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USES OF ETHNOVETERINARY L KNOWLEDGE IN THE TREATMENT OF CAMEL
MANGE IN GAROWE DISTRICT
This min thesis submitted as partial fulfillment for the award of the Diploma in livestock
health science (DLH), in Sheikh Technical Veterinary School (STVS)|
July 2012
By: Abdiaziz Adan Hashi
Role number: STVS0098
Supervisor: Abdulahi Shiekh Mohamed
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Declaration
I Abdi aziz Adan Hashi, declare that this thesis is my original work and that all sources of
material that are used for this thesis have been duly acknowledged. I solemnly declare that this
thesis is not submitted to any other institution anywhere for the awards of any academic
diploma, degree, or certificate.
Candidate’s signature: …………………………………………………………………………
Supervisor’s signature: …………………………………………………………………………
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Acknowledgment
First and for most, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Alaah who allowed me to do
this work easily. As well as my sincere thanks are due to the following people
Dr. Abdulahi Sheikh Mohamed (my supervisor) for his guidance and assistance during this
study and my promoters, the farmers who participated in taken questionnaire also their
hospitable and given information about the camel mange and their traditional knowledge. I also,
wish to acknowledge Dr. Mohamed Abdulkadir Botan (SAHSP Punt land vet area coordinator)
and Dr: Mohamed Yusuf Isse (SAHSP consultant of epidemiology data management unit and
epidemiology data management unit officer in ministry of Puntland livestock and animal
husbandry ) for their support and contribution towards the conduct of this study. As well as this
study was made possible through the financial support and material provided by STVS, I
gratefully acknowledged. In addition, I am passing my sincere thanks that consist, with love
and respect to my parent, sisters and brothers for their support during my long absences
from home whilst working on this Diploma.
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Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction and Literature Review ......................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2: Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Definition of Ethno Veterinary Medicine ......................................................................... 3
1.2.2. History of ethnoveterinary knowledge ............................................................................. 3
1.2.3. Advantages of ethnveterinary knowledge ........................................................................ 6
1.2.4. Challenges of ethnoveterinary knowledge ....................................................................... 7
1.2.5 .Camel rearing system in Somalia ..................................................................................... 7
1.2.6. Camel breeding ................................................................................................................. 9
1.2.7. Composition of camel diet in Somalia: ............................................................................ 9
1.2.8. Selection of foraging areas ............................................................................................. 10
1.2.9 Definition of the camel mange ........................................................................................ 10
1.2.10 Mange history in Somalia .............................................................................................. 11
1.2.11 Etiology of camel mange ............................................................................................... 12
1.2.12 Clinical signs of camel mange ...................................................................................... 13
1.2.13 Medicinal plants used for the camel mange and its applications .................................. 13
Chapter two: Objectives ........................................................................................................... 15
2.1 General Objectives ............................................................................................................. 15
2.2 Specific objectives .............................................................................................................. 15
CHAPTER THREE: Materials and Methods ........................................................................... 16
3.1 Study Area .......................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Study design ....................................................................................................................... 17
3.3. Focus Groups ..................................................................................................................... 17
3.4 Field demonstration: ........................................................................................................... 18
Chapter four: Result and Discussion ............................................................................................ 19
4.1.0 Result ............................................................................................................................... 19
4.1.1 The knowledge of pastoralists towards camel mange and how they recognize it .......... 19
4.1.2 Usage of traditional plants and modern drugs in different villages of Garowe district . 20
4.1.3 Traditional plants used for the treatment of camel mange in Garowe district ............... 21
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4.1.5 Preparation techniques and/or methods used, and their administration procedures by
table 4.4. .................................................................................................................................... 23
4.2 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTERE FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................... 26
5.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 26
5.2 Recommendation ................................................................................................................ 27
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Chapter One: Introduction and Literature Review
1.1 Introduction
According to FAO statistics (FAO, 2004) there are about 19 million camels in the World, of
which 15 million are found in Africa and 4 million in Asia. Of this estimated world population,
17 million are believed to be one-humped dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) and
2million two-humped (Camelus bactrianus). More than 60% of the dromedary camel population
is concentrated in the four North East African countries Somalia, Sudan, Kenya and Ethiopia.
Somalia with over 6 million heads has the largest herd in the world. Since, Somalia has most
proportion of camel in the world by considering FAO statistics and other literatures, the Somali
pastoralist uses multipurpose and utilizes variety ways, such as income issues, dowry, blood
compensatory, charity, loaded etc. So we can say camel is a backbone of Somali economic
income and other cultural system. There are many different camel diseases in the world, camel
mange is the one of the most severe camel diseases in east Africa specially Somalia it is the
second danger one after trypanosomiasis. Somali pastoralists used techniques based on
ethnoveterinary/ traditional knowledge to prevent and treat their camels from mange.
