Svsrem. Vol. 18. No. 2. pp. 257-276, 1990 Pergamon Press plc. Printed in Great Britain

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Scholars who would like to publish in this section of System are requested to contact the Review Editor before submitting a paper. As a rule, all contributions should be in English. French and German will, however, be considered. The Review Editor may be contacted at the following address:

Sprachenzentrum der Universitat Bayreuth Postfach 101251 D-8580 Bayreuth Federal Republic of Germany.

Syskm. Vol. 18. No. 2, pp. 257-276. 1990 Pergamon Press pk. Printed in Great Britain

HIGGINS, JOHN, Language, Learners and Computers, New York: Longman, 1988, 108 pp., f5.90.

JUNG, UDO 0. H. (ed.), Computers in Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching: A CALL Handbook. Bern: Peter Lang, 1988, 386 pp., $56.90.

LEVY, MIKE and FARRUGIA, DENNIS, Computers in Language Teaching. Analysis, Research and Reviews. Footscray: Footscray College of Technical and Further Education, 1988, viii + 131 pp., $16.95 (Australian) (plus postage).

Language, Learners and Computers (LLC) is a refined, concise expression of Higgins’s philosophy and approach to the use of computers in language teaching and learning. In Chapter 1 he exploits his familiar magister/pedagogue metaphor to the fullest, with copious examples of its various realizations in the teaching/learning process, by no means restricted to computerized environments. He makes a well-reasoned case for the use of computers in exploratory learning (discovery learning in the United States) and for the effective substitution of the teacher for the computer when need be.

In Chapter 2, the focus is on language: the nature of language and of the language learning process, with the caveat that the latter, or the learning process in general, is, “the great unknown” (Howatt, 1%9). He discusses differences in results achieved by different learners and speculates on possible causal factors, also noting that we cannot assume either that a change in behavior signals learning or that a lack of behavioral change denotes the absence of learning. This chapter also concludes with a case for exploratory learning and offers the computer as an extraordinary tool in devising such optimal learning challenges.

Chapter 3, “The Learner”, starts from the 1977 Kemmis categorization of types of computer-assisted learning (instructional, revelatory, conjectural , and emancipatory), which

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he matches to the learner’s roles respectively as “absorber, experiencer, explorer, and practitioner” (p. 40). Then, he discusses various types of computer programs within this framework, citing word processors and concordances as emancipatory programs, but noting that the concordance is also an excellent conjectural tool for learners. He concludes with

a defense of artifical unintelligence as displayed in several of his own programs, which are useful tools for learners who are engaged in active inductive learning.

Next, the teacher is the subject of scrutiny. Here, he notes the appalling lack of explicit training for CALL in teacher preparation courses, pointing out that it is largely a matter of in-service training in places which already have computers. He argues that teachers should be exposed to programming because it will probably teach them something about the language and because, at least, it should give them a greater empathy for learner error. In this section, there is detailed discussion of the alternating and even blending roles of the teacher-sometimes magister, sometimes pedagogue, and sometimes both.

Then, our attention is turned to the book: the textbook and the reading book specifically, with most commentary given to the misuse of the reader. He fairly describes most uses of the reading book as “study” and compares reading books to reading on a computer screen, citing examples of programs which are thought to be helpful in developing reading skills. While assuring us that books are far from being on their way out (on the contrary, he predicts an increased demand for certain types of reference books), he notes some of the advantages offered by the computer, particularly the non-linear possibilities for working with texts on a computer.

Chapter 6 deals with the test, pointing out that what students dislike about tests is the use to which the results are put, not the tests themselves, for all learners need some type of feedback. One by one, the traditional and even some relatively recent methods of testing are criticized. Although the specific examples are not used in the United States, one can easily extrapolate to our tests.

Finally, the machine! There is considerable discussion of the language laboratory, contrasting it with microcomputer use and potential, ending with the prediction that computers will eventually be taken for granted and used in a variety of ways.

Udo Jung’s collection of 25 articles comes primarily from the 18th Annual Meeting of the German Association for Applied Linguistics (1987), with the additions (1) of an introduction by the editor, which is an article in itself, dealing with the field today as well as issues discussed in or arising from analysis of the papers, and (2) of more recent national survey papers from 11 countries. The Table of Contents is almost a “Who’s Who” and “What’s Where” of CALL, except for my country, which is scantily represented, and the Orient, which is not represented at all. Thus, it is an invaluable collection for readers in these parts of the world, many of whom find it difficult to keep informed about developments in Europe. The listing of authors’ addresses will be very helpful to readers wishing to pursue specific interests.

The collection is organized into three broad topics, plus the national surveys: “Computer Basics”, “Computer Technology and Applied Linguistics”, and “Classroom Research and

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Teaching”. There is also a glossary of terms, containing both computer and testing jargon and linguistic terms such as “cohesion”, “liaison” and “domain”.

