* &ow as to clothing* >ome labourers buy ready/made clothes1others order them to be made for them* There is) it may beadmitted) a small stoc! of clothing on hand1 but considering whatenemies moths are to the materials of which it is made) only avery small stoc! is ever prepared* The materials for women7sgarments may be prepared a few wee!s before they are made up) but

the garments are rarely formed till they are actually put on* Other e-amples might be brought from every branch ofindustry) if it were necessary to e-amine each on in detail) forin this respect every labourer is similarly situated* The farmer!nows he will be able to get clothes when he re,uires them) andthe tailor !nows he will be able to get food1 but the former!nows nothing of any stored/up stoc! of clothes) and the latternothing of any stored/up stoc! of provisions* The labourer !nowsthat when he is able to pay for bread) for meat and for drin! hecan procure them) but he !nows nothing further1 and ( have shownthat these are not prepared till he needs them* .s far as food)drin! and clothing are concerned) it is ,uite plain) then) thatno species of labourer depends on any previously prepared stoc!)

for in fact no such stoc! e-ists1 but every species of labourerdoes constantly) and at all times) depend for his supplies on theco/e-isting labour of some other labourers* To enable either the master manufacturer or the labourer todevote himself to any particular occupation) it is only necessarythat he should possess // not) as political economists say) astoc! of commodities) or circulating capital) but a convictionthat while he is labouring at his particular occupation thethings which he does not produce himself will be provided forhim) and that he will be able to procure them and pay for them bythe produce of his own labour* This conviction arises) in thefirst instance) without any reflection from habit* .s we e-pect

that the sun will rise tomorrow) so we also e-pect that men inall time to come will be actuated by the same motives as theyhave been in times past* (f we push our in,uiries still further)all that we can learn is) that there are other men in e-istencewho are preparing those things we need) while we are preparingthose which they need* The conviction may) perhaps) ultimately betraced them to our !nowledge that other men e-ist and labour) butnever to any conviction or !nowledge that there is a stored/upstoc! of commodities* (t is labour which produces all things asthey are wanted) and the only thing which can be said to bestored up or previously prepared is the s!ill of the labourer* (fthe s!ill of the ba!er) butcher) gra=ier) tailor) weaver) etc*)was not previously created and stored up) the commodities whicheach of them purchases could not be obtained1 but where thats!ill e-ists) these commodities may always be procured whenwanted* +e may suppose that the operation of cotton/spinning iscompleted) and the produce brought to mar!et) so as to bee-changed or sold within a year1 but there are many operationswhich are not completed within this period1 and if it be true) as( have endeavoured to show) that there is not stoc! of food andclothing prepared) even for those labourers whose operations arecompleted within the period of two successive harvests) how muchmore evident must this truth be of those operations which are notcompleted within a year? .ll the labourers engaged in them have

to rely on the ba!er) miller) butcher) etc*) completing theirpart of the social tas!1 and they must rely on the farmer) andthat he will till his ground) and sow it) and reap the harvest ofthe following year* 5r 5ill says and says 0ustly) 4what is


9/26

annually produced is annually consumed*4 >o that) in fact) toenable men to carry on all those operations which e-tend beyond ayear there cannot be any stoc! of commodities stored up* Thosewho underta!e them must rely) therefore) not on any commoditiesalready created) but that other men will labour and produce whatthey are to subsist on till their own products are completed*Thus should the labourer admit that some accumulation of

circulating capital is necessary for operations terminated withinthe year // and ( have show how very limited that admission oughtto be) if made at all // it is plain that in all operations whiche-tend beyond a year the labourer does not) and he cannot) relyon accumulated capital* The operations not terminated within the year are neitherfew nor unimportant* The time necessary to ac,uire a !nowledge ofany species of s!illed labour) so as to practise it to advantage)which includes almost every art) whether it create wealth ormerely contribute to amusement // the time necessary to performall distant voyages) and construct most of the canals) roads)harbours) doc!s) large steam/engines and ships) all of which areafterward to be such powerful instruments in the hands of the

labourer) is considerably more than a year) and is) in manycases) several years* .ll those who set about such underta!ingshave a practical conviction) though it is seldom e-pressed) thatwhile they are teaching the rising generation s!illed labour) andinstructing their children in the useful arts) while they arema!ing canals) roads) doc!s) ships) steam/engines) etc*) that thefarmer will continue to grow corn and the miller to grind it)that the ba!er will ma!e it into bread) the gra=ier will fattenhis cattle and the butcher slaughter them as they are needed)that the cotton and woollen manufacturers will go on preparingcloth and the tailor be always ready to ma!e it up for them intoclothes whenever it is ordered* 2eyond this conviction they have

nothing1 they possess no stoc! of circulating capital themselves)nor do the persons who are afterwards to supply food and clothingduring the whole time such underta!ings are in progress possessany such stoc! at the moment when they are commenced* Of all the important operations which re,uire more than ayear to complete them // and that they all are important) as faras the production of wealth is concerned) does not re,uire to beasserted // by far the most important is the rearing of youth andteaching them s!illed labour) or some wealth/creating art* ( amparticularly desirous of directing the reader7s attention to thisproductive operation) because) if the observations ( have alreadymade be correct) all the effects usually attributed toaccumulation of circulating capital are derived from theaccumulation and storing up of s!illed labour1 and because thismost important operation is performed) as far as the great massof the labourers is concerned) without any circulating capitalwhatever* The labour of the parents produces and purchases) withwhat they receive as wages) all the food and the clothing whichthe rising generation of labourers use while they are learningthose arts by means of which they will hereafter produce all thewealth of society* 6or the rearing and educating all futurelabourers 8of course ( do not mean boo! education) which is thesmallest and least useful part of all which they have to learn9their parents have no stoc! stored up beyond their own practicals!ill* Under the strong influence of natural affection and

parental love) they prepare by their toils) continued day afterday) and year after year) through all the long period of theinfancy and childhood of their offspring) those future labourerswho are to succeed to their toils and their hard fare) but who