Ethnoveterinary knowledge (traditional knowledge) is the holistic, interdisciplinary study of
local knowledge and its associated skills, practices, beliefs, practitioners, and social structures
pertaining to the healthcare and healthful husbandry of food, work, and other income-producing
animals. At times EVM is referred to as veterinary anthropology (Mathias and McCorkle, 1989)
or traditional animal health care and practices (Mathias et al, 1996). Over cernturies several
countries in the developing world started studing ethnoveterinary practices and utilize the
acceptible ones in the animal health services. The delivery of veterinary, public health and other
basic services in pastoral areas in the tropics is more problematic compared to areas where
livestock are kept in intensive or semi-intensive conditions (Schwabe, 1996). In Africa there is
traditional knowledge and the mandate to do indigenous practices for protection of animal and
even human disease by used different species of plants. Unfortunately the resources available to
run government veterinary services have not been maintained and veterinary departments
cannot afford the rising cost within the veterinary sector. Though this is generally viewed as a
success, particularly for intensive farmers, this is not the case in pastoral areas, specifically in
Somalia and more especially in Nugal region. This is because of poor drug supply systems,
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insecurity including banditry and animal rustling, inadequate understanding of herders' culture,
and the high cost of drugs and professional fees. In addition there is a growing concern of
organism resistance to modern veterinary medicines (Soll, 1997). Pastoralists have several
misconceptions that contribute to drug resistance. These may include drug adulteration, mixing
two or more different drugs, use of expired drugs, effective for one is effective for other
diseases and a drug that is good for humans is also used for animals (Fielding, 1998). This
worsening situation has stimulated a renewed interest in ethnoveterinary medicine, McCorkle
(1989). Ethnoveterinary Medicine (hereafter EVM) has advantages that outweigh Modern
Veterinary Medicine (MVM) as it is cheap, easily accessible, easily available and culturally
acceptable (Mathias, 1996). Several studies have been conducted to elicit ethnoveterinary
medicine in Somalia (Wanyama, 1997; ITDG/IIRR, 1996). Local plants remedies are usually
less expensive and more ready available then imported drugs and they do not required special
storage facilities (McCorkle and mathias- Mundy, 1992, Bizimana, 1994). Also published
information and traditional veterinary practices among Somali pastoralists is limited. Somali are
predominantly pastoral community 60% of the Somali population consists of nomads engaged
in livestock rearing and in the marketing of animals and animal products. The Somali
pastoralists kept large number of cattle, camel, sheep, and goats in under a traditional nomadic
pastoral production system (extensive system). Animal diseases among infections which affect
the animal has a great significant economic losses to animal production, productivity and also
lose of herd growth, poor nutrition and death due to disease susceptibility and lack of
immunization are major constrains to Somali animal health development. Under these
conditions, Nugal animal herders and traditional healers confidently treat animals for an
enormous variety of remdies exist. Many of these remedies are based on medical plants for the
treatments of animal diseases and they rely on a whole range of indigenous practices.
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1.2: Literature Review
1.2.1 Definition of Ethno Veterinary Medicine
Ethno Veterinary Medicine (EVM) is the name given to the way in which most livestock
keepers uses to treat animal health problems in traditional way (Ngeh J. Toyang et al, 2007).
EVM is performed by traditional livestock healers. Many herders and farmers treat their animals
themselves, especially if the disease is well known. The indigenous knowledge is passed on
verbally generation to generation. Over centuries people have developed their own ways of
keeping animal’s healthy and productive used age-old home remedies, surgical and
manipulative techniques, husbandry strategies and associated magico-religious practices. Taken
together these constitute what is now known as ethnoveterinary medicine (McCorkle, 1995).
There is a wide variety of EVM treatment principles, according to the cause of the health
problem disease, such as cauterization; bleeding; fuzzing, and minor surgeries; crushed leaves,
tobacco leaves and fish waste, and oil for skin ailments; wooden splints for fractured limbs;
meat and grains; grazing/browsing on certain plants; the use of different ashes including bone
ashes, tree tar, wood oil, mineral springs, sea water, sulfur, bone marrow oil, sour milk ( Raziq
et al, 2010). One of the most important elements of indigenous knowledge systems and
practices is in the human and animal health care. Worldwide, there are many different
traditional healing practices designed to cure, control or prevent human or livestock diseases
(Mathias,1994; Mcorkle, 1986).
1.2.2. History of ethnoveterinary knowledge Ethno veterinary medicine as practiced today has its roots in herbal medicine, as practiced in
prehistory in China, India and the Middle East (Schillhorn van Veen, 1996).The literature
indicates that Arabia was the world centre of ethnoveterinary and other medical Knowledge in
the early Middle Ages. With the spread of Islam some of this knowledge made its way into
Africa and was adopted by stock raisers (Schillhorn van Veen, 1996). Ethnoveterinary medicine
was practiced as early as 1800 B.C. at the time of King Hamurabi of Babylon who formulated
laws on veterinary fees and charged for treating cattle and donkeys (Schillhorn van Veen,
1996). Traditional veterinary practices have been around for a long time and were the only
medicine available until nineteenth century (Mathias-Mundy, McCorkle and Schillhorn van
Veen, 1996). In fact, all veterinary practices before the coming of the orthodox veterinary
medicine can be called "traditional" veterinary knowledge (Mathias, Ragnekar and McCorkle,
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1998). Years ago, first with a dog, followed by sheep and goats by 9,000BC in the Fertile Nile
Valley, and then with cattle in Egypt from 4000BC and in Anatolia around 6000BC (Mellaart
1967). This evolution was followed by pig and horse cultures in view of their importance
(Murray 1968). For instance, at around 3000BC horses, elephants, and other animals were
highly regarded and were in good association with man in what is present-day, Sri Lanka and
could be treated with Ayurvedic medicine (Anjaria 1987). These associations were based on
economic, cultural, social and religious beliefs attached to each type of animal and it was during
this time that veterinary medicine evolved specifically to take care of the health of animals,
which were being domesticated (Thrusfield 1986). For instance, veterinary therapeutic
techniques of Egyptian healers (priest-healers) are recorded in the veterinary Papyrus of Kahun
(c. 1900 BC). They combined both religious and medical roles. Literary records of similar age,
describing veterinary medical activities, are extant from other parts of the world, such as Indian
Sanskrit texts from the Vedic period (1800-1200BC) (Thrusfield 1986). Since these ancient
times, the succeeding civilizations all over the world had their herbal experts or doctors, being
the local equivalents of university-trained doctors, who could help their fellows in adversities.
