Late Pleistocene Human Friction Skin Prints from Pendejo Cave, New Mexico.pdf

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Late Pleistocene Human Friction Skin Prints from Pendejo Cave, New MexicoAuthor(s): Donald Chrisman, Richard S. MacNeish, Jamshed Mavalwala and Howard SavageReviewed work(s):Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 61, No. 2 (Apr., 1996), pp. 357-376Published by: Society for American ArchaeologyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/282431 .Accessed: 14/09/2012 21:40

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LATE PLEISTOCENE HUMAN FRICTION SKIN PRINTS FROM PENDEJO CAVE, NEW MEXICO

Donald Chrisman, Richard S. MacNeish, Jamshed Mavalwala, and Howard Savage

In the excavation of Pendejo Cave (FB 9366) near Orogrande, New Mexico, 16 friction skin imprints were found in five stratified zones on clay nodules, baked at over 120?C. After careful analysis, expert dermatoglyphologists determined that these imprints had positive primate characteristics. The imprints are probably of human origin, since no other primates are known to have existed in prehistoric New Mexico. Eight of the imprints occurred in three well-dated zones falling in the late Pleistocene. These zones have direct radiocarbon dates between 12,000 and 37,000 B. P. In addition to their association with radiocarbon determinations, the prints come from three of 24 stratified zones, intensively studied by geologists and pedolo- gists, that are dated in sequence by 34 other radiocarbon determinations acquired from four different laboratories. The imprints are associated with a column of over 35,000 paleontological specimens and more than 15,000 botanical remains. These specimens indicate Pleistocene changes and supply evidence of human transportation and modification of various materials. The prints are also associated with artifacts, ecofacts, features of human construction, and human remains. The imprint specimens therefore provide evidence of Pleistocene human occupation in the New World.

En la excavaci6n de la Cueva Pendejo (FB 9366) cerca de Orogrande, Nuevo Mexico, se encontraron 16 huellas defricci6n de piel en nodulos de arcilla cocidos a mtas de 120?C, en cinco zonas estratificadas. Un analisis detallado realizado por der- matoglif6logos determin6 que estas huellas tienen caracteristicas de primates. En otras palabras, estas huellas probable- mente son de origen humano, debido a que no existieron otros primates en Nuevo Mexico prehist6rico. Ocho de las huellas ocurrieron en tres zonas que datan del Pleistoceno tardio. Estas zonas tienen fechados radiocarbonicos entre 12.000 y 37.000 a.P. Adema~s de su asociaci6n con fechados radiocarb6nicos, las huellas se originan en tres de las 24 zonas estrati- ficadasfechadas en secuencia por otras 34 determinaciones radiocarbonicas y obtenidas de cuatro laboratorios diferentes. Las huellas esta~n asociadas con una columna paleontol6gica, estudiada en detalle por geologos y ped6logos, de mtas de 35.000 especimenes y mtas de 15.000 restos bota~nicos, los cuales indican cambios en el Pleistoceno y proveen evidencia de transporte humano y/o modificaci6n de varios materiales. Las huellas esta~n asociadas con artefactos, ecofactos, rasgos de construccion humana, y restos humanos. Estas huellas, por lo tanto, son evidencia de occupaci6n humana del Pleistoceno en el Nuevo Mundo.

F _ riction skin imprints were found in Pendejo 3. The find must have botanical remains that

Cave in several stratigraphic zones geolog- include evidence of human workmanship and also ically predating the Clovis period. Are these indicate similar antiquity.

evidence of ancient human occupation of the 4. There must be associated cultural materials. cave? A number of years ago Griffin (1979) listed 5. The major evidence or find must be a human six criteria that would serve as acceptable evi- skeleton or equivalent thereof, for example, a dence that an archaeological site represented pre- human handprint or soleprint, human hair, or Clovis occupation or occupations. These criteria human feces. can be summarized as follows: 6. All the above evidence must be well dated

1. The site or find must have geological and by an adequate sample of radiocarbon determina- stratigraphic integrity. tions as well as other chronometric techniques.