10/26

will inherit their productive power) and be what they now are)the main pillars of the social edifice* (f we duly consider the number and importance of thosewealth/producing operations which are not completed within theyear) and the numberless products of daily labour) necessary tosubsistence) which are consumed as soon as produced) we shall) (thin!) be sensible that the success and productive power of every

different species of labour is at all times more dependent on theco/e-isting productive labour of other men than on anyaccumulation of circulating capital* The labourer) having nostoc! of commodities) underta!es to bring up his children) andteach them a useful art) always relying on his own labour1 andvarious classes of persons underta!e tas!s the produce of whichis not completed for a long period) relying on the labour ofother men to procure them) in the meantime) what they re,uire forsubsistence* .ll classes of men carry on their daily toils in thefull confidence that while each is engaged in his particularoccupation some others will prepare whatever he re,uires) bothfor his immediate and future consumption and use* ( have alreadye-plained that this confidence arises from that law of our nature

by which we securely e-pect the sun will rise tomorrow) and thatour fellow men will labour on the morrow and during the ne-t yearas they have laboured during the year and the day which havepassed* ( hope ( have also satisfied the reader that there is no!nowledge of any produce of previous labour stored up for use)that the effects usually attributed to a stoc! of commodities arecaused by co/e-isting labour) and that it is by the command thecapitalist possesses over the labour of some men) not by hispossessing a stoc! of commodities) that he is enabled to supportand conse,uently employ other labourers* ( come now to e-amine) secondly) the nature and effects offi-ed capital* 6i-ed capital consists of the tools and

instruments the labourer wor!s with) the machinery he ma!es andguides) and the buildings he uses either to facilitate hise-ertions or to protect their produce* Un,uestionably by usingthese instruments man adds wonderfully to his power* +ithout ahand saw) a portion of fi-ed capital) he could not cut a treeinto plan!s1 with such an instrument he could) though it wouldcost him many hours or days1 but with a sawmill he could do it ina few minutes* 'very man must admit that by means of instrumentsand machines the labourer can e-ecute tas!s he could not possiblyperform without them1 that he can perform a greater ,uantity ofwor! in a given time) and that he can perform the wor! withgreater nicety and accuracy than he could possibly do had he noinstruments and machines* 2ut the ,uestion then occurs) whatproduces instruments and machines) and in what degree do they aidproduction independent of the labourer) so that the owners ofthem are entitled to by far the greater part of the whole produceof the country? .re they) or are they not) the produce of labour?Do they) or do they not) constitute an efficient means ofproduction) separate from labour? .re they) or are they not) somuch inert decaying and dead matter) of no utility whatever)possessing no productive power whatever) but as they are guided)directed and applied by s!ilful hands? The reader will be ableinstantly to answer these ,uestions) and ( only add my answersbecause they lead to some conclusions different from thosegenerally adopted*

(t is admitted by those who contend most strenuously for theclaims of capital that all instruments and machines are theproduce of labour* They add) however) that they are the produceof previous labour) and are entitled to profit) on account of


11/26

having been saved or stored up* 2ut the manufacture ofinstruments and tools is ,uite as uninterrupted as themanufacture of food and clothing* They are not all consumed orused within a year) but they are brought into use as soon aspossible after they are made* &obody who manufactures them storesthem up1 nor does he ma!e them for this purpose* .s long as theyare merely the result of previous labour) and are not applied to

their respective uses by labourers) they do not repay the e-penseof ma!ing them* (t is only when they are so applied that theybring any profit* They are made solely for the use of thelabourer) and directly they come into his hands they return orrepay the capitalist) the sum they cost him1 and over and abovethis the labourer must give him an additional sum correspondingto the rate of profit in the country* (t is plainly not theprevious creation of these things which entitles them to profit)for most of them diminish in value from being !ept* . man mustpay also as much profit for the use of an instrument inproportion to the labour of ma!ing it) whether it be li!e sewingneedles) of which many are used and made in the course of a wee!)or li!e a ship) or a steam engine) one of which lasts several

years* 6i-ed capital does not derive its utility from previous)but present labour1 and does not bring its owner a profit becauseit has been stored up) but because it is a means of obtaining acommand over labour* The production of fi-ed capital cannot be attributed tocirculating capital) in the ordinary sense1 but certainly thosewho ma!e instruments must be confident they will be able toobtain food) or they would never thin! of ma!ing instruments* Thesmith) while he is ma!ing or mending the farmer7s ploughshare)trusts to the farmer to do his part in procuring a supply offood1 and the farmer) while he tills his fields) trusts to thesmith to prepare for him the necessary instruments* These

instruments are not the produce of circulating capital and oflabour) but of labour alone) and of the labour of two or moreco/e-isting persons* .ll fi-ed capital) not only in the firstinstance) as is generally admitted) but in every stage ofsociety) at every period in the history of man) is the creationof labour and of s!ill) of different species of labour and s!illcertainly) but of nothing more than labour and s!ill* .fter any instruments have been made) what do they effect?&othing* On the contrary) they begin to rust or decay unless usedor applied by labour* The most perfect instrument which thecunning hand of man can ma!e is not instinct with life) and itconstantly needs the directing hand of its creator) or of someother labourer* .n artist may indeed ma!e an automaton) or atimepiece) which will move for a certain period without furtherlabour) but the motion he gives it is) in this case) the finalob0ect and aim of labour) and the instruments are not calledfi-ed capital) because they are not used for further production*The automaton may be e-hibited by its owner for money) and thetimepiece) if employed to determine the longitude of a ship) maybe a portion of fi-ed capital) useful in that production which isoccasioned by commerce* (n this case) however) there is anobserver re,uired) and it is by his labour and s!ill) he ma!inguse of the timepiece) that the ship7s place is ascertained*+hether an instrument shall be regarded as productive capital ornot depends entirely on its being used) or not) by some

productive labourer* The most perfect instruments ever made by labour re,uire) asin the case of a timepiece) a peculiar s!ill to render themproductive* . ship) for e-ample) is undoubtedly a noble