Nevertheless, these simple traditional cures have continuously and slowly evolved over the
centuries from nearly every country all over the world (Le Strange 1977). Some of these
countries where, manufacturing of herbal remedies or phytopharmaceuticals have evolved along
with other traditional health practices and even the products are sold either in-country or
exported, include:- China, India, Germany, Singapore, Chile, USA, Britain, France, Spain,
Japan, Italy, Republic of Korea, Pakistan, Thailand, Mexico, Madagascar, Egypt, Cameroon,
Morocco, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Nigeria, Argentina and others (Anonymous 1997). This
evolution was more vigorous in advancing in humans than in veterinary pharmaceutical industry
(Kofi-Tsekpo and Kioy 1998). However, it is important to note that since pre- historic times, the
traditional folklore did not only have medicine for human treatment, but also animal health
medicine as shown in the above history (Kofi-Tsekpo and Kioy 1998; Schillborn van Veen
(1997). This has been particularly exemplified by the animal health care practices of the
pastoralist communities worldwide, such as, the Maasai, the Turkana, the Pokot, the Boran, the
Rendille, the Somali, the Sebei, the Karamajong of Uganda, the Fulani in West Africa,
Peruviams, the Twareg, the Quechua, the Meau in Thailand, the WoDaaBe, the Andeans, the
Baggara Arabs of Sudan, the Nuer, the Datoga of East Africa and the Hausas in the north belt of
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West Africa (Ayensu 1978; Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle 1989).These livestock raisers, have
used medicines locally prepared from plants and other traditional practices in treating and
preventing diseases found to hamper livestock production in their respective environment
(Bierer 1955), the recognition and subsequent appreciation of people' s traditional healthcare for
animals, is a very recent one in both scientific and academic cycles, only its importance being
made the focus of attention the beginning of mid-1970s and gaining its momentum from early
1980s (McCorkle 1986). Ethnoveterinary knowledge (EVK) continues to be recognized at a
global level as a resource that reflects people's total commitment and experience in life, from
origin through evolutionary stages to current situation. These experiences, stem from people's
cleverness, credulity and above all, perhaps, their insatiable curiosity that over many centuries,
they accumulated the current rich and resourceful traditional knowledge that has been passed on
from generation to generation(Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle 1989; Kokwaro 1993; Backes
1998; Patricia 2001; Mweseli 2004). Ethnoknowledge focusing on ethnoveterinary animal
health care has existed alongside human evolutionary history, taking many different forms. It
comprises all ethnopractices approaches and traditional knowledge applied by humans with a
view to alleviating health constraints afflicting their livestock and hence, improves their
production and performance. This, may take the form of selective breeds and breeding practices,
crowning and recognition of renowned ethnopractitioners, animal feeds and feeding behaviour,
ritualism, herbalism, spiritualism, ethnoepidemiological knowledge on livestock vectors,
pathogens, hosts and diseases and traditional 'institutions' and ecosystems in which this
knowledge exist. Like any other knowledge systems, EVK is very dynamic in its evolution,
management and practice. Because of this dynamism, many ethnopractitioners find themselves
in a situation where they complement EVK with modern veterinary medicine, especially in
cases where EVK is limited and or cannot work (Martin et al 2001; Mathias 2004).
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1.2.3. Advantages of ethnveterinary knowledge Ethnovet practices are important because they are easily available, inexpensive and effective,
especially in rural areas where Veterinary services are absent or irregular and expensive. The
importance of traditional medicine as a source of primary health care was first officially
recognized by the World Health Organisation (WHO) in the primary health Care Declaration of
Alma Ata (1978) and has been globally addressed since 1976 by the Traditional Medicine
Programme of the WHO. At this level, indigenous animal health systems are used for
emergency purposes (Ngehj. Toyang et al, 2007). Ethnoveterinary medicine deals with
people’s knowledge, skills, methods, practices and beliefs about the care of their animals
(McCorkle 1986). According to the World Health Organization, at least 80% of people in
developing countries depend largely on indigenous practices for the control and treatment of
various diseases affecting both human beings and their animals. Ethnoveterinary remedies are
accessible, easy to prepare and administer, at little or no cost at all to the farmer. These age-old
practices cover every area of veterinary specialization and all livestock species. The
ethnoveterinary techniques include treatment and prevention of disease, extensive materia-
medica preparation, ecto- and endo-parasite control, fertility enhancement, bone setting and
poor mothering management (Ngehj. Toyang et al, 2007). Interest in ethnovet practices has
grown recently because these practices are much less prone to drug resistance and have fewer
damaging side-effects on the environment than conventional medicine (Ngeh j. Toyang et al,
2007). Many African cultures have a holistic perception of health and vitality. In a holistic view
all living and non-living beings are connected with each other; nothing exists in isolation. This
is also true for traditional healing practices, which are intertwined with the social, cultural and
religious aspects of the community where they are found. In Africa, traditional healers and
remedies made from plants play an important role in the health of millions of people. The
relative ratios of traditional practitioners and university-trained doctors in relation to the whole
population in African countries are revealing (Darshan Shankar and Bertus Haverkort, 2000).
EVM often provides cheaper options than comparable western drugs, and the products are
locally available and more easily accessible. In the face of these and other factors, there is
increasing interest in the field of ethno veterinary research and development. Most EVM
products are effective to some extent especially those with anthelmintic properties, for example
Eucalyptus grandis was found to be effective against Haemonchus controtus (Bennet-Jenkins
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and Bryant, 1996). Many plants have been implicated for the treatment of diarrhoea. Extension
workers should encourage farmers to utilize bitter leaves in the treatment of diarrhoea, and other
diarrhoea related ailments such as PPR. Interestingly, apart from plants, rural household farmers
also use traditional/indigenous methods to treat some ailments especially those caused by pests.
For instance, mange being the most serious pest is treated with palm oil/salt, dregs of palm oil,
and palm oil amongst others. This finding supports the work of the ( Onwubuya and Chah
1999).
1.2.4. Challenges of ethnoveterinary knowledge The nomads have no any scientific knowledge, so that lack of scientific validation of most
ethnoveterinary therapies is obstacle that faces the traditional healers.
Time consuming and inconveniences involved in their preparations and use and there is only
seasonal availability of certain medicinal plants, also lack of integration with orthodox practices
is another problem. Difficulty in standardizing herbal therapies as the concentration of active
ingredient varies in different parts of the plants (Abubakar Swaleh, 1999)
1.2.5 .Camel rearing system in Somalia Traditional livestock production systems in Somalia involve camels as a source of food,
prestige and security against environmental disasters. Many livestock production planners and
researchers, especially foreign experts, have overlooked the usefulness of camels for the Somali
pastoralists and their importance in the national economy (Ahmed A. Elmi, et al, 1992).
Ownership of camels in the Somali pastoral societies is well documented by Hussein (1984,
1987) and Hjort and Hussein (1986).
