LanguageLanguageEstimated in 6,909 languages in worldEstimated in 6,909 languages in world

-only 11 languages spoken by more than 100 million people-only 11 languages spoken by more than 100 million people

-153 languages spoken by at least 3 million-153 languages spoken by at least 3 million

-remaining languages spoken by fewer than 3 million people-remaining languages spoken by fewer than 3 million people

LanguageLanguage• Language:Language:

• A system of communication A system of communication through speech, a collection of through speech, a collection of sounds that a group of people sounds that a group of people understands to have the same understands to have the same meaningmeaning

• Many languages have a Many languages have a literary traditionliterary tradition

• A system of written A system of written communicationcommunication

• Those that lack literary Those that lack literary tradition leave no records to tradition leave no records to document distribution of document distribution of languagelanguage

• Many countries designate at Many countries designate at least one official languageleast one official language• One used by government for One used by government for

laws, signs, money and stampslaws, signs, money and stamps

Language DefinitionsLanguage Definitions

• Proto-tongueProto-tongue• Language is a culture trait Language is a culture trait

learned from one generation to learned from one generation to anotheranother

• Speculated that nearly 2.5 Speculated that nearly 2.5 million years ago language million years ago language developed in order to organize developed in order to organize human activityhuman activity

• All original speakers All original speakers communicated in the communicated in the proto-proto-tonguetongue or original language or original language

• Once speakers migrated, Once speakers migrated, language divergence occurredlanguage divergence occurred

• Language divergenceLanguage divergence• When speakers of the same When speakers of the same

language scatter and develop language scatter and develop variations of that original form of variations of that original form of languagelanguage

• Language shiftLanguage shift• When speakers come into contact When speakers come into contact

with other languages, a blending of with other languages, a blending of the two or more languages can the two or more languages can occur.occur.

• Language replacementLanguage replacement• Occurs when invaders replace the Occurs when invaders replace the

language of those places they language of those places they conquerconquer

• Can lead to language extinctionCan lead to language extinction• When a language is no longer When a language is no longer

usedused

• Reverse ReconstructionReverse Reconstruction• Process begins with the most recent Process begins with the most recent

places of the languages existence places of the languages existence and moves backward through time and moves backward through time comparing words with geographic comparing words with geographic places and groups of people using places and groups of people using the same or similar wordsthe same or similar words

Language DefinitionsLanguage Definitions

• DialectDialect• Regional variations within a Regional variations within a

standard languagestandard language

• Differences in pronunciation, Differences in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabularygrammar, and vocabulary

• Language familyLanguage family• Collection of individual Collection of individual

languages believed to be languages believed to be related in their prehistorical related in their prehistorical originorigin

• Most widely spoken is Indo-Most widely spoken is Indo-EuropeanEuropean

• Example: Indo-EuropeanExample: Indo-European

• Language branchLanguage branch• Collection of languages that Collection of languages that

possesses a definite common possesses a definite common origin but has split into origin but has split into individual languagesindividual languages

• Example: RomanceExample: Romance

• Language groupLanguage group• Collection of several individual Collection of several individual

languages that is part of a languages that is part of a language branch, shares a language branch, shares a common origin in the recent common origin in the recent past, and has relatively similar past, and has relatively similar grammar and vocabularygrammar and vocabulary

• Example: Spanish, FrenchExample: Spanish, French

Key Issue #1Key Issue #1Where are English-language speakers distributedWhere are English-language speakers distributed

Origin of EnglishOrigin of English• EnglishEnglish

• 11stst language for 328 million language for 328 million peoplepeople

• Spoken fluently by half-billion Spoken fluently by half-billion peoplepeople

• Official language in 57 Official language in 57 countriescountries

• Predominate language in 2 Predominate language in 2 countriescountries• AustraliaAustralia• United StatesUnited States

• 2 billion people (1/32 billion people (1/3rdrd) live in a ) live in a country where English is the country where English is the official languageofficial language

• English ColoniesEnglish Colonies• Contemporary distribution of Contemporary distribution of

English speakers around the English speakers around the world exists because the people world exists because the people of England migrated with their of England migrated with their languages when they established languages when they established colonies in the past four centuriescolonies in the past four centuries