12/26

instrument) as admirable and useful a portion of fi-ed capital asthe hand of man ever created) or his s!ill ever employed* 2y itthe wealth of 3reat 2ritain has been and will be augmented* 2utour navy would lie and rot unless care were ta!en to preserve it1and the ships when turned adrift would be bruised by the waves)the winds or the roc!s unless they were guided by seamen* 2y thes!ill ac,uired during many years7 e-perience) and by much labour

guided by this s!ill) a ship is built* (t would trouble me toenumerate the various species of industry which are necessary toprepare her for sea* There is the s!ill and labour of thedraughtsman) of the wor!ing shipwright) of the carpenter) themast ma!er) the sail ma!er) the cooper) the founder) the smith)the coppersmith) the compass ma!er) etc*) etc*) but there isnothing necessary more than the s!ill and labour of thesedifferent persons* .fter she is made ready the same ,ualitieswatch over her) chec! the first indications of decay) and repairevery little defect occasioned by accident and time* >he is then)however) of no use unless there are seamen to manage her* Toconduct her safely from port to port) and from hemisphere tohemisphere) a great deal of !nowledge of the winds and tides) of

the phenomena of the heavens) and of the laws which prevail onthe surface of the earth) is necessary1 and only when this!nowledge is united with great s!ill) and carried into effect bylabour) can a ship be safely conducted through the multitudes ofdangers which beset her course* To have and to use this fi-edcapital) !nowledge) labour and s!ill are necessary* +ithout theseit could not be made) and when it would be less productive thanthe clod from which its materials spring) or from which they arefashioned by the hand of man* . road is made by a certain ,uantity of labour) and is thencalled fi-ed capital1 the constant repairs it needs) however) area continual ma!ing) and the e-pense incurred by them is called

circulating capital* 2ut neither the circulating nor the fi-edcapital return any profit to the road ma!ers unless there arepersons to travel over the road or ma!e a further use of theirlabour* The road facilitates the progress of the traveller) and0ust in proportion as people do travel over it) so does thelabour which has been employed on the road become productive anduseful* One easily comprehends why both these species of labourshould be paid // why the road ma!er should receive some of thebenefits accruing only to the road user1 but ( do not comprehendwhy all these benefits should go to the road itself and beappropriated by a set of person who neither ma!e nor use it)under the name of profit for their capital* One is almost temptedto believe that capital is a sort of cabalistic word) li!e Churchor >tate) or any other of those general terms which are inventedby those who fleece the rest of man!ind to conceal the hand thatshears them* (t is a sort of idol before which men are calledupon to prostrate themselves) while the cunning priest frombehind the altar) profaning the 3od whom he pretends to serve)and moc!ing those sweet sentiments of devotion and gratitude) orthose terrible emotions of fear and resentment) one or the otherof which seems common to the whole human race) as they areenlightened and wise) or ignorant and debased) puts forth hishand to receive and appropriate the offerings which he calls forin the name of religion* . steam engine also is a most complete instrument) but alas

for the capitalist) it does not go of itself* . peculiar s!ill isre,uired to ma!e it and put it up) and peculiar s!ill and labourmust afterwards direct and regulate its movements* +hat would itproduce without the engineer? To the stranger who did not possess


13/26

the engineer7s s!ill) only misery) death and destruction* (tsvast utility does not depend on stored up iron and wood) but onthat practical and living !nowledge of the powers of nature whichenables some men to construct) and others to guide it* (f we descend to more minute instruments) and consider suchas are guided by the hand) the necessity of s!ill and labour) andthe utter worthlessness of capital by itself) will be still more

obvious* (t has been as!ed) what could a carpenter effect withouthis hatchet and his saw? ( put the converse of the ,uestion) andas! what the hatchet and saw could effect without the carpenter*Rust and rottenness must be the answer* . plough or a scythe maybe made with the most cunning art) but to use either of them aman must have a droit turn of the hand) or a peculiar species ofs!ill* The shoema!er who can thrust awls through leather withsingular de-terity and neatness cannot ma!e any use of awatchma!er7s tools1 and the most s!ilful and de-terous ma!er ofplane) saw and chisel blades would find it difficult to constructwith them any of that furniture which the cabinet ma!er formswith so much dispatch and beautiful effect* .lmost every speciesof wor!man) however) from having ac,uired a certain de-terity in

the use of his hands) and from having fre,uently seen theoperations of other wor!men) could learn the art of another manmuch better than a person who had never practised any !ind ofmanual de-terity) and never seen it practised* 2ut if a s!illedlabourer could not direct any !ind of instruments so well as theman who has been constantly accustomed to use them) it is plainthat the whole productive power of such instruments must dependaltogether on the peculiar s!ill of the artisan and mechanic) whohas been trained to practise different arts* 6i-ed capital) ofwhatever species) then) is only a costly production) costly toma!e) and costly to preserve) without that particular species ofs!ill and labour which guides each instrument) and which) as (

have before shown) is nourished) instructed and maintained bywages alone* The utility of the instruments the labourer uses canin no wise be separated from his s!ill* +hoever may be the ownerof fi-ed capital // and in the present state of society he whoma!es it is not) and he who uses it is not // it is the hand and!nowledge of the labourer which ma!e it) preserve it from decay)and which use it to any beneficial end* 6or a nation to have fi-ed capital) then) and to ma!e a gooduse of it) three things) and only three things) seem to me to bere,uisite* 6irst) !nowledge and ingenuity for inventing machines*&o labourer would) ( am sure) be disposed to deny to these theirreward* 2ut no sub0ect of complaint is more general or more 0ustthan that the inventor of any machine does not reap the benefitof it* Of all the immense number of persons who have ac,uiredlarge fortunes by the modern improvements in steam engines andcotton mills) 5r +att and 5r .r!wright are the only two) (believe) who have been distinguished for their inventions) theyalso ac,uired wealth less as inventors than as capitalists* 5r+att found a capitalist who appreciated his genius) and 5r.r!wright saved and borrowed the means of profiting by his owninventions* Thousands of capitalist have been enriched byinventions and discoveries of which they were not the authors)and capital) by robbing the inventor of his 0ust reward) isguilty of stifling genius* The second re,uisite for having fi-edcapital is the manual s!ill and de-terity for carrying these

inventions into e-ecution* The third re,uisite is the s!ill andlabour to use these instruments after they are made* +ithout!nowledge they could not be invented) without manual s!ill andde-terity they could not be made) and without s!ill and labour