In Somalia camels are individually owned and inherited. This individual ownership is not
absolute. While camels are always considered as clan property, the Somali camelmen say "Kin
owners herd camels together but each herder pays particular attention to his own individual
camel". This famous proverb implies both individual and communal ownership of
the animal. Camels are marked with a specific clan brand with a submark which is unique to
individual or family. In time of adversity, when a family loses its animals, the individual owner
has no absolute right to give or refuse to dispose of his camels. The kin or clan members decide
the distribution of animals to the victim from its members. The animals collectively given to the
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victim by kin or clan include lactating, pregnant and immature camels as well as sheep and
goats. Before the donation is undertaken, kinsmen and sometimes friends who share the same
habitat come together and examine the causes of herd loss to establish whether the loss was due
to negligence, or to other causes beyond the owner’s control. If it is proven that the loss was
the owner’s fault, a minimum number of animals is given with strong warning; otherwise, a
substantial herd is given. On the other hand, the individual camel owner has the right to loan his
camels to relatives and friends. Families without enough milk or transport animals are lent
lactating or pack camels by either friends or patrilineal kin. These animals are returned to the
owner without payment when the need has passed. Such decisions are made by the head of the
family, usually by consulting family members. Camel ownership starts at the birth of a child.
The father gives his son a young or newly born female camel and other animals as the base of
his future herd (Xuddun Xidh). The child also receives gifts from his close relatives (elder
brothers, uncles, etc). As he grows, his herd also grows. At marriage, a portion of the family
herd is allocated to him. The allocated herd remains with the family herd. At his father’s death,
the unallocated stock is shared out among heirs. A new cluster of family holdings emerges; but
the animals may continue to be herded together. Camels are herded normally by unmarried
young men and teenagers. Women take care of small ruminants and packcamels. If a labour
shortage exists, young girls assume camel herding, milking and watering. Camels figure in
poems, proverbs and songs, and are used in social rituals. As a Somali traditional system, when
the new a man marriage or create new house without camel they give him camels. They do,
however, pay camels for blood compensation and slaughter them for important religious
gatherings or settling disputes between neighboring clans. Camels are the only animal used to
determine compensation for homicide, a lost eye, teeth, broken bones, and so on, depending on
the circumstance and social status of the victim and the aggressor. Each unit of a man’s body is
priced by a certain number of camels. Clan members collectively pay the compensation either in
kind or in cash equivalence. Usually nomads have prefixed reparation for death or for severe
injuries, depending on whether the action was done deliberately by negligence or by accident.
The clan sheikhs and leaders determine the compensation to be paid to the victim.
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1.2.6. Camel breeding The breeding system is based on successful management of male breeding camels. Considerable
control of breeding males is commonly practiced by all Somalis. The breeding period is spring
(Gu) and fall (Dayr) rainy seasons. Selection of future breeding males starts at birth. Two to
three male calves are selected based on their ancestors’ history; Special care is given to them.
They grow quickly, becoming sexually mature at the age of five years. They may not be used
for carrying loads. As young potential herd sires, they are allowed to breed only a limited
number of females. If the progeny are good, the number of bred is increased to 50 females at
age of 8 or 9. A herd sire’s breeding life can last up to 20 years. A camel female can be bred for
about 22 years. Sometimes, a pack male is used for breeding. During time, however, it is
seldom used for transportation. Due to this dual purpose, the pastoralists believe that the
breeding life of pack males is short (17 years), Gauthier- Pilters and Dagg (1981). Pregnancy
female camel can be detected by the herders within 10 days after mating. The watch for the
female’s pregnancy symptoms, such as coiling the tail backward to the hump, frequent
urination, the head lifted up with ears pointed straight, and long neck curved back to
Shoulder when a male camel or a man approaches. However due to their professional
experience, the herders can correctly judge whether the camel is pregnant within a short period
after breeding. The rutting male also detects the pregnancy after a week. Another hand, the role
of a mature male is to transport water, nomadic house and utensils, very young children, weak
or sick persons, lambs and kids, in the process of nomadic movement. The gestation period of
camels is about 12 month (Abokor, 1987).
1.2.7. Composition of camel diet in Somalia: The composition of camel diets was studied in Ceeldheer District, central Somalia in
1986/1987. Percentage of each individual plant species and its proportion in camel diets was
calculated from actual bite counts. Nine forage classes were identified based on species physical
and lifeform characteristics. Milking and non-milking camel diets were determined in both dry
and wet seasons. Both camels consumed almost the same kinds of plants in any given seasons.
Camels consumed a wide variety of available forage but not in the same proportion as
availability. Even though milking camels seemed more selective than dry camels, the animals
were extremely flexible and opportunistic in diet selection and foraging behavior (Ahmed A.
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Elmi, et al, 1992). Camels have a reputation for adaptability to harsh arid and semi-arid
rangelands. This adaptability may be due to in part to unique dietary selection. Other factors
include drought resistance, spreading behavior when foraging and travelling long distances
between one foraging area and other (Ahmed A. Elmi, et al, 1992). Camels may repeatedly
brows some plant species season after season and may eventually kill them (McKnight, 1969;
Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981). In Ceeldheer district, camels browsed certain evergreen
shrubs and trees such as Cadaba longifolia, and Balanites rotundifolia. Camels utilize a diversity
of vegetations in various ecosystems (Coughenour et al., 1985). Trees and shrubs are converted
into milk more efficiently by camels than any other domestic livestock. When browse species
shed their leaves and cease growth of new twigs in the dry seasons or drought periods, camels
eat grasses and other herbaceous species in eastern Africa (Field, 1978) and northwest Africa
(Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981). Camel browse forage species not within reach other
domestic livestock. They can browse trees up to 3 or 5 meters high (Richards, 1979; Gauthier-
Pilters and Dagg, 1981). Due to their long neck, adaptive features of their mouth include slit
upper lip, small tongue, had upper gum, obliquely protruding lower teeth. Camels browse
thorny shrubs, trees, young twigs hidden inside hedged bushes, nibble leaves from spiny stems
(El’-Amin, 1979; Gauthier-Pilters and Dagg, 1981; Wilson, 1984).