• DiffusionDiffusion• From England to North AmericaFrom England to North America

• Jamestown, VA 1607Jamestown, VA 1607• Plymouth, Mass 1620Plymouth, Mass 1620

• English assured as dominant English assured as dominant language after French-Indian language after French-Indian warwar

• England conquered other England conquered other colonies in late 17colonies in late 17thth, 18, 18thth and and 1919thth centuries centuries• IrelandIreland• Southeast AsiaSoutheast Asia• AfricaAfrica

Origin of English in Origin of English in EnglandEngland

• British Isles inhabited for British Isles inhabited for thousands of years but thousands of years but nothing is known of early nothing is known of early languageslanguages• 1st known- the Celts arrived1st known- the Celts arrived

• Arrived 2000 B.C.E.Arrived 2000 B.C.E.

• Around 450 C.E. tribes invaded Around 450 C.E. tribes invaded from mainland Europe invadedfrom mainland Europe invaded

• Celts pushed into Northern Celts pushed into Northern and Western parts of and Western parts of England, Scotland, and England, Scotland, and WalesWales

• German InvasionGerman Invasion• Invading TribesInvading Tribes

• Angles, Jutes, SaxonsAngles, Jutes, Saxons

• Shared a similar languageShared a similar language

• Anglo-SaxonsAnglo-Saxons

• Modern English derived Modern English derived fromfrom

• At some time all Germans At some time all Germans spoke same languagespoke same language

• Predates recorded historyPredates recorded history

• Other invasions contributed Other invasions contributed to languageto language• Vikings 9th centuryVikings 9th century

Origin of English in Origin of English in EnglandEngland

• Norman InvasionNorman Invasion• English is different from English is different from

German today thanks to the German today thanks to the NormansNormans

• Normans invaded in 1066 C.E.Normans invaded in 1066 C.E.• Spoke FrenchSpoke French• Language in England for 300 Language in England for 300

yrsyrs• Mainly only Royals spokeMainly only Royals spoke

• England lost control of England lost control of Normandy in 1204 C.E.Normandy in 1204 C.E.• Conflict with FrenchConflict with French• English dominate againEnglish dominate again

• Mix of English and French Mix of English and French created new hybridcreated new hybrid

Dialects of EnglishDialects of English

• MigrationMigration• When speakers of a language When speakers of a language

migrate to other locations, various migrate to other locations, various dialects of that language might dialects of that language might developdevelop• Example:Example:

• English speakers migration to English speakers migration to North AmericaNorth America

• English varies by regions English varies by regions within individual countrieswithin individual countries

• In a language with multiple In a language with multiple dialects, one dialect may be dialects, one dialect may be recognized as the standard recognized as the standard languagelanguage• Most acceptable for government, Most acceptable for government,

business, education, and mass business, education, and mass communicationcommunication• Ex. British Received Ex. British Received

PronunciationPronunciation

Dialects in EnglandDialects in England

• English originated with three English originated with three invading groupsinvading groups• Angles, Jute, SaxonsAngles, Jute, Saxons

• All basis of distant regional All basis of distant regional regional dialects of Old regional dialects of Old EnglishEnglish• Southeast- KentishSoutheast- Kentish• Southwest- West SaxonSouthwest- West Saxon• North- NorthumbrianNorth- Northumbrian• Center- MercianCenter- Mercian

• After French InvasionAfter French Invasion• Five major dialects emergedFive major dialects emerged

• Northern, East Midland, Northern, East Midland, West Midland, Southwestern West Midland, Southwestern and Southeastern/ Kentishand Southeastern/ Kentish

• Standard languageStandard language• Dialect used by upper-class Dialect used by upper-class

residents emerged as standard residents emerged as standard for writing and speechfor writing and speech• Diffusion occurred thanks to Diffusion occurred thanks to

Printing press in 1476Printing press in 1476• Grammar books and Grammar books and

dictionaries printed in dictionaries printed in “London” dialect“London” dialect

• Strong regional differences Strong regional differences remainremain• Three main dialectThree main dialect

• NorthernNorthern• MidlandMidland• SouthernSouthern

Differences Between Differences Between British and American EnglishBritish and American English