2. The find must be associated with paleonto- Because the friction skin imprints were located logical remains showing human association as in clearly identified geological strata and in asso- well as pre-Clovis antiquity. ciation with extensive faunal, floral, and cultural

Donald Chrisman and Richard S. MacNeish * Andover Foundation for Archaeological Research, Box 83, Andover, MA 01810 Jamshed Mavalwala and Howard Savage m Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S I Al

American Antiquity, 61(2), 1996, pp. 357-376. Copyright ? by the Society for American Archaeology

357

358 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 61, No. 2, 1996]

Table 1. Radiocarbon Age Determinations and Associated Data from Pendejo Cave, New Mexico.

Lab No. Zone (Unit) Material Feature 14C age B.P. 613C 00 Comments UCR-2625 A (E1 S2) wood 350 ? 70 -20.4 packrat midden wood and twigs UCR-2506 B (WINO) burned wood 1150 ? 100 -24.1 single large piece UCR-2642 C (W2S1) fiber 1780 ? 50 -20.3 sandal fragment; upper portion of Zone C UCR -2643 C (W3NI) fiber Fl, ST3 5480 ? 60 -20.8 sandal fragment; lower portion of Zone C UCR-2505a C (EINO) charcoal 16,410 ? 260 -20.9 large pieces of charcoal UCR-2602 Cl (EIS2) wood 11,300 ? 110 -24.7 wood fragments UCR-2641 Cl (WIS3) wood near F21 11,900 ? 150 -23.8 wood fragments UCR-2603 C2 (EIS2) wood 12,970 ? 170b -22.9 wood fragments UCR-3276A/ C2 (WIS3) hair near F14 12,370 ? 80b -16.2 hair (H20 pretreated) CAMS- 12366 UCR-3276B/ C2 (WIS3) hair near F14 12,240 ? 70b -17.1 hair (total amino acids) CAMS- 12367 UCR-2504 D (EINO) charcoal 16,440 ? 650 -19.9 large pieces of charcoal BETA-44292 DI (EIS2) charcoal F15 17,380 ? 150 n.d. large pieces of charcoal UCR-2689 E (WIS3) charcoal 17,550 ? 190 -22.6 small pieces of charcoal UCR-2689/ E (WIS3) charcoal 17,260 ? 70 duplicate AMS measurement CAMS- 12348 UCR-2690 E (WIS3) charcoal 17,760 ? 375 -22.3 small pieces of charcoal UCR-2690/ E (WI S3) charcoal 18,100 ? 80 duplicate AMS measurement CAMS- 12347 UCR-2644a El (WIS2) charcoal 14,200 ? 230 -22.7 flecks of charcoal UCR-2604 El (E2S2) charcoal 19,180 ? 290 -21.2 flecks of charcoal BETA-44293 F (E I S2) charcoal 19,360 ? 230 n.d. small flecks of charcoal UCR-2605A F/Fl (E2S2) charcoal 21,000 ? 350 -22.3 large pieces of charcoal UCR-2605B F/Fl (E2S2) charcoal 24,950 ? 1050 -22.3 base soluble fraction of UCR-2605A UCR-2501a F/Fl (EISI) wood 28,430 ? 960 -20.1 large pieces of charred wood UCR-2606 G (Wl S2) charcoal 26,000 ? 4600 -22.6 small pieces of charcoal BETA-44294 G (E1S2) charcoal 27,090 ? 1040 n.d. small pieces of charcoal UCR-2607a G (EOS2) charcoal 31,850 ? 1260 -22.0 small pieces of charcoal BETA-44690 H (El S2) charcoal/wood 27,860 ? 260 n.d. charcoal and wood pieces UCR-2629A H (ElS2) plant material F19 28,500 ? 1500 -23.1 juniper stems UCR-2629B H (E2SI) plant material F19 30,200 ? 1100 -24.4 base soluble fraction of UCR-2629A QL-4526 H (EINO) charcoal near F9 30,200 ? 130 -21.6 large pieces of charcoal UCR-2502 H (ElNO) charcoal near F9 >32,830 -20.8 duplicate of QL-4526 UCR-2608 H (E2S2) wood F19 30,350 ? 560 -19.4 semi-burned wood UCR-2503 H (EON 1) charcoal >31,600 -21.1 large pieces of charcoal UCR-2628 H (E2S2) wood F19 