1.2.8. Selection of foraging areas The total annual rainfall, its spatial and temporal distribution, the effective rains after dry
seasons and their variation, tick infestation and outbreak of flies are all important factors
pastoralists considers when management decisions are made about camel foraging areas. Range
land is communal except for small holdings individually owned for farming (Behnke, 1988).A
knowledge of plant species commonly selected by foraging camles at different times of the year
is also fundamental to effective grazing and browsing management (A.A. Elmi, 1989).
1.2.9 Definition of the camel mange Camel mange is a widespread and highly contagious skin disease which causes severe itchiness,
poor growth, low milking production, even death. It is one of the important and most common
diseases in camels, especially in the temperate regions with cold winters or areas with long wet
seasons. Camel mange is caused by mites (sarcoptes scabiei var cameli), which prefers areas of
the body that have little hair (Mundy and Mathias, 1997). Numerous species of mites cause
11
mange in literally hundreds of species of wild and domestic birds and mammals. In fact,
approximately 60 mite families have members that live in or on the skin, hair, or feathers of
homoeothermic vertebrates and are potential mange mites. Specifically, on domestic hosts (i.e.
livestock, poultry, companion and laboratory animals), about 50 mite species in 16 families and
26 genera may cause mange. Humans are host to the readily transmitted S. scabiei, and human
scabies occurs most frequently in elderly nursing homes and children’s day-care centers. Some
other mange mites may cause transient disease in humans, but infestations seldom persist
(BORNSTEIN S. et al, 2001). Mites (Acari) are an extremely diverse, abundant, and ubiquitous
group of arachnid arthropods with about 50,000 described species. Higher-level acarine
classification is still an unsettled construct, but the following is a consensus system
encompassing the mange mites. Acari comprises three major evolutionary lineages,
Opilioacariformes, Parasitiformes, and Acariformes, but only certain acariform mites cause
mange in domestic animals. Two lineages within the Acariformes contain mange mites
Trombidiiformes and Sarcoptiformes. Trombidiiformes comprises the order Prostigmata and
contains many families, five with mange mites.
1.2.10 Mange history in Somalia Before 1960 mange was reported to be widespread in sheep and goats to be fairly common in
camels, and there was apparently little or no change through the 1860’s. Mares (1954)
suggested, on clinical grounds only, that psoroptic mange had been seen in Somali sheep.
Between 1969 and 1972 the overall impression was that sarcoptic mange was common and
widespread in goats. It also occurred in sheep, showing as scabs on the withers and back, but
although this condition, usually called “Ambarr,” was found in many different parts of the north
it was not as common as mange in goats (A report of the British Veterinary Team, 1969-1972).
Sarcoptic mites were found in skin scrapings taken from sheep and goats at Hargeisa, Edanka,
Kalabaid, Rebit, Gebile, Dilla, Gedblud, and Zeila (A report of the British Veterinary Team,
1969-1972). A condition in camels, widely distributed but not particularly common, was
thought to be due to sarcoptic mange, although the very few skin scrapings submitted to the
laboratory showed no mites. these camels showed large areas of thickened skin with little scab
formation, usually inside the thighs, upper legs, or on the belly (A report of the British
Veterinary Team, 1969-1972).
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1.2.11 Etiology of camel mange Camel mange has only one causal agent, a mite of the family sarcoptidae, sarcoptes scabiei var
cameli (Sacoptidae).Although, there are Psoroptic (Psoroptidae, Psorotes sp.), Chorioptic
(Psoroptidae, Chorioptes sp.) and Dermodectic mange (Demodicidae, Demodex sp.) with little
incidence in dromedaries. The sarcoptic Scabiei mite is practically confined to the genus
camelus; human beings are infected occasionally. The life cycle of the mite lasts for 4-5 weeks.
Fertilized females dig burrows into the epidermis, causing inflammation and intense pruritus.
Mange is an ectoparasitosis which is described in all the publications concerning diseases of
camels. It is widespread and, according to Curasson, the commonest disease of camel. Direct
transmission takes place by contact between animals, when larvae, nymphs or adults are
transferred from an infected camel to a healthy one. Infestation can also be contracted indirectly
from objects which have come into contact with an affected camel, such as harnesses, tents and
tree trunks, and may also be acquired through contact with soil. The parasite survives off the
host for a maximum 2 weeks. However, current conditions under which camels are kept and
utilized have reduced the importance of this skin disease (D. Richard, 1987). Sarcoptids mites
are all obligate, burrowing skin parasites of mammals, with over 100 described species.
Survival time under moderate conditions for mites off the host is limited to about 10 days or
less. Because of their activities in the epidermal layers of the skin, mange caused by these mites
is generally more severe than that caused by mites dwelling above the surface of the skin. The
body outline of sarcoptids is generally rounded, dorsoventrally flattened, and the cuticle is
striated. The pulps are one-segmented, and the legs are usually short. This disease is common in
camels and is recognized by many to be second to trypanosomiasis in importance. The infected
animal characterized by, skin becomes wrinkled and crusty (hyperkeratosis), loses condition
and weight (Guuleed et al, 1987/88).
13
1.2.12 Clinical signs of camel mange
Clinical signs of camel mange were documented well by (Mundy and Mathias, 1997).
Mange usually starts in the armpits and going, and spreads from there to the rest of the body
include the head, base of the neck, mammary gland, prepuce and flank.
One of the first sings is that the animal rubs and scratches the affected areas with its teeth or
against trees, so spreading the disease to new areas.
In the early stages, the skin is covered with small bumps. Hairless patches develop, and skin
becomes rough from scratching, and begins to weep.
Scabs develop, and in serious cases, the skin becomes grey, thickens, becomes also wrinkled
and cracked, like dried mud.
The camel spends its time scratching itself rather than eating and resting. It loses weight and
becomes weak and anemic.
If the disease is not treated, secondary bacterial infections can develop and may become more
susceptible to trypanosomiasis and other diseases, such as pneumonia.