• English language brought to English language brought to North America with Colonists in North America with Colonists in 1717thth century century

• Early Colonists spoke language Early Colonists spoke language spoken in Englandspoken in England• Later immigrants found English Later immigrants found English

already implanted herealready implanted here• Made significant contributions Made significant contributions

to American Englishto American English

• Why is American English so Why is American English so different? different? • IsolationIsolation• U.S. and England evolved U.S. and England evolved

independently in 18independently in 18thth and 19 and 19thth centuriescenturies

• VocabularyVocabulary• Settlers encountered new Settlers encountered new

experiencesexperiences• Physical features, animals, Physical features, animals,

inventionsinventions• Ex. Elevator = lift in EnglandEx. Elevator = lift in England

• SpellingSpelling• Diverged due to demand for Diverged due to demand for

independent identityindependent identity• Noah WebsterNoah Webster

• Determined to develop a Determined to develop a uniquely American dialect of uniquely American dialect of EnglishEnglish

• Wanted to establish a national Wanted to establish a national languagelanguage• Ex. Honour= honorEx. Honour= honor

• PronunciationPronunciation• Began with arrival of colonistsBegan with arrival of colonists• Changed more in England than U.S.Changed more in England than U.S.• Americans didn’t speak proper Americans didn’t speak proper

EnglishEnglish

DifferencesDifferences

Dialects in the United Dialects in the United StatesStates

• Different dialects originated Different dialects originated because of differences in because of differences in dialects among original settlersdialects among original settlers

• Settlement in the EastSettlement in the East• New EnglandNew England

• Established and inhabited by Established and inhabited by colonist from Englandcolonist from England

• Mainly from SE EnglandMainly from SE England• SoutheasternSoutheastern

• ½ came from SE England½ came from SE England• Diverse social-classesDiverse social-classes

• Middle AtlanticMiddle Atlantic• Most diverseMost diverse

• Penn- Quakers (North Penn- Quakers (North England)England)

• Scots/ IrishScots/ Irish• GermansGermans• SwedesSwedes

• English dialects in U.S. English dialects in U.S. Southeast and New England Southeast and New England easily recognizable todayeasily recognizable today

Dialects in the United Dialects in the United StatesStates

• Pronunciation differencesPronunciation differences• New EnglandNew England

• Drop the rDrop the r

• SouthSouth

• Make words into two syllablesMake words into two syllables

• Middle AtlanticMiddle Atlantic

• Diffused with western Diffused with western settlerssettlers

• Diffused much like housing Diffused much like housing typestypes

• Mobility of Americans has Mobility of Americans has been a major reason for the been a major reason for the relatively uniform language relatively uniform language that exists throughout much that exists throughout much of the Westof the West

• Current dialect differences in Current dialect differences in the Eastthe East• Major dialect differences Major dialect differences

continue to exist within the continue to exist within the U.S.U.S.

• Primarily on the East CoastPrimarily on the East Coast

• Ex. Soda vs. Pop vs. CokeEx. Soda vs. Pop vs. Coke

Key Issue #2Key Issue #2Why is English Related to Other LanguagesWhy is English Related to Other Languages

Language HearthsLanguage Hearths• Traditional approaches in cultural geography have identified Traditional approaches in cultural geography have identified

the source areas of the world’s languages and the paths of the source areas of the world’s languages and the paths of diffusion of those languages from their places of origins.diffusion of those languages from their places of origins.

Indo- European BranchesIndo- European Branches• Language familyLanguage family

• Collection of languages related Collection of languages related through a common ancestral through a common ancestral language that existed long language that existed long before recorded historybefore recorded history• Indo-European most common Indo-European most common

familyfamily

• Language branchLanguage branch• Collection of languages related Collection of languages related

through a common ancestral through a common ancestral language that existed several language that existed several thousand years ago thousand years ago

• Indo-European family is divided Indo-European family is divided into eight branchesinto eight branches• GermanicGermanic

• Clustered in NW Europe and Clustered in NW Europe and North AmericaNorth America

• Indo-IranianIndo-Iranian• Clustered in South AsiaClustered in South Asia

• Baltic languagesBaltic languages• Clustered in Eastern EuropeClustered in Eastern Europe