While each article merits description, space requires making a selection. Using the subtitle as a guide, I have made choices based on predictions of broadest appeal, opinions as to general utility, transferability, and/or practicality of the content, and judgment as to “state of the art” status of 1987 papers in 1989. Workers and researchers in the more esoteric areas should take note that these considerations eliminate articles which may be of great interest to them, for the intent is to move classroom CALLers to acquire this tremendous resource, which deserves the label “handbook”.

The collection begins, most appropriately, with the most basic article, in which John Higgins discusses the factors to be considered in beginning CALL, specifically the hardware and software concerns of the neophyte. Of course, he does not fail to sneak in some philosophy as to the proper place of the computer in the language classroom. Teacher trainers should find this article of great use in introducing CALL.

The second article, Graham Davies on software development history and availability at that time, presents an excellent survey of types of software found useful in CALL. It lacks only inclusion of the excellent and very affordable hardware and software available for the use of digitized speech available since at least 1986, and it suffers from time in that work in IAV (well-known to Davies) in the last two years is missing. This survey, too, will be useful to teacher trainers. Davies’s article is accompanied by lists of software and publishers, with reference to the address list accompanying Dieter Wolff’s UK survey.

“Computers in Lexicocology and Lexicography” by Detlef Ufert offers a concise and enlightening description of the use of computers in lexicographic work, which has obvious possibilities for improvement of language learning/teaching. It is followed by Brian Farrington’s article on machine translation, which discusses various ways in which it can be useful in CALL. In another section, Ulrich Heid adds to this theme with a discussion of linguistic factors which could and should be taken into account in the design of vocabulary training programs.

The article by Robert S. Hart and Fernand Marty and the subsequent one by Reinhold Greisbach describe respectively the production of synthesized speech from text input and the production of phonetic transcription from taped speech input. The first will be of great interest to those of us who have found that synthesized speech can be useful in second language learning; the work described in the second may eventually lead to a solution to the problems ascribed to use of synthesized speech by those who have not found it useful. A third article, by Volkbert M. Roth on speech-training for aphasiacs, describes STACH, a combination of pictures, written language and digitized speech in a sophisticated 18 MB program that does many of the things I am learning to do with a 1 MB computer with MICROTEXT as the authoring tool. This article is a must for program designers in IAV, with or without video disc/tape-shades of Roman Jakobson!

All the articles in the section on classroom teaching/research meet at least two of my criteria for commentary; however, the most clearly needed is Burkhard Leuschner’s description

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of the use of an integrated package in CALL. The particular package, FRAMEWORK is especially suited for the uses he details because of its reliance on “frames” of various types which may be embedded in a hypertext fashion, but each activity can be accomplished in some (clumsier) manner with whatever integrated package or combination oi standalones one possesses. What Leuschner contributes is, as usual, splendid ideas for learning-centered

activities. These ideas are concrete examples of exactly what many have been proposing-the greater use of the computer as a tool in the classroom. This article alone would justify the purchase of the book.

Lienhard Legenhausen and Dieter Wolff describe the type of observational research that is greatly needed in CALL (since it seems that, unlike the overhead projector, blackboard, or book, the computer must have its usefulness proved) in their study of the use of a computer-based simulation with respect to types and quality of speech acts and learner interaction, finding the particular program not appropriate or not used appropriately but also proposing improved methodology for this type of program. As simulations are much in use in communicatively-oriented classrooms, this study should be of considerable interest to both users and researchers. The following article by Willis Edmonson, Sabine Reck and Norbert Schroder offers another type of much-needed research, into learner strategies, and details a new data collection process.

The country survey articles address the situation in Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the Republic of South Africa and Sweden. Articles such as these could well be written and collected annually, for the edification of all. An interesting twist is that the United Kingdom article was authored by a West German who knows the country well. It could be instructive to pair native and non-native analyses in a similar future document: how we see ourselves versus ourselves as others see us.

An unfortunate omission, in this reviewer’s opinion, is any mention of the AI work of D. Wells Coleman, which will probably be rectified in the next volume. As a United States reader, I did not wish for greater coverage of the Western Hemisphere, but readers in other parts of the world may. However, whatever its small lacks and occasional English problems, there is enough here to provide many hours of thoughtful, productive consideration for any reader.

Despite the fact that the number of errors (typographical, grammatical, and factual) indicates a fast in-house printing job, much of the information contained in Computers in Language Teaching (CLT) seems to come from the early days of computer-assisted language learning. There are few references to material published in 1986 and 1987, none for 1988. The “North American perspective of CALL” is described as being “presented in David Wyatt’s Computer-assisted Language Instruction” (p. 89), rather leaving out in the cold North Americans who are interested in CALL rather than CALI, in microcomputers rather than large systems, in exploratory and conjectural approaches, etc. Although reference is made to CALL Digest, it, the CALL Interest Section Newsletter (of TESOL) and the CALICO Journal are not listed in “Further Information”.