Many camels in the herd may be affected at the same time.
1.2.13 Medicinal plants used for the camel mange and its applications Camel mange (locally known as Cadho geel) many of the local remedies for camel mange in
Somalia were based on the milky saps of the Eurphorbia species such as Dharkeyn ( Euphorbia
robechii), Falanfalho (Euphorbia somalensis) or Cinjir (Euphorbia gossypina). For mange in
camels the sap was used undiluted and was usually applied after the affected areas had been
abraided with a stone until the skin bleed. The camels were cast and tied for this procedure. For
sheep and goats the skin was considered to be more fragile than that of camels and the sap
diluted by varying degrees depending on the plant used if Dharkeyn was used the dilution may
be as high as 1:1000. Other remedies for mange included: boiling the seeds of Kiriiri (solanum
somalense, solanum coagulans) with camel urine and black sap of Qurac ( Acacia tortilis). The
hot mixture was applied to the camel skin. The roots of the plant gogobood(Iphonia
14
rotundifolia) were crushed and mixed with water. The solution was applied to the skin which
had been abraided with a stone. The gum found in the large caves in the northern mountain of
Sanaag region was called habag god. The gum was rubbed the lesions of mange (cadho) after
abraiding the skin with a stone. Saturated salt solution was also used to treat mange. For
example the well at Bohol in El-Afwayne district was reknowned for its salty water and herders
would travel there to treat their camels for mange. The wood of the tree Garas(Dobera glabra)
was burnt and the ash applied to the camel skin, Ahmed A.M & Andy Catley (1996). Tie the
animal down so you can reach all parts of its body. Shear the animal, for example by rubbing
ash from acacia mellifera on the skin and pulling the hair out. Then using a stiff brush, a piece
of coarse sacking or bleeds. And then apply the camels to roll salt pans, or plaster them with
salty mud. People can catch mange from camels though this is rare. It often affects the palms of
the hands and between the fingers. (Bizimana, 1994).
Study justification
Since 1991, when central somali government collapsed, there was no effective and sufficient
livestock services as well as well oganized institutions or organizations aiming towards animal
production and healthcare. However, pastrolist community of Nugal region were practicing uses
of traditional remedies to treat their camels . Therefore, this study aims to investigate the uses
of herbal medicines for camel mange in Garowe district.
15
Chapter two: Objectives
2.1 General Objectives 1) The aim of this study is to investigate the ethnoveterinary knowledge practiced by camel
pastoralists and the medicinal plants used by them to treat camel mange in Garowe district.
2.2 Specific objectives 1) To identify the existing traditional medicinal plants used to treat camel mange by camel
herders in the study area, and to relate with their botanic names.
2) To find out the techniques and methods used to prepare the medicinal plant parts and
their application/administration mode by the camel herders.
16
CHAPTER THREE: Materials and Methods 3.1 Study Area Garowe district is located in Nugal region in between two valleys namely garowe valley at
north and Lan ali firin valley at south. Garowe is the seat of the regional parliament, the
presidential palace and government ministries of Puntland state of Somalia. Garowe is the third
largest city in Puntland after Bosaso and Galkacyo. Garowe district has many different
historical and prominent places, including; Puntland State University (PSU), Garowe Teacher’s
Education College (GTEC), East Africa University (EAU), secondary schools such as Ganbool,
Imamu-nawawi, Nugal and Alwaha secondary school and many primary schools.
Garowe has one general hospital, and numerous operational small health clinics. In 2010, a
local non- profit organizations also established the region’s first mental health centre. Also the
city has an International Airport a well established foot ball Stadium called Mire Aware
Stadium.
The total population of Garowe district is around 57,300 as reported in the last registration
(2009). The climate of Garowe is arid (Muchiri, 2007). Orographic and coastal influences are
significant and cause a high degree of rainfall variability (Barry and Richard, 1992). The
highest amount received in Garowe town averages 51mm and occurs in May. Mean annual
rainfall is estimated at 10.8mm. The highest temperature in Garowe is between 32oC (60
oF) to
33.3oC (57.6
oF) and the lowest temperature is between 21
oC (37.8
oF) to 23.5
oC (42.3
oF).
Garowe is at the elevation of 250m above sea level (Ombretta et al., 2008).
This area, also known as the “Old Airport” is the most developed part of the town. On the edge
of this area, there are two IDP settlements. Lan Alifirin is a seasonal stream and Togga-Garowe,
the larger valley receives more water especially after occasional rains in the upstream areas and
that stream water never stopped during dry seasons until harsh droughts. Garowe town is linked
socio-economically to the urban and rural areas within Somalia. There are also significant links
with the Diaspora. The town serves as a market for local quality livestock and livestock
products as well as a transit point for export quality livestock. The town is the source of goods
that are retailed in the village markets in the rural areas. Garowe town provides a key source of
income (casual labour opportunities) for IDPs, urban poor and surrounding pastoral
communities (Hawd, Nugal, Addun, Sool Plateau) in times of crises. The town is also a market
for local cereals (maize, sorghum), fruits and vegetables from southern Somalia. Figure one
17
shows the study area. Garowe has one drilling water borehole which supplies the whole town,
although there are special owned small boreholes in the villages, but they are not so important.
Figure 3.1: Map of the study area
3.2 Study design Out of Seventeen villages of the district, ten villages namely (Kalabaydh, Dudumaale, Dacare,
Birta-dheer, Awr-culus, Reebanti, Jalam, Yoonbays, Rabaable, and Sinujiif) were purposively
selected on the basis of the camel population and accessibility.
3.3. Focus Groups At each village, 11 camel herders were selected as focus group to discuss and determine the
common medical plants used for camel mange treatment as figure 3.2 shows.
Figure 3.2: The enumerator facilitating a group discussion in a village
18
3.4 Field demonstration: The highest renowned traditional healers were asked to demonstrate some of the plants they use
to treat camel mange and the techniques they use to prepare the plant parts as shown by figure
3.3.
19
Figure3.3: A traditional healer demonstrating a medical plant called (Dacar) and explaining,
it’s importance and how to use it.