• RomanceRomance• Clustered in SW Europe and Clustered in SW Europe and

Latin AmericaLatin America

• Other branchesOther branches• AlbanianAlbanian• ArmenianArmenian• GreekGreek• CelticCeltic

Germanic BranchGermanic Branch• Language groupLanguage group

• A collection of languages within A collection of languages within a branch that share a common a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few past and display relatively few differences in grammar and differences in grammar and vocabularyvocabulary

• West GermanicWest Germanic• Language group in Germanic Language group in Germanic

branchbranch• English is a part of this groupEnglish is a part of this group• English and German are English and German are

structurally similar and have structurally similar and have many words in commonmany words in common

• Further dividedFurther divided• West GermanicWest Germanic

• High Germanic and Low High Germanic and Low GermanicGermanic

West Germanic BranchWest Germanic Branch

• High GermanicHigh Germanic• Found in high elevations in Found in high elevations in

GermanyGermany

• Spoken in southern mountainsSpoken in southern mountains

• Basis for modern standard Basis for modern standard German languageGerman language

• Low GermanicLow Germanic• Includes:Includes:

• EnglishEnglish

• DutchDutch

• FlemishFlemish

• North GermanicNorth Germanic• Includes languages spoken in Includes languages spoken in

ScandinaviaScandinavia

• SwedishSwedish

• NorwegianNorwegian

• DanishDanish

• IcelandicIcelandic

• All derived from Old NorseAll derived from Old Norse

Indo-Iranian BranchIndo-Iranian Branch

• Part of the Indo-European Part of the Indo-European familyfamily• Includes more than 100 million Includes more than 100 million

speakersspeakers

• Branches include more than Branches include more than 100 individual languages100 individual languages

• Branch is divided into:Branch is divided into:• Eastern group (Indic)Eastern group (Indic)

• IranianIranian

Indo-Iranian BranchIndo-Iranian Branch• Indic (Eastern Branch)Indic (Eastern Branch)

• Most widely used inMost widely used in• IndiaIndia• PakistanPakistan• BangladeshBangladesh

• One of main elements of cultural One of main elements of cultural diversity among the 1 billion diversity among the 1 billion plus residents in India is plus residents in India is languagelanguage

• Official language of India is HindiOfficial language of India is Hindi• Proposed as official languageProposed as official language

• Rejected, remains EnglishRejected, remains English• Only official way to write is using Only official way to write is using

script called Devanagariscript called Devanagari

• India recognizes 22 “Scheduled India recognizes 22 “Scheduled languages”languages”• 15 are Indo-European15 are Indo-European

Iranian (Western Branch)Iranian (Western Branch)• IncludesIncludes

• Persian (Farsi)Persian (Farsi)• Spoken in IranSpoken in Iran

• PashtoPashto• Spoken in Afghanistan and Spoken in Afghanistan and

western Pakistanwestern Pakistan• KurdishKurdish

• Spoken in Western Iran, Spoken in Western Iran, Northern Iraq, and Eastern Northern Iraq, and Eastern TurkeyTurkey

• Written in Arabic alphabetWritten in Arabic alphabet

• Spoken inSpoken in• IranIran• Southwestern AsiaSouthwestern Asia

Baltic-Slavic BranchBaltic-Slavic Branch

• Slavic once a single languageSlavic once a single language• Differences developed in 7Differences developed in 7thth

century A.D. when several century A.D. when several groups migrated from Asia into groups migrated from Asia into Eastern EuropeEastern Europe

• Divided into:Divided into:

• EastEast

• WestWest

• SouthSouth

• BalticBaltic

Balto-SlavicBalto-Slavic

• East SlavicEast Slavic• Most widely used of Slavic Most widely used of Slavic

languageslanguages

• RussianRussian

• One of 6 languages of One of 6 languages of U.N.U.N.