For whom was this book written? What is the target audience? The only purpose stated

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is that it aims “to give guidance to language teachers and administrators”, and the authors explicitly state that they have developed no methodological framework. However, it appears to me that they are “on the side of the angels” and do mean “computers in language learning” insofar as use is concerned. The many teaching suggestions made in the book fit wholly or partially into a communicative, learner-centered model.

Generally, CLT jumps from one topic to another, without an apparent underlying theme or organizational principle. It is a collection of discrete works, like beads on a string. The book opens with a chapter on CALL methodology, briefly mentioning second language acquisition theory, dividing computer use into “classical” and “romantic” traditions, and ending with a lesson plan for using FAST FOOD, which details a very extensive preparation period but which ends with only the suggestion that the students could write a report. In a book produced in a technical college setting, it seems strange not to find suggestions for using a spreadsheet to play “what if” and graphics packages to display the learners’ data-to exploit this little business simulation program with activities that will teach real- life computer skills and language. The description of LOTUS l-2-3 (pp. 28-29) might be easier to undestand if the business operation data were used as an example, and it certainly would add to student motivation in playing the game.

Chapter 2 turns to word processing, with discussion of both actual word processing uses and using the word processor as a tool for doing various kinds of writing exercises. This is a practical and persuasive section for the teacher new to CALL.

Chapter 3 deals with the management of individualized learning centers-in three pages. Chapter 4, “English for Computing”, goes into detail about the keyboards of the Apple IIe, the IBM PC and the BBC Model B, lists on-screen language examples from a number of CALL programs, and then lists vocabulary generally found in business programs, with explanations of the meanings of lexical items from DBASE III. The authors suggest several activities for helping learners deal with the language and the process of using such programs.

Chapters 5 and 6 are concerned with reactions to using computers. Chapter 5 details the use of survey instruments with Footscray students and teachers, while Chapter 6 reports on observational research in the pair-work context. An interesting finding is that teacher ratings of programs seem correlated with teacher perceptions of interaction fostered by the programs. It is not evident from the analyses if the teacher perception is actually valid, for the two programs with the greatest number of turns per minute are not listed in the teacher evaluations. These pages perhaps represent the most significant contribution of this book in that they report original research of a type that has not been extensively done, in an area which is of great importance to proving the value of CALL, but they would be more significant with some statistical treatment of the results and with comparisons with other modes of learning. They also report results indicating that students prefer working in pairs even in a self-access center and that teachers need to be available in this environment, too. Neglected is the telling argument that small group work resembles the normal work world, where there is much sharing of knowledge and responsibility, with each person doing specific tasks. In United States colleges, it is increasingly common for learners to work in groups to accomplish a project, as they will do on the job later.

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Chapter 7 deals with software evaluation and review. There is a lengthy, detailed questionnaire, to be used in judging new software, followed by sample descriptive reviews of 12 programs. Some of the items in the questionnaire strike me as unnecessary (e.g. all those dealing with the objectives of the program-what difference does it make what objectives the author had in mind? What matters is whether or not the program fits the teacher’s and learners’ objectives.) Yet, I would ask or allow evaluators to point out such negative features as praise (“Well done!“) when it took the user nine tries to get the right answer. Nor does is allow for random distracters, as found in programs like SEQUITUR and WORD RACE.

Interactive audio, the subject of Chapter 8, involves only audio tapes, perhaps because of the limitations of the three types of computers discussed throughout the book, particularly the Apple IIe, which is the example used in explaining the design of an interactive audio lesson. The current low cost of hard disks and the advances made in digitizing speech in the last three or four years have brought interactive disk-based speech within our means.

Chapter 9, on interactive video, details the use and features of one videodisc (U’RITING FOR RESULTS), a program which uses only multiple choice questions. This aspect may be partly responsible for the authors’ rather negative view of videodiscs, a “hot item” over here.

The final chapter consists of reviews of “eight recent publications on CALL” (p. 89). Whatever the rationale for including book reviews in a book, we are back to the initial criticism as to antiquity of the work. In a field which is changing as rapidly as ours, “recent” is not 1984, in this reviewer’s opinion. A more comprehensive and up-to-date annotated bibliography, including recent articles and with an emphasis on methodology, would be more useful to the reader, especially the uninitiated, who (like our students) tend to believe what they read.

The authors are to be commended for frequently mentioning two often-overlooked matters in the realm of time, namely, that teachers should be provided with on-going in-service opportunities for continuing learning and with released time to learn and to author materials. Until institutions recognize this need and commit themselves to meeting it, we can expect to find dissatisfaction and under-utilization rampant, for anyone who thinks that the computer will replace the language teacher is not using CALL.

REFERENCES

HOWATT. A. P. R. (1969) Programmed Learning and the Language Teacher. New York: Longman. KEMMIS, S., ATKIN, R. and WRIGHT, E. (1977) How do students learn ? Working Papers on Computer- assisted Learning; UNCAL Evaluation Studies. Centre for Applied Research in Education, Occasional Publications No. 5 Norwich. WYATT, D. H. (ed.) (1985) Computer-assisted Language Instruction. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

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