Chapter four: Result and Discussion
4.1.0 Result
4.1.1 The knowledge of pastoralists towards camel mange and how they recognize it
All pastoralists who were met know the clinical sings of camel mange and they are very familiar
with the diseases and how they distinguish from other diseases. As they told me the clinical
sings of camel mange that pastoralists recognizes either the camel has got mange or not include;
20
nodules come out and scattered from all the skin, scratching with trees and its teeth, hair loss,
skin cracking, skin bleeding, weight loss, milk reduction of lactated ones, abortion, hardness of
the skin, reducing of the grazing time and sometimes death. The way that they ensure the camel
mange is to palpate skin of animal and observe its behavior.
4.1.2 Usage of traditional plants and modern drugs in different villages of Garowe district
From the focus group discussion also came out that the majority of the respondents use
specifically the traditional medical plants while others use traditional plants with modern drugs
as shown by table two. None of the respondent informed the use of only modern drugs to treat
camel mange in the study area.
Table 4.1: Options for mange treatment of the camel herders
Villages No of respondents used traditional
treatment
No of respondent both traditional
and modern treatment
Kalabaydh 9 2
Birta-dheer 8 3
Dudumaale 5 6
Rabaable 11 0
Reebanti 11 0
Sinujiif 9 2
Tuulo-Jalam 3 8
Yoonbays 11 0
Dacare 6 5
Awr-culus 8 3
Total & %
81(73.6%) 29 (26.3%)
21
4.1.3 Traditional plants used for the treatment of camel mange in Garowe district
According to traditional healers and camel owner’s experience, there are many plants used to
treat camel mange in the area namely, Gogobood, Dacar, Dharkayn, Cinjir, Garas, Qurac, and
Wamme as shown by table 4.
Table 4.2: Shows the most important plants according to the number of respondents from each
village.
Number of respondents from each Villages
Medical
plants
Kala
bayd
h
Du
du
male
Aw
r-c
ulu
s
Bir
taD
heer
Ra
rba
ab
le
Reeb
an
ti
Jala
m
Da
care
Yoo
nb
ay
s
Sin
uji
if
Tota
l
Percen
tag
e
Gogobood 4 6 8 2 1 5 3 3 2 1 35 38.47%
Dacar 2 1 3 0 2 1 4 0 3 2 18 19.79%
Dharkayn 0 0 0 3 1 2 2 1 3 0 12 13.18%
Garas 1 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 3 1 8 8.79%
Wamme 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 3 3.29%
Cinjir 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 6 6.59%
Qurac 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 3 9 9.89%
Total 91 100%
22
Pictures of some the medicinal plants used for the treatment of camel mange are shown in
fig. 4.4.
Figure 4.4: Some plants used to treat camel mange in Growe district and their local names
Gogobood Qurac Dacar
The traditional healers use several different parts of medicinal plants in the area. Table 5 show
the plant and the parts used for the treatment of mange.
Table 4.3: Traditional medicinal plant parts used for camel mange, their local and botanic
names
Local names Botanic names Parts of plant used
Gogobood Iphonia rotundifolia Roots
Qurac Acacia tortilis Branches
Dacar Aloe somelensis Leaves
Garas Dobera glabra Branches
Wamme Moringa ocalifolia Roots
Dharkayn Euphorbia robechii Milk sap
Cinjir Euphorbia gossypina Milk sap
23
4.1.5 Preparation techniques and/or methods used, and their administration
procedures by table 4.4. Table 4.4:
Medicinal
plants
Parts used and Preparation techniques Route of administration
Gogobood The roots of Gogobood are digging from the
soil and crushed by a pestle and mortar, then
mixed with water soaked for at least 12huors.
Topical with hand dressing
Qurac The branches of Qurac, are burned when it
becomes ash is mixed with water.
Topical with hand dressing
Dacar The leaves of Dacar called ears (dhagoh) are
prepared in three methods; 1-smoking of
Dacar, then warm leaves are applied to the
animal. 2. Dacar leaves sliced boiled with
water then applied to the animal (warm). 3-
bringing the camel to the area where the
Dacar is more and breaking the leaves then
applied directly to the camel without adding
any other solution, this system is called dheg-
jebis(ear breaking)
Topical with hand dressing
Garas and
Cinjir
The branches of Garas are burned after that
the ash is mixed with milk sap from Cinjir
tree.
Topical with hand dressing
Wamme The soft root of wamme is crushed and mixed
with water, soaked at least 24hours.
Topical with hand dressing
Dharkayn The milk sap of Dharkayn, is applied on the
skin after animal being scratched with stone
until the blood oozes.
Topical with hand dressing
The traditional healers also believe that the Nugal valley sand has anti mange properties. They
stated that after when the camels with mange rolled on the sand of Nugal valley will recover.
24
4.2 Discussion This study shows that camel pastoralists in Garowe district use and mostly practices traditional
treatment as shown by table two. In fact, 81.33% of camel herders use medical plants to treat
and control ecto-parasite infestations while 18.66% uses both modern veterinary drugs and
traditional remedies. This is because; mostly camels are kept in remote and not accessible rural
areas, where the availability of veterinary services and drugs is very limited. For these reasons
they have chosen to use the traditional medical plants as the main treatment for camel mange.
In addition to that, this study also highlighted that the use of medical plants for camel mange
treatment is a common practices in Garowe district, while modern drugs are not mostly used
due to their less access and expensiveness.
The 7 therapeutic traditional plants identified by traditional healers to be used for camel mange
treatment and of ecto-parasites infestation were also related to their botanical names from
different literature. In the current study, Gogobood was found to be the most widely used plant
in case of camel mange and to be effective than any other plant, this study is consistent with
study of M.O. Liban (2011), Davis et al, (1995) and Bachaya et al, (2008), flowed by Dacar.
In Garowe district, the camel pastoralists emphasized during the study that the use and
traditional practices of this plant (Gogobood) was adapted since long time.