• Importance increased Importance increased after rise of Soviet Union after rise of Soviet Union to powerto power

• S.U. forced people to S.U. forced people to speakspeak

• After break-up other After break-up other languages re-emergedlanguages re-emerged

• Ukrainian and Belarusian Ukrainian and Belarusian

Balto-SlavicBalto-Slavic

• West SlavicWest Slavic• IncludesIncludes

• Polish (most widely spoken)Polish (most widely spoken)• CzechCzech• SlovakSlovak

• Former Czechoslovakia tried to Former Czechoslovakia tried to balance Czech and Slovak balance Czech and Slovak languageslanguages• Country contained 2X CzechsCountry contained 2X Czechs• Switched languages at Switched languages at

sporting eventssporting events• Effective until split in 1993Effective until split in 1993

• South SlavicSouth Slavic• Spoken inSpoken in

• Bosnia and HerzegovinaBosnia and Herzegovina• CroatiaCroatia• MontenegroMontenegro• SerbiaSerbia

• All once spoke Serbo-CroatianAll once spoke Serbo-Croatian• All once part of YugoslaviaAll once part of Yugoslavia• Split= tensionsSplit= tensions

• Bosnians and Croats take Bosnians and Croats take offenseoffense

• Bosnian Muslims Bosnian Muslims introduced Arabic words introduced Arabic words into languageinto language

• Croats have replaced Croats have replaced “Serbian words”“Serbian words”

• May be very different in May be very different in futurefuture

• All Slavic languages similar and All Slavic languages similar and can be understood….. For now.can be understood….. For now.

Romance BRanchRomance BRanch

• Evolved from Latin spoken by Evolved from Latin spoken by Romans 2,000 years agoRomans 2,000 years ago

• Four most widely used:Four most widely used:• SpanishSpanish

• PortuguesePortuguese

• FrenchFrench

• ItalianItalian

• Languages spoken mainly Languages spoken mainly within nation borderswithin nation borders• Mountains serves as barriersMountains serves as barriers

• Strong intervening obstaclesStrong intervening obstacles

• Also included RomanianAlso included Romanian• Spoken in Romania and Spoken in Romania and

MoldovaMoldova

• Separated from Western Separated from Western Europe by Slavic speakersEurope by Slavic speakers

• Distribution of Romance Distribution of Romance Languages highlights Languages highlights difficulty in trying to establish difficulty in trying to establish #s of distinct languages in #s of distinct languages in the worldthe world• Several more Romance Several more Romance

languageslanguages

• Ex. Catalan, Sardinian, Ex. Catalan, Sardinian, RomanshRomansh

• Some have individual literary Some have individual literary traditionstraditions

Romance BranchRomance Branch

• OriginOrigin• All derived from LatinAll derived from Latin• Spread of Roman Empire = Spread of Roman Empire =

spread of Latinspread of Latin• Conquered languages often Conquered languages often

suppressed or extinguishedsuppressed or extinguished• Empire so large = Latin varied Empire so large = Latin varied • Provinces spoke “Vulgar Latin”Provinces spoke “Vulgar Latin”

• Vulgar means “the masses”Vulgar means “the masses”• Introduced by soldiersIntroduced by soldiers

• DiffusionDiffusion• Following collapse of Roman Following collapse of Roman

Empire communication Empire communication declineddeclined

• Some reverted to old languageSome reverted to old language• Led to new, distinct languagesLed to new, distinct languages

Romance BranchRomance Branch

• DialectsDialects• Languages evolved over timeLanguages evolved over time

• Numerous dialects are Numerous dialects are spoken within each provincespoken within each province

• Creation of standard Creation of standard national languages are national languages are relatively recentrelatively recent

• FranceFrance

• Standard form = Standard form = FrancienFrancien

• From Ile-de-France regionFrom Ile-de-France region

• Became official in 16Became official in 16thth cent.cent.

• Dialect differenceDialect difference

• North- North- Langue d’oilLangue d’oil

• South- South- Langue d’ocLangue d’oc

• Often called OccitanOften called Occitan

Romance BranchRomance Branch• SpainSpain

• Contained many dialects during Contained many dialects during Middle AgesMiddle Ages• Castilian spread throughout the Castilian spread throughout the

country as it unifiedcountry as it unified• Spain reached approximate present Spain reached approximate present

day boundaries in 15day boundaries in 15thth century century• Castilian became official Castilian became official

languagelanguage• Now called SpanishNow called Spanish

• Regional dialects survived only in Regional dialects survived only in secluded rural areassecluded rural areas