14/26

they could not be productively used* 2ut there is nothing morethan the !nowledge) s!ill and labour re,uisite on which thecapitalist can found a claim to any share of the produce* &aturally and individually man is one of the most feeble anddestitute of all created animals* is intelligence) however)compensates for his physical inferiority* .fter he has inheritedthe !nowledge of several generations) and when he lives

congregated into great masses) he is enabled by his mentalfaculties to complete) as it were) the wor! of nature) and add tohis intelligence the physical powers of the lower animals* edirects his course on the waters) he floats in the air) he divesinto the bowels of the earth) and all which its surface bears hema!es tributary to his use* The gales which threaten at first toblow him from the earth) grind his corn) and waft to him a sharein the treasures of the whole world* e creates at this pleasurethe devouring element of fire) and chec!s its progress) so thatit destroys only what he has no wish to preserve* e directs thecourse of the stream) and he sets bounds to the ocean1 in short)he presses all the elements into his service) and ma!es &atureherself the handmaid to his will* The instruments he uses to do

all this) which have been invented by his intelligence to aid hisfeeble powers) and which are employed by his s!ill and his hands)have been called fi-ed capital1 and shutting out of view manhimself) in order to 0ustify the e-isting order of society) whichis founded on property or possessions) and the e-istingoppression of the labourer) who forms unhappily part of thesepossessions // all these glorious effects have been attributed)with a more e-traordinary perversion of thought) perhaps) than isto be found in any other department of !nowledge) to fi-ed andcirculating capital* The s!ill and the art of the labourer havebeen overloo!ed) and he has been vilified1 while the wor! of hishands has been worshipped* "

;"* (n all errors which are generally adopted there is atolerable substratum of truth* (n the present case the substratumof truth is this: There was time in society when capital andcapitalists were of the most essential service to it* On theestablishment of towns in 'urope) and on the introduction ofmanufactures into them) they became the refuge of all theoppressed and enslaved peasantry who could escape from theirfeudal tyrants* The capitalists and manufacturers who inhabitedthem were the s!illed labourers) and really gave employment andprotection to the peasantry* They taught them useful arts) andhence became invested with the character of benefactors) both tothe poor and the state* They were infinitely better than thefeudal barons with whom they were compared1 and the characterthey then ac,uired they now retain* The veneration men have forcapital and capitalists is founded on a sort of superstitious andtransmitted notion of their utility in former times* 2ut theyhave long since reduced the ancient tyrant of the soil tocomparative insignificance) while they have inherited his powerover all the labouring classes* (t is) therefore) now time thatthe reproaches so long cast on the feudal aristocracy should beheaped on capital and capitalists1 or on that still moreoppressive aristocracy which is founded on wealth) and which isnourished by profit*mith) that the accumulation of capital lowers profits)or) with 5r Ricardo) that profits are lowered by the increasingdifficulty of procuring subsistence* &either of them has assignedit to the right cause) the impossibility of the laboureranswering the demands of the capitalist* . mere glance mustsatisfy every mind that simple profit does not decrease butincrease in the progress of society // that is) the same ,uantityof labour which at any former period produced "EE ,uarters ofwheat and "EE steam engines will now produce somewhat more) orthe value of somewhat more) which the same thing: or where is the

utility of all our boasted improvements? (n fact) also) we findthat a much greater number of persons now live in opulence onprofit in this country than formerly* (t is clear) however) that no labour) no productive power)no ingenuity and no art can answer the overwhelming demands ofcompound interest* 2ut all saving is made from the revenue of thecapitalist) so that actually these demands are constantly made)and as constantly the productive power of labour refuse tosatisfy them* . sort of balance is) therefore) constantly struc!*The capitalists permit the labourers to have the means ofsubsistence because they cannot do without labour) contentingthemselves very generously with ta!ing every particle of produce

not necessary to this purpose* (t is the overwhelming nature ofthe demands of capital sanctioned by the laws of society)sanctioned by the customs of men) enforced by the legislature)and warmly defended by political economists) which !eep) whichevery have !ept) and which ever will !eep) as long as they areallowed and ac,uiesced in) the labourer in poverty and misery* (t is the overwhelming and all/engrossing nature of compoundinterest) also) which gives to 5r Ricardo7s theory and hisdefinitions) as ( have already described them) though thisprinciple is nowhere brought sufficiently into view in his boo!)their mathematical accuracy and truth* ( refer to them) not ascaring much to illustrate the subtleties of that ingenious andprofound writer) but because his theory confirms the observations( have 0ust made // vi=* that the e-actions of the capitalistcause the poverty of the labourer* (t is an admitted principlethat there cannot be two rates of profit in a country) andtherefore the capital of the man who cultivates the best soil ofa country procures of its owner no more than the capital of theman who cultivates the worst soil* The superior produce of thebest soil is not) therefore) profit) and 5r Ricardo has called itrent* (t is a portion of produce over and above the average rateof profit) and 5r Ricardo has assigned it to the landlords* Thelabourer must) however) live) though the e-orbitant claims ofcapital allow him only a bare subsistence* 5r Ricardo has alsobeen aware of this) and has therefore 0ustly defined the price of

labour to be such a ,uantity of commodities as will enable thelabourers) one with another) to subsist) and to perpetuate theirrace without either increase or diminution* >uch is all which thenature of profit or interest on capital will allow them to