The community expressed during the period of this research that they rely much on this plant
due to its wide spectrum and anti-mange mite properties that was proven by experience. When
Gogobood and Dacar are applied to camel with mange, clinically the animal condition improves
and recovers from the disease, gaining weight and milk production as well as increases of the
growth rate of young animals. Also hair and skin becomes soft after recovery from mange, as
they mentioned. Although there is no evidence on their effectiveness and scientifically not
proven traditional medical plants are widely used and the confidence of camel herders on this
plants are very high in this regard.
Nevertheless, traditional medicinal plants are not with no harm to pastoralists or they are not
only beneficial. As camel herders described, the parts of some medical plant has some
challenges. Eg; Dharkayn (Euphorbia robechii), milk sap is very dangerous if it gets in contact
with the users’ skin, eyes, or mucus membranes and it can cause the blindness and skin burned,
25
Gogobood (Iphonia rotundifolia) also damages the skin of the human. In addition to that the
preparation of these plants is very hard and needs a lot of effort as they mentioned.
26
CHAPTERE FIVE CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion This study has shown that there is potential ethnoveterinary knowledge that has not been
previously unearthed and there is a high risk that this knowledge can disappear in the near
future if not fully documented. Somali pastoralists have their own confidently used traditional
remedies for camel mange and other infectious diseases of animal and human. Ethno Veterinary
Medicine (EVM) is the name given to the way in which most livestock keepers use to treat
animal health problems in traditional way. EVM is performed by traditional livestock healers.
Many herders and farmers treat their animals themselves, especially if the disease is well
known. Over centuries people have developed their own ways of keeping animal’s healthy and
productive used age-old home remedies, surgical and manipulative techniques, husbandry
strategies and associated magico-religious practices. Ethnovet practices are important because
they are easily available, inexpensive and effective, especially in rural areas where veterinary
services are not available or irregular and expensive. Camel mange is caused by mites
(sarcoptes scabiei var cameli), which prefers areas of the body that have little hair. After asked
prepared questionnaire to the camel owners and traditional healers, the researcher found certain
useful medical plants used to camel mange, also ways of preparation, route of
administration/application as well as their local names. The most interviewed community
members were able to identify the common health problems that affect their camels.
27
5.2 Recommendation This study revealed and documented some of the traditional medicinal plants and their uses in
Garowe district. But due to the current ecological, climatologically and socio-economic changes
as well as lack of proper veterinary services and lack of institutions keeping and conserving the
traditional heritage of and know how in Somali ecosystem the following points are
recommended:
1) As a consequence of recurrent droughts and rapid deforestation, Somalia is losing much
of its plant genetic resources. Therefore, a national campaign is urgently required to
identify, collect and document important traditional medicinal plants in all over Somali
ecosystem.
2) Traditional healers association should be formed to save and conserve and improve this
valuable information.
3) Traditional healers should be given some incentive, such as being appointed as
veterinary scouts. Such an initiative would also expose traditional practitioners to
training in modern veterinary medicine, and would narrow the differences and reduce
the bias between the two approaches, leading to better integration.
4) There is straight way need for research to be done to establish and develop scientific
study to separate, test the pharmacological properties, and validate the safety, quality,
dosage of the active ingredients present in plant parts used.
28
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33
Annex one
Field questionnaire of ethnoveterinary medicine in Garowe district
Name of farmer/keeper/ camel owner-------------------------------------------------------
Name of village -------------------------------------------------------------------- Date: --------
--
District ----------------------------------------------------------
1. Do you ever see or head mange? Yes No
2. Is it affected your camel herd? Yes No
3. If yes, how many times? One time two times or more
4. How do you recognize the mange? ----------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------
5. What are the most areas those the camel mange is affect?
Inguinal area
Ambits
Lateral sides
Mouth
Ventral area
Dorsal area
Forelimbs
Hind limbs
Neck
All
34
6. Is the camel mange affected all ages?
All ages
Certain age
7. Is it seasonality dependence?
If yes, which season? Winter spring summer fall
8. If the camel mange affected in your herd, what traditional treatments do you use?
a. ----------------------------------------------
b. ---------------------------------------------
c. ---------------------------------------------
d. ---------------------------------------------
e. ---------------------------------------------
f. ----------------------------------------------
9. Which part of the plants do you use?
Leaves
Roots
Stem
Branches
10. Preparation method--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------
35
11. Application method---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----
12. Besides the traditional veterinary medicine (TVM), do you use modern veterinary medicine?
Yes No
If yes, when do you prefer to use modern veterinary practices?
When TVM does not show improvement
When TVM is not known
Others specified
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using TVM over that MVM?
Advantages Disadvantages
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
14. Do you have traditional healers?
Yes
No
15. How do they treat to your animal?
a) ---------------------------------
36
b) ---------------------------------
c) ---------------------------------
d) ---------------------------------
e) ---------------------------------
16. What are the side effects or negative impacts that you study of uses of ethnoveterinary
treatment?
List:
a) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
d) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
e) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17. How could you know the side effects of traditional treatments (clinical signs)? ----------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
18. If you really study the side effect of one or more medicinal plants of camel mange, is there
any other things anti-dote?-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
37
Annex two
Acacia tortilis tree Extracting of Euphorbia roduntifolia
Taken questionnaire from camel Euphorbia roduntifolia
hrders
Aloe somelensis camel grazing
38
39
Annex three
Scientific classification of some plants
Local
names of
plants
Kingdom Phylum Class order Family Genus Species Type of
plant
Cinjir Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Euphorbiales Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia Euphorbia
gossypina
Tree
Dacar Plantae N/A Angiosperms Asparagales Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe Aloe
somelensis
Unpalatable
succulent
plant
Qurac Plantae N/A Rosids Fabales Fabaceae Acacia Acaciatortilis Tree
Gogobood Plantae N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Iphonia
rotundifolia
Shrub
Wamme Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Brassicales Moringaceae N/A Moringa
ocalifolia
Unpalatable
succulent
plant
Gara Plantae N/A Aniosperms Brassicales Salvadoraceae Dobera D.glabra Tree
Dharkayn Plantae N/A Magnoliopsida Euphorbiales Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia Euphorbia
robechii
Vascular
tree
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