• ExpansionExpansion• Both Spain and Portuguese have Both Spain and Portuguese have

achieved worldwide importance achieved worldwide importance because of colonizationbecause of colonization• 90% of speakers live outside 90% of speakers live outside

two nationstwo nations• Spanish is official language of Spanish is official language of

18 Latin American nations18 Latin American nations• Portuguese is spoken in BrazilPortuguese is spoken in Brazil

• DifferencesDifferences• Two languages diffused thanks Two languages diffused thanks

to exploration in 15to exploration in 15thth century century• Treaty of Tordesillas 1493Treaty of Tordesillas 1493

• Two languages differ from West Two languages differ from West Hemisphere and East Hemisphere and East HemisphereHemisphere• Forces in both hemispheres Forces in both hemispheres

“standardize” the languages“standardize” the languages

Distinguishing between Distinguishing between Dialect and LanguagesDialect and Languages

• Difficulties arise in Difficulties arise in determining whether two determining whether two languages are distinct or languages are distinct or whether they are merely two whether they are merely two dialects of the same languagedialects of the same language

• Romance languages spoken in Romance languages spoken in some former colonies can be some former colonies can be classified as separate classified as separate languages because they differ languages because they differ substantially from the original substantially from the original introduced by European introduced by European colonizers.colonizers.• French CreoleFrench Creole

• Papiamento (Creolized Spanish)Papiamento (Creolized Spanish)

• Portuguese Creole Portuguese Creole

• A Creole or creolized A Creole or creolized language is defined as a language is defined as a language that results from language that results from the mixing of the colonizer’s the mixing of the colonizer’s language with the indigenous language with the indigenous language of the people being language of the people being dominated.dominated.

Origin and Diffusion of Origin and Diffusion of Indo-EuropeanIndo-European

• Germanic, Romance, Balto-Slavic, Germanic, Romance, Balto-Slavic, and Indo-Iranian languages are all and Indo-Iranian languages are all part of the same Indo-European part of the same Indo-European language familylanguage family• Must be descended from a single Must be descended from a single

common ancestral languagecommon ancestral language• Called Proto-Indo-EuropeanCalled Proto-Indo-European

• Can’t be provenCan’t be proven• Existed before writingExisted before writing

• 6000- 4500 B.C.E.6000- 4500 B.C.E.

• Internal EvidenceInternal Evidence• Physical attributes of words themselves Physical attributes of words themselves

in various Indo-European languagesin various Indo-European languages• Beech, oak, bear, deer, beeBeech, oak, bear, deer, bee• Probably lived in a cold climateProbably lived in a cold climate

• Modern Indo-European languages Modern Indo-European languages share word for “snow”share word for “snow”

• No contact with oceansNo contact with oceans

• Most agree that Proto-Indo-European Most agree that Proto-Indo-European existedexisted• Disagree on when and where it Disagree on when and where it

originated and how it diffusedoriginated and how it diffused• Two theoriesTwo theories

• Nomadic Warrior Thesis (Conquest)Nomadic Warrior Thesis (Conquest)• 11stst speakers were Kurgan people speakers were Kurgan people

• Homeland near steppes near Homeland near steppes near present day Russia and present day Russia and KazakhstanKazakhstan

• Earliest evidence 4300 B.C.E.Earliest evidence 4300 B.C.E.• Nomadic herdersNomadic herders

• First to domesticateFirst to domesticate• Migrated for grasslandsMigrated for grasslands• Later developed weapons, Later developed weapons,

conquered South Asiaconquered South Asia• Sedentary Farmer Thesis (Agrarian)Sedentary Farmer Thesis (Agrarian)

• 11stst speakers lived 2000 yrs before speakers lived 2000 yrs before KurganKurgan

• Homeland in East AnatoliaHomeland in East Anatolia• Diffused towards MediterraneanDiffused towards Mediterranean

• With agricultural practices not With agricultural practices not military conquestmilitary conquest

Origin and Diffusion of Origin and Diffusion of Indo-EuropeanIndo-European

• Map of Indo-European Map of Indo-European MigrationsMigrations• 4000- 1000 B.C.E.4000- 1000 B.C.E.