19/26

receive) and such has ever been their reward* The capitalist mustgive the labourers this sum) for it is the condition he mustfulfil in order to obtain labourers1 it is the limit which natureplaces to his claims) but he will never give) and never hasgiven) more* The capitalists) according to 5r Ricardo7s theory)allow the landlords to have 0ust as much as !eeps all thecapitalist on a level1 the labourers they allow) in the same

theory) barely to subsist* Thus 5r Ricardo would admit that thecause of the poverty of the labourer is the engrossing nature ofcompound interest1 this !eeps him poor) and prevents him fromobeying the commands of his Creator) to increase and multiply* Though the defective nature of the claims of capital may nowbe satisfactorily proved) the ,uestion as to the wages of labouris by no means decided* Political economists) indeed) who haveinsisted very strongly on the necessity of giving security toproperty) and have ably demonstrated how much that securitypromotes general happiness) will not hesitate to agree with mewhen ( say that whatever labour produces ought to belong to it*They have always embraced the ma-im of permitting those to 4reapwho sow)4 and they have maintained that the labour of a man7s

body and the wor! of his hands are to be considered ase-clusively his own* ( ta!e it for granted) therefore) that theywill henceforth maintain that the whole produce of labour oughtto belong to the labourer* 2ut though this) as a generalproposition) is ,uite evident) and ,uite true) there is adifficulty) in its practical application) which no individual cansurmount* There is no principle or rule) as far as ( !now) fordividing the produce of 0oint labour among the differentindividuals who concur in production) but the 0udgment of theindividuals themselves1 that 0udgment depending on the value menmay set on different species of labour can never be !nown) norcan any rule be given for its application by any single person*

.s well might a man say what others shall hate or what they shallli!e* +hatever division of labour e-ists) and the further it iscarried the more evident does this truth become) scarcely anyindividual completes of himself any species of produce* .lmostany product of art and s!ill is the result of 0oint and combinedlabour* >o dependent is man on man) and so much does thisdependence increase as society advances) that hardly any labourof any single individual) however much it may contribute to thewhole produce of society) is of the least value but as forming apart of the great social tas!* (n the manufacture of a piece ofcloth) the spinner) the weaver) the bleacher and the dyer are alldifferent persons* .ll of them e-cept the first is dependent forhis supply of materials on him) and of what use would his threadbe unless the others too! it from him) and each performed thatpart of the tas! which is necessary to complete the cloth?+herever the spinner purchases the cotton or wool) the pricewhich he can obtain for his thread) over and above what he paidfor the raw material) is the reward of his labour* 2ut it is,uite plain that the sum the weaver will be disposed to give forthe thread will depend on his view of its utility* +herever thedivision of labour is introduced) therefore) the 0udgment ofother men intervenes before the labourer can realise hisearnings) and there is no longer any thing which we can call thenatural reward of individual labour* 'ach labourer produces only

some part of a whole) and each part having no value or utility ofitself) there is nothing on which the labourer can sei=e) andsay: 4This is my product) this will ( !eep to myself*4 2etweenthe commencement of any 0oint operation) such as that of ma!ing


20/26

cloth) and the division of its product among the differentpersons whose combined e-ertions have produced it) the 0udgmentof men must intervene several times) and the ,uestion is) howmuch of this 0oint product should go to each of the individualswhose united labourers produce it? ( !now no way of deciding this but by leaving it to besettled by the unfettered 0udgments of the labourers themselves*

(f all !inds of labour were perfectly free) if no unfoundedpre0udice invested some parts) and perhaps the least useful) ofthe social tas! with great honour) while other parts are veryimproperly branded with disgrace) there would be no difficulty onthis point) and the wages of individual labour would be 0ustlysettled by what Dr >mith calls the 4higgling of the mar!et*4Unfortunately) labour is not) in general) free1 and)unfortunately there are a number of pre0udices which decree verydifferent rewards to different species of labour from those whicheach of them merits* Unfortunately) also) there is) ( thin!) in general) adisposition to restrict the term labour to the operation of thehands* 2ut if it should be said that the s!ill of the practised

labourer is a mere mechanical sort of thing) nobody will denythat the labour by which he ac,uired that s!ill was a mentale-ertion* The e-ercise of that s!ill also) as it seems to me)re,uiring the constant application of 0udgment) depends much moreon a mental than on a bodily ac,uirement* Probably the merecapacity of muscular e-ertion is as great) or greater) among atribe of (ndians as among the most productive 'uropeans1 and thesuperior productive power of 'uropeans) and of one nation overanother) arise from the different nature of their fi-ed capital*2ut ( have shown that the greater efficacy of fi-ed capitaldepends on the s!ill of the labourer1 so that we come to theconclusion that not mere labour) but mental s!ill) or the mode in

which labour is directed) determines its productive powers* (therefore would caution my fellow labourers not to limit the termlabour to the operations of the hands* 2efore many of our most useful machines and instrumentscould be invented) a vast deal of !nowledge gathered in theprogress of the world by many generations was necessary* .tpresent also a great number of persons possessed of different!inds of !nowledge and s!ill must combine and cooperate) althoughthey have never entered into any e-press contract for thispurpose) before many of our most powerful machines can becompleted and before thy can be used* The labour of thedraughtsman is as necessary to construct a ship as the labour ofthe man who fastens her plan!s together* The labour of theengineer) who 4in his mind7s eye4 sees the effect of everycontrivance) and who adapts the parts of a complicated machine toeach other) is as necessary to the completion of that machine asthe man who casts or fits any part of it) without being sensibleof the purpose for which the whole is to serve* (n li!e mannerthe labour and the !nowledge of many different persons must becombined before almost any product intended for consumption canbe brought to mar!et* The !nowledge and s!ill of the mastermanufacturer) or of the man who plans and arranges a productiveoperation) who must !now the state of the mar!ets and the,ualities of different materials) and who has some tact in buyingand selling) are 0ust as necessary for the complete success of

any complicated operation as the s!ill of the wor!men whose handsactually alter the shape and fashion of these materials* 6ar beit) therefore) from the manual labourer) while he claims thereward due to his own productive powers) to deny its appropriate


21/26

reward to any other species of labour) whether it be of the heador the hands* The labour and s!ill of the contriver) or of theman who arranges an adapts a whole) are as necessary as thelabour and s!ill of him who e-ecutes only a part) and they mustbe paid accordingly* ( must) however) add that it is doubtful whether one speciesof labour is more valuable than another1 certainly it is not more

necessary* 2ut because those who have been masters* Planners)contrivers) etc*) have in general also been capitalists) and havealso had a command over the labour of those who have wor!ed withtheir hands) their labour has been paid as much too high ascommon labour has been under paid* The wages of the master)employer or contriver has been blended with the profit of thecapitalists) and he may probably be still disposed to claim thewhole as only the proper reward of his e-ertions* On the otherhand) manual labourers) oppressed by the capitalist) have neverbeen paid high enough) and even now are more disposed to estimatetheir own deserts rather by what they have hitherto received thanby what they produce* This sort of pre0udice ma!es it) and willlong ma!e it) difficult even for labourers themselves to

apportion with 0ustice the social reward or wages of eachindividual labourer* &o statesman can accomplish this) nor oughtthe labourers to allow any statesman to interfere in it* Thelabour is theirs) the produce ought to be theirs) and they aloneought to decide how much each deserves of the produce all* +hileeach labourer claims his own reward) let him cheerfully allow the0ust claims of every other labourer1 but let him never assent tothe strange doctrine that the food he eats and the instruments heuses) which are the wor! of his own hands) become endowed) bymerely changing proprietors) with productive power greater thanhis) and that the owner of them is entitled to a more abundantreward than the labour) s!ill and !nowledge which produce and use

them* 5asters) it is evident) are labourers as well as their0ourneymen* (n this character their interest is precisely thesame as that of their men* 2ut they are also either capitalist)or the agents of the capitalist) and in this respect theirinterest is decidedly opposed to the interest of their wor!men*.s the contrivers and enterprising underta!ers of new wor!s) theymay be called employers as well as labourers) and they deservethe respect of the labourer* .s capitalist) and as the agents ofhe capitalist) they are merely middlemen) oppressing thelabourer) and deserving of anything but his respect* The labourershould !now and bear this in mind* Other people should alsoremember it) for it is indispensable to correct reasoning todistinguish between these two characters of all masters* (f bycombining the 0ourneymen were to drive masters) who are a usefulclass of labourers) out of the country) if they were to forceabroad the s!ill and ingenuity which contrive) severing them fromthe hands which e-ecute) they would do themselves and theremaining inhabitants considerable mischief* (f) on the contrary)by combining they merely incapacitate the masters from obtainingany profit on their capital) and merely prevent them fromcompleting the engagements they have contracted with thecapitalist) they will do themselves and the country incalculableservice* They may reduce or destroy altogether the profit of theidle capitalist // and from the manner in which capitalists have

treated labourers) even within our own recollection) they have noclaim on the gratitude of the labourer // but they will augmentthe wages and rewards of industry) and will give to genius ands!ill their due share of the national produce* They will also


22/26

increase prodigiously the productive power of the country byincreasing the number of s!illed labourers* The most successfuland widest spread possible combination to obtain an augmentationof wages would have no other in0urious effect than to reduce theincomes of those who live on profit and interest) and who have no0ust claim but custom to any share of the national produce* (t has indeed been said by some sapient legislators) both

Lords and Commoners) that the 0ourneymen will do themselvesincalculable mischief by driving capital out of the country1 andone of the reasons urged for the new law was that it wouldprevent the 0ourneymen in0uring themselves* +henever the devilwants to do mischief he assumes the garb of holiness) andwhenever a certain class of persons wish to commit a more thanusually flagrant violation of 0ustice it is always done in thename of humanity* (f the labourers are disposed blindly to in0urethemselves ( see no reason for the legislature interfering toprevent them1 e-cept as a farmer watches over the health of hiscattle) or a +est (ndia planter loo!s after the negroes becausethey are his property) and bring him a large profit* The0ourneymen) however) !now their own interest better than it is

!nown to the legislator1 and they would be all the richer ifthere were not an idle capitalist in the country* ( shall notenter into any investigation of the origin of this opinion thatthe wor!men will in0ure themselves by driving away capital1 butit would not be difficult to show that it springs from the falsetheory ( have opposed) and that it is based on a narrowe-perience* 2ecause there are a few instances of political andreligious persecution) driving both masters and 0ourneymen) or alarge ,uantity of national stoc! of s!illed labour) fromdifferent countries) greatly) ( admit) to the in0ury) and 0ustlyso) of the remaining inhabitants who permitted or practised thispersecution) it has been asserted that this in0ury was caused by

the banishment) not of the men but of the capital1 and it being)therefore) now concluded that the proceedings of the wor!men willin li!e manner banish capital from this country it has beenaffirmed that they will in0ure both themselves and the rest ofthe inhabitants* 2ut they carry on neither political norreligious persecution) and it is somewhat preposterous in therace of politicians) by way) perhaps) of throwing a veil overtheir own crimes) to attribute to the actions of the wor!men thesame conse,uences as have been produced by some of the absurd andcruel proceedings of their own class* (f the wor!men do notfrighten away the s!ill of the contriver and the master // andwhere can that be put to so good a use as where there are plentyof s!ilful hands // and even if they should) the wide spread ofeducation among the mechanics and artisans will soon repair theloss) they will frighten away no other part of the nationaladvantages* The merest tyro in political economy !nows that thecapitalist cannot e-port any great ,uantity of food) clothing andmachines from this country) nor even the gold and silver whichforms the current coin of the realm) to any advantage1 either hemust bring bac! an e,uivalent) which returns him a profit whenconsumed here) or he must carry with him those s!illed labourerswho have hitherto produced him his profit as they have consumedhis food and used his instruments and machines* There is not apolitical in0ury on the one hand and both masters and wor!men onthe other1 but on the one side is the labourer and on the other

the capitalist) and however successful the wor!men may be) thesmallest fraction of their produce which the capitalist canscrape up he will assuredly stay to collect* The combination ofthe wor!men will not frighten away their own s!ill) nor unlearn


23/26

them what thy have learned* Their hand will not forget itscunning) when its produce goes no longer into the poc!et of thecapitalist* Capitalists) who can grow rich only where there is anoppressed body of labourers) may probably carry off some of theircloth) and their corn) and their machines to some country li!ePrussia) where the poor people can learn nothing but what the!ing and his schoolmasters please1 or li!e 6rance) where a

watchful police allows no man to utter a thought but such assuits the views of a government and priesthood an-ious to restoredespotism and superstition1 but they cannot) unless the labourersplease) carry with them the mouths which consume) or the handswhich ma!e their capital useful1 and where these are there willbe the productive power* Our labourers already possess in aneminent degree the s!ill to e-ecute) and they are rapidlyac,uiring also the s!ill to contrive* &ever was there a more idlethreat uttered) therefore) than that the combinations of s!illedlabourers to obtain greater rewards than they now possess willdrive s!illed labour from the country* This analysis also of the operations of capital leads us atonce boldly to pronounce all those schemes of which we have of

late heard so much for improving countries) by sending capital tothem) to be mere nonsense* Of what use) for e-ample) would thebutter and salt beef and por! and grain now e-ported from (relandbe of in that country if they were to be left there) or if theywere to be sent bac!? .ll these articles form some of the mostvaluable parts of circulating capital) and so far from therebeing any want of them in (reland) they are constantly e-portedin great ,uantities* (t is plain) therefore) that there is nowant of circulating capital in (reland) if the capitalist wouldallow the wretched producer of it to consume it* Of what use alsowould steam engines or power looms or stoc!ing frames or miningtools be to the ragged peasantry of (reland? Of none whatever*

(f) indeed) masters and 0ourneymen went over with theseinstruments and tools) they might use them) and by consuming atthe same time the circulating capital now e-ported from (relandgive the owner of it a large profit1 and they might teach theignorant and helpless natives how to ma!e use of the variousinstruments ( have mentioned* Those who tal! of improving(reland) or any other country) by capital have a double meaningin their words* They !now the power of the capitalist over thelabourer) and that whenever the master goes or sends) there alsomust the slave labourer go* 2ut neither the lawma!er nor thecapitalist possesses any miraculous power of multiplying loavesand fishes1 or of commanding) li!e the enchanters of old)broomstic!s to do the wor! of men* They must have labourers)s!illed labourers) and without them it is nonsense to tal! ofimproving a country and a people by corn and cloth and hatchetsand saws* The wide spread of education among the 0ourneyman mechanicsof this country diminishes daily the value of the labour ands!ill of almost all masters and employers by increasing thenumber of persons who possess their peculiar !nowledge* .t thesame time) masters and employers cannot hope that the labourerswho are not capitalists will remain long ignorant of the mannerin which masters who are both labourers and capitalist lendthemselves to the views of the capitalists who are not labourers*They are daily ac,uiring this !nowledge) and masters cannot

therefore rationally e-pect a termination to the present contest*On the contrary) it must continue* 'ven if it should be stopped)it will again and again occur* (t is not possible that any largebody of men who are ac,uainted with their rights will tacitly


24/26

ac,uiesce in insult and in0ury* The profits of the masters) ascapitalist) must be diminished) whether the labourers succeed inobtaining higher wages) or the combination continues) or it isfrom time to time renewed* (n the former case) the masters) ass!illed labourers) will share in the increased rewards ofindustry1 in either of the two latter) not only will their profitbe destroyed) but their wages will be diminished or altogether

annihilated* +ithout wor!men their own s!ill and labour are of nouse) but they may live in comfort and opulence without thecapitalist* 5asters and employers) therefore) would do well torecollect that by supporting the claims of capital they diminishtheir own wages) and they prolong a contest which) independent ofthe ill temper and hatred it creates and perpetuates) is alsoin0urious to them as inventors) contrivers and s!illed labourers)and which must ultimately terminate to their disadvantage* The improved education of the labouring classes ought) inthe present ,uestion) to have great weight also with statesmen)and with the community at large* The schools) which areeverywhere established) or are establishing) for theirinstruction) ma!e it impossible for the greatest visionary to

suppose that any class of men can much longer be !ept inignorance of the principles on which societies are formed andgoverned* 5echanics7 institutions will teach men the moral aswell as the physical sciences* They e-cite a disposition to probeall things to the bottom) and supply the means of carryingresearch into every branch of !nowledge* e must be a very blindstatesman who does not see in this indications of a moree-tensive change in the frame of society than has ever yet beenmade* This change will not be effected by violence) and cannot becounteracted by force* oly .lliance can put down the ,uietinsurrection by which !nowledge will subvert whatever is notfounded in 0ustice and truth* The interest of the different

classes of labourers who are now first beginning to thin! and actas a body) in opposition to the other classes among whom) withthemselves) the produce of the earth is distributed) and who arenow only for the first time beginning to ac,uire as e-tensive a!nowledge of the principles of government as those who rule) istoo deeply implicated by these principles to allow them to stopshort in their career of in,uiry* They may care nothing about thecurious researches of the geologist or the elaborateclassification of the botanist) but they will assuredly ascertainwhy they only of all classes of society have always been involvedin poverty and distress* They will not stop short of any ultimatetruth1 and they have e-perienced too few of the advantages ofsociety to ma!e them feel satisfied with the present order ofthings* The mind is rather invigorated than enfeebled by thelabour of the hands1 and they will carry forward theirinvestigations undelayed by the pedantry of learning) andundiverted by the fastidiousness of taste* 2y casting aside thepre0udices which fetter the minds of those who have benefited bytheir degradation) they have everything to hope* On the otherhand) they are the suffers by these pre0udices) and haveeverything to dread from their continuance* aving no reason tolove those institutions which limit the reward of labour)whatever may be its produce) to a bare subsistence) they will notspare them) whenever they see the hollowness of the claims madeon their respect* .s the labourers ac,uire !nowledge) the

foundations of the social edifice will be dug up from the deepbeds into which they were laid in times past) they will becuriously handled and closely e-amined) and they will not berestored unless they were originally laid in 0ustice) and unless


25/26

0ustice commands their preservation* +ithout 0oining in any of the commonplace observationsagainst ta!ing interest) and against usury) which) however)support my view of capital) ( have show that it has no 0ust claimto any share of the labourer7s produce) and that what it actuallyreceives is the cause of the poverty of the labourer* (t isimpossible that the labourer should long remain ignorant of these

facts) or ac,uiesce in this state of things* (n truth) also) however the matter may be disguised) thecombinations among wor!men to obtain higher wages) which are nowso general and so much complained of) are practical attac!s onthe claims of capital* The weight of its chains are felt) thoughthe hand may not yet be clearly seen which imposes them*3radually as the resistance increases) as laws are multiplied forthe protection of capital) as claims for higher wages shall bemore strenuously and more violently repressed) the cause of thisoppression will be more distinctly seen* The contest now appearsto be between masters and 0ourneymen) or between one species oflabour and another) but it will soon be displayed in its propercharacters1 and will stand confessed a war of honest industry

against the idle profligacy which has so long ruled the affairsof the political world with undisputed authority // which has)for its own security) added honour and political power to wealth)and has con0oined e-clusion and disgrace with the poverty it hasinflicted on the labourer* On the side of the labourers there isphysical strength) for they are more numerous than theiropponents* They are also fast losing that reverence for theiropponents which was and is the source of their power) and theyare daily ac,uiring a moral strength which results from a commoninterest and a close and intimate union* The capitalist and labourers form the great ma0ority of thenation) so that there is not third power to intervene betwi-t

them* The must and will decide the dispute of themselves* 6inalsuccess) ( would fain hope) must be on the side of 0ustice* ( amcertain) however) that till the triumph of labour be complete1till productive industry alone be opulent) and till idlenessalone be poor) till the admirable ma-im that 4he who sows shallreap4 be solidly established1 till the right of property shall befounded on principles of 0ustice) and not on those of slavery1till man shall be held more in honour than the clod be treads on)or the machine he guides // there cannot) and there ought not tobe either peace on earth or goodwill amongst men* Those who of late have shown themselves so ready to resistthe 0ust claims of labour) who) under the influence of interestand passion) have hurried into the arena with their penal laws)and have come forward) brandishing their parchment statutes) asif they) poor beings) could whip man!ind into patience andsubmission) when these weapons of theirs // these penal laws andparchment statutes // derive all their power) whether for evil orfor good) from the sanctity with which we are pleased to investthem) and as if they also did not !now that they are as powerlessas the meanest individual whom they are so prompt to scourge)e-cept as we are pleased to submit and to honour them // they maythan! themselves should their haste and their violence beget acorresponding haste and violence in others1 and) should thelabourers) who have hitherto shown themselves confiding andsubmissive // losing that reverence by which laws are invested

with power) and to which 3overnment is indebted for its e-istence// turn their attention from combining for higher wages) toamending the state) and to subverting a system which they mustnow believe is intended only to support all the oppressive


26/26

e-actions of capital* 5inisters are undoubtedly) for the moment)very popular) but it does not re,uire any very enlarged view topredict that by openly committing the 3overnment during the lastsession of Parliament) when the great mass of the community areable both to scan the motives of their conduct and itsconse,uences) and =ealous in doing it) to a contest betweencapital and labour) ta!ing the side of idleness against industry)

of wea!ness against strength) of oppression against 0ustice) theyare preparing more future mischief than any ministry this countryhas ever seen* They profess liberal principles // and they ma!elaws to !eep the labourer in thraldom* 2y their innovations theyencourage in,uiry) and convince us the system is neither sacrednor incapable of improvement* They have practically told thelabourer there is nothing deserving his reverence) and havee-cited his hostility both by insult and oppression* ( do not mean) on the present occasion) to point out all theconse,uences which result from this view of capital) but there isone so important in a theoretical point of view) and so wellcalculated to relieve the wise system of the universe from theopprobrium which has been cast upon it in these latter times)

that ( cannot wholly pass it by* .n elaborate theory has beenconstructed to show that there is a natural tendency inpopulation to increase faster than capital) or than the means ofemploying labour* (n 5r 5ill7s 'lements of Political 'conomy) awor! distinguished by its brevity) several sections and pages aredevoted merely to announce this truth* (f my view of capital becorrect) this) as a theory of nature) falls at once baseless tothe ground* That the capitalist can control the e-istence andnumber of labourers) that the whole number of the populationdepends altogether on him) ( will not deny* 2ut put thecapitalist) the oppressive middleman) who eats up the produce oflabour and prevents the labourer from !nowing on what natural

laws his e-istence and happiness depend) out of view // put asidethose social regulations by which they who produce all areallowed to own little or nothing // and it is plain that capital)or the power to employ labour) and co/e-iting labour are one1 andthat productive capital and s!illed labour are also one1conse,uently capital and a labouring population are preciselysynonymous* (n the system of nature) mouths are united with hands andwith intelligence1 they and not capital are the agents ofproduction1 and) according other rule) however it may have beenthwarted by the pretended wisdom of law ma!ers) wherever there isa man there also are the means of creating or producing himsubsistence* (f also) as ( say) circulating capital is onlyco/e-isting labour) and fi-ed capital only s!ill labour) it mustbe plain that all those numerous advantages) those benefits tocivilisation) those vast improvements in the condition of thehuman race) which have been in general attributed to capital) arecaused in fact by labour) and by !nowledge and s!ill informingand directing labour* >hould it be said) then) as perhaps it may)that unless there be profit) and unless there be interest) therewill be no motives for accumulation and improvement) ( answerthat this is a false view) and arises from attributing to capitaland saving those effects which result from labour1 and that thebest means of securing the progressive improvement) both ofindividuals and of nations) is to do 0ustice) and allow labour to

possess and en0oy the whole of its produce*

Documents

Labour defended