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LANGUAGE ATTITUDES TOWARDS OWN VERNACULAR LANGUAGE AND MANDARIN AMONG FOOCHOW AND
HOKKIEN SPEAKERS IN KUCmNG, SARAWAK
Puah Yann Yann
Master of Degree (Applied Linguistic)
2015
Pu at Khid lat Maldumat Akademik ERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK
LANGUAGE ATTITUDES TOWARDS OWN VERNACULAR LANGUAGE AND MANDARIN AMONG FOOCHOW AND HOKKIEN SPEAKERS IN KUCHING,
SARAWAK
PUAH Y ANN Y ANN
A thesis submitted
in fulfilment ofthe requirements for the degree of
Masters in Applied Linguistics
Centre for Language Studies
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARA WAK
2015
AUTHOR'S DECLARATION
I declare that the work in this thesis was carried out in accordance with the regulations of
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. It is original and is the result of my work, unless otherwise
indicated or acknowledged as referenced work. This thesis has not been submitted at
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak or to any other academic institution or non-academic institution
for any other degree or qualification.
Name of Student: Puah Yann Yann
Student ID No: 09021568
Programme Degree: Applied Linguistics
Faculty: Centre for Language Studies
Thesis Title: Language attitudes towards own vernacular language and Mandarin among
Foochow and Hokkien speakers in Kuching, Sarawak.
Signature of Student:
Date:
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this dissertation titled:
Language Attitudes Towards Own Vernacular Language and Mandarin Among
Foochow and Hokkien speakers in Kuching, Sarawak
was prepared by: Puah Yann Yann (09021568)
as part of the requirements for the Masters Degree in Applied Linguistics at the Centre for
Language Studjes Universiti Malaysia Sarawak Kota Samarahan Sarawak Malaysia.
Associate Professor Dr. Ting Su Hie
(Supervisor) Signature & date
Madam Florence Gilliam Kayad
(Deputy Dean of Postgraduate & Research CLS) Signature & date
Professor Ernest Cyril De Run
(Dean Centre for Graduate Studies) Signature & date
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my greatest gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr.
Ting Su Hie, for her guidance and advice throughout this study. She has spent a lot of her
precious time in encouraging and motivating me. Without her suggestion, I would not have
completed this thesis and I would not be who I am today. For me, she is the greatest
supervisor! I would like to thank all the participants who involved in this study. This research
would not have completed without their help. In addition, I would like to thank my friends
and housemates for their help. Last but not least, I would like to express my thankfulness to
my family members, for their understanding and their supports. Thank you for being there for
me whenever I need you. Thank you.
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ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to examine language choice patterns in various domains and
the attitudes of Foochow and Hokkien speakers in Kuching, Sarawak towards own vernacular
language and Mandarin. The specific objectives of this research include language use of
Foochow and Hokkien speakers in nine domains, the reasons of their language choices as well
as status of language and its speakers. To find out whether the Foochow and Hokkien
speakers’ attitudes towards Mandarin and their vernacular language are influenced by socio-
demographic variables, gender, age and socio-economic status are the three variables included
in this study.
Matched-guise technique, survey and interview were used for data collection and 444
Chinese speakers were involved in this study. The findings showed that Bahasa Malaysia,
English and Mandarin were used in more formal situations, such as in formal transaction,
religion, government, education, employment and media domains while vernacular languages
or Mandarin were spoken during informal transactions and in the friendship domain. The
participants’ language use patterns at home were due to three factors: intermarriage, desire for
intergenerational transmission of vernacular language, and children’s education whereas
ethnicity of the interactants and formality of the situations were the other two factors that
influenced the participants’ language choice outside home.
As matched guise technique was used to elicit the language attitudes of a large number
of participants indirectly, the paired t-tests results indicated that both Foochow and Hokkien
participants showed positive attitudes towards Mandarin speakers. This was similar to the
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participants’ self-reported data where they rated Mandarin as having higher status and more
usage than their vernacular language.
When comparing the results for Foochow and Hokkien speakers, Hokkien has higher
prestige than Foochow in Kuching, Sarawak due to the institutional support it receives. In this
study, the functions of Hokkien are similar to Mandarin, not only for the Hokkien people but
also for other Chinese sub-groups. Hence, Hokkien is considered as High language while
Foochow is considered as Low language in Kuching for the Chinese speech community.
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ABSTRAK
Kes in berfungsi untuk mengkaji corak bahasa pilihan dalam pelbagai domain dan
sikap Foochow dan Hokkien di Kuching, Sarawak terhadap bahasa vernakular sendiri dan
Mandarin. Objektif khusus kajian ini termasuk penggunaan bahasa oleh penutur Foochow dan
Hokkien dalam sembilan domain, sebab-sebab pilihan bahasa mereka, status bahasa dan juga
status pengguna bahasa tersebut. Untuk mengetahui sama ada sikap Foochow dan Hokkien
terhadap bahasa Mandarin dan bahasa vernakular mereka dipengaruhi oleh pembolehubah
sosio-demografi, jantina, umur dan status sosio-ekonomi adalah tiga pembolehubah yang
terlibat dalam kajian ini.
Teknik “matched-guise”, soal-selidik and temu bual telah digunakan untuk
pengumpulan data dan 444 peserta Cina telah terlibat dalam kajian ini. Dapatan kajian
menunjukkan bahawa Bahasa Malaysia, Inggeris dan Mandarin digunakan dalam keadaan
yang lebih formal, seperti dalam transaksi rasmi, domain agama, kerajaan, pendidikan,
pekerjaan dan media manakala bahasa vernakular atau Mandarin digunakan semasa transaksi
tidak formal dan domain persahabatan. Corak penggunaan bahasa peserta-peserta di rumah
adalah dipengaruhi oleh tiga sebab: perkahwinan, keinginan untuk mewariskan bahasa
vernakular dan pendidikan anak-anak manakala etnik interactants dan formaliti situasi
merupakan dua faktor lain yang mempengaruhi pilihan bahasa peserta di luar rumah.
Oleh sebab teknik “matched-guise” adalah digunakan untuk mendapatkan sikap
peserta secara tidak langsung, keputusan paired t-test menunjukkan bahawa kedua-dua
golongan Foochow dan Hokkien menunjukkan sikap positif terhadap penutur bahasa
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Mandarin. Keputusan ini serentak dengan data yang dilaporkan di soal-selidik di mana peserta
menilai Mandarin sebagai bahasa yang mempunyai status yang lebih tinggi dan lebih berguna
berbanding dengan bahasa vernakular mereka.
Apabila membandingkan keputusan peserta-peserta Foochow dan Hokkien, Bahasa
Hokkien didapati mempunyai status yang lebih tinggi daripada Bahasa Foochow di Kuching,
Sarawak kerana sokongan institusi yang diterimanya. Dalam kajian ini, fungsi Bahasa
Hokkien dalam masyarakat di Kuching adalah sama dengan bahasa Mandarin, bukan sahaja
untuk orang Hokkien tetapi juga untuk golongan Cina yang lain. Oleh yang demikian, Bahasa
Hokkien dianggap sebagai bahasa tinggi, H, manakala dianggap sebagai bahasa yang rendah,
L, di Kuching bagi masyarakat Cina.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research problem
1.2 Aim and objectives
1.3 Research questions
1.4 Sociolinguistic and sociocultural background of Chinese in
Sarawak
1.4.1 Hokkien
1.4.2 Foochow
1.5 Significance of the study
1.6 Scope of the study
1.7 Operational definition of terms
1.7.1 Language attitudes
1.7.2 Standard and vernacular languages
1.8 Summary
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CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Definitions of language attitudes
2.2 Definitions of standard and vernacular languages
2.3 Variables in language attitudes studies
2.3.1 Gender
2.3.2 Age
2.3.3 Socio-economic status
2.4 Language use and language choice studies
2.4.1 Approach to the study of language choice - domain
analysis
2.4.2 Variables/factors in language use
2.4.3 Language use and language shift
2.5 Approach in studying language attitudes
2.5.1 Behaviourist approach
2.5.2 Mentalist approach
2.5.3 Direct approach
2.5.4 Indirect approach
2.5.5 Societal treatment approach
2.6 Summary
CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Participants
3.3 The rationale of using three instruments
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3.4 Matched-guise technique
3.4.1 Formation of semantic differential scale and recordings
3.4.2 The collection of data using matched-guise technique
3.4.3 Analysis of matched-guise technique data
3.5 Questionnaire
3.5.1 Formation of questionnaire items
3.5.2 The collection of data using questionnaire
3.5.3 Analysis of questionnaire data
3.6 Interview
3.6.1 Formation of interview guide
3.6.2 The collection of data using interview
3.6.3 Analysis of interview data
3.7 Limitations of the study
CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants
4.1.1 Domains analysis for Foochow and Hokkien participants
4.1.1.1 Family domain
4.1.1.2 Friendship domain
4.1.1.3 Transaction domain
4.1.1.4 Religion domain
4.1.1.5 Government domain
4.1.1.6 Education domain
4.1.1.7 Employment domain
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4.1.1.8 Media domain
4.2 Reasons that affect Foochow participants’ language use at home
and outside home
4.2.1 Reasons that affect Foochow participants’ language use at
home
4.2.2 Reasons that affect Foochow participants’ language use
outside home
4.3 Reasons that affect Hokkien participants’ language use at home
and outside home
4.3.1 Reasons that affect Hokkien participants’ language use at
home
4.3.2 Reasons that affect Hokkien participants’ language use
outside home
4.3.3 Comparisons of factors that affect Foochow and Hokkien
participants’ language use
4.4 Language attitudes of Foochow and Hokkien participants in
matched-guise technique
4.4.1 Foochow participants’ attitudes towards Foochow and
Mandarin speakers in matched-guise technique
4.4.2 Hokkien participants’ attitudes towards Hokkien and
Mandarin speakers in matched-guise technique
4.4.3 Foochow and Hokkien participants’ attitudes towards their
vernacular languages and Mandarin speakers in matched-
guise technique using three variables
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4.4.3.1 Gender
4.4.3.2 Age
4.4.3.3 Socio-economic status
4.5 Effect of gender, age and socio-economic status on language
attitudes of Foochow and Hokkien participants towards their
vernacular language and Mandarin in survey data
4.5.1 Male and female participants’ language attitudes towards
their vernacular language and Mandarin in survey data
4.5.2 Language attitudes of Foochow and Hokkien participants
from different age groups towards their vernacular
language and Mandarin in survey data
4.5.3 Language attitudes of Foochow and Hokkien participants
from different socio-economic status towards their
vernacular language and Mandarin in survey data
4.6 Status and usefulness of Foochow, Hokkien and Mandarin
4.7 Findings and discussion
4.7.1 Language use and language choice
4.7.2 Status of Mandarin, Foochow, Hokkien and its speaker
4.7.3 Language attitudes and language use based on three variables
4.7.4 Discussion
CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary
5.2 Implications of this study
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5.3 Conclusion
REFERENCES
Appendix
A Matched-guise technique form
B Questionnaire
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LIST OF TABLES
1 Demographic characteristics of the Foochow and Hokkien
participants in this study
2 Formation of seven paired-adjectives in specific semantic
differential scale for matched-guise technique with reference
to other studies
3 Ordering of recordings in matched-guise technique used for actual
study
4 Codes used in matched-guise technique during data analysis
5 Adaption of 12 items on language attitudes from Guerini (2007)
6 Adaption of 12 items on language attitudes from Hohenthal (1998)
7 Codes used in part 1 of the questionnaire for domain analysis
8 Codes used in part 2 of the questionnaire for demographic
variables
9 Tests conducted for the three demographic variables for the
questionnaire data
10 Transcription keys by Eggins and Slade (1997) used in this study
11 Foochow and Hokkien participants’ language use with first
generation family members (paternal grandfather, paternal
grandmother, maternal grandfather and maternal grandmother)
12 Foochow and Hokkien participants’ language use with second
generation family members (paternal aunt/uncle, maternal
aunt/uncle, father and mother)
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13 Foochow and Hokkien participants’ language use with third
generation family members (1st cousins, 2
nd cousins, siblings and
spouse)
14 Foochow and Hokkien participants’ language use with fourth
generation family members (children)
15 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants with their
Chinese friends, non-Chinese friends and neighbours
16 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants in banking and
legal transaction
17 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants in informal
transactions (public transport, market, food court and shop)
18 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants in religion
domain
19 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants in government
domain
20 Language use by Foochow and Hokkien participants in primary,
secondary and tertiary level
21 Language use by Foochow and Hokkien participants towards
teachers, workers and administrative staff
22 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants with their
superiors
23 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants with their
colleagues
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24 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants with their
subordinates
25 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants with their
clients
26 Language use of Foochow and Hokkien participants during
meeting
27 Language of newspaper for Foochow and Hokkien participants
28 Language attitudes of Foochow participants towards male and
female speakers of Foochow and Mandarin
29 Language attitudes of Hokkien participants towards male and
female speakers of Hokkien and Mandarin
30 Language attitudes of male and female Foochow participants
towards male and female Foochow and Mandarin speakers
31 Language attitudes of male and female Hokkien participants
towards male and female Hokkien and Mandarin speakers
32 Language attitudes of Foochow participants from different age
groups (20s, 30s, 40s, 50s and 60s) towards male and female
Foochow and Mandarin speakers
33 Language attitudes of Hokkien participants from different age
groups (20s, 30s, 40s, 50s and 60s) towards male and female
Hokkien and Mandarin speakers
34 Language attitudes of Foochow participants from different socio-
economic status towards male and female Foochow and Mandarin
speakers
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35 Language attitudes of Hokkien participants from different socio-
economic status towards male and female Hokkien and Mandarin
speakers
36 Independent t-test results on male and female Hokkien and
Foochow participants’ attitudes towards their vernacular language
and speakers of the language
37 Independent t-test results on Hokkien and Foochow male and
female participants’ language use and functions of languages
38 Independent t-test results on Hokkien and Foochow male and
female participants’ pride in speaking their vernacular language
and Mandarin
39 Independent t-test results on Hokkien and Foochow male and
female participants’ attitudes towards the instrumental values of
languages
40 Independent t-test results on male and female participants’ attitudes
towards transmission of vernacular language to the younger
generation
41 Independent t-test results on male and female participants’ attitudes
towards their ethnic identity
42 One-way ANOVA results on Hokkien and Foochow participants’
attitudes towards their vernacular language and speakers of the
language
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43 One-way ANOVA results on Hokkien and Foochow participants
from different age groups on language use and attitudes towards
the functions of languages
44 One-way ANOVA results on Hokkien and Foochow participants’
attitudes towards their pride in speaking their vernacular language
and Mandarin
45 One-way ANOVA results on the attitudes of Hokkien and Foochow
participants from different age groups towards the instrumental
value of their vernacular language and Mandarin
46 One-way ANOVA results on the attitudes of Hokkien and Foochow
participants from different age groups towards transmission of
vernacular language to the younger generation
47 One-way ANOVA results on the attitudes of Hokkien and Foochow
participants from different age groups towards their ethnic identity
48 One-way ANOVA results on the attitudes of Hokkien and Foochow
participants with different socio-economic status towards their
vernacular language and speakers of the language
49 One-way ANOVA results on the language use of Hokkien and
Foochow participants with different socio-economic status and
their attitudes towards the functions of languages
50 One-way ANOVA results on the pride of Hokkien and Foochow
participants with different socio-economic status in speaking their
vernacular language and Mandarin
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51 One-way ANOVA results on the attitudes of Hokkien and Foochow
participants with different socio-economic status towards the
instrumental value of languages
52 One-way ANOVA results on the attitudes of Hokkien and Foochow
participants with different socio-economic status towards
transmission of vernacular language to the younger generation
53 One-way ANOVA results on the attitudes of Hokkien and Foochow
participants with different socio-economic status towards their
ethnic identity
54 Ranking of Foochow, Hokkien and Mandarin on status and
Usefulness
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LIST OF FIGURES
1 Map of Sarawak
2 Example of seven point semantic differential scale
3 Specific seven-point semantic differential scale of matched-guise
technique used for pilot study
4 Specific seven-point semantic differential scale of matched-guise
technique used for actual study
5 Example of division of themes for first interview question
6 Example of grouping of data for second interview question
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1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the research problem, the aim and specific objectives of the
study, significance of the study, the scope of the study and operational definitions of the terms
used in this study.
1.1 Research problem
Language attitudes have been defined in different ways. Baker (1992) defines
language attitudes as attitudes towards language learning, attitudes towards a specific
minority language/vernacular language, attitudes towards language preference and language
maintenance (p. 29). Language attitudes have also been defined more broadly, encompassing
evaluative judgements made towards a language and its speakers, to the extent of promoting,
maintaining, planning or learning the language (Adegbija, 2000). Some researchers have
focussed on the components of language attitudes. Language attitudes refer to “any affective,
cognition or behavioural index of evaluative reactions towards different language varieties of
their speakers” (Ryan, Giles & Sebastian, 1982, p. 19). This means that attitudes are a
combination of feelings, thoughts and actions towards a language. One’s feelings towards a
language might not tally with the person’s thoughts and actions, as found by Hohenthal
(1998), Micheli (2001) and Soukup (2001). In addition, Garrett, Coupland, and Williams
(2003, p. 4) describes these components of language attitudes as “separate and distinct”.
Hence, in order to understand the attitudes of a particular speech community, one needs to
study the speech community’s feelings, thought and actions towards the languages that they
speak.
2
Because of the view that language attitudes consist of affective, cognitive and
behavioural components, different techniques have been used to study language attitudes. The
main techniques are matched-guise technique, questionnaire and interview. Matched-guise
technique, an indirect method, examines evaluative reactions towards linguistic variation
(Diaz-Campos & Killam, 2012), non-native accents (Boucher, Hammock, McLaughlin, &
Henry, 2013; Dixon, 2002; Gluszek & Dividio, 2010), and high and low prestige varieties
(Bellamy, 2011; Cavallaro & Ng, 2009). Language attitudes questionnaires have been used to
investigate language use (Hickey, 2009; Hohenthal, 1998; Tajolosa, 2006) as well as attitudes
encompassing the speakers’ level of pride, identity and their belief in language maintenance
(Hohenthal, 1998; Puah & Ting, 2010). Interview has been used to examine the reasons
underlying language choice and attitudes (Balam, 2013; Gilliland, 2006). A common finding
among these studies is that language shift happens when speakers start to speak more standard
languages instead of their own dialects, or have positive attitudes towards standard languages
and negative attitudes towards their own dialects.
To understand the speakers’ language attitudes, researchers have compared two or
more languages. Yet, more often than not the two languages include a standard language and
a vernacular language. For example, Dede (2003) compared attitudes towards Standard
Chinese and Qinghai dialect in China, and in the Philippines Tajolosa (2006) compared
attitudes towards Tagalog, a formal language, and Tagbanua. Both studies showed that
language attitudes and language use did not match. In addition, Bonner (2001) who compared
Creole English and Garifuna dialect in Southern Belize found that some of the children spoke
Garifuna but were actually ashamed of using the dialect. The same result was found by
Guerini (2007) in her study that compared English and Akan dialect in Ghana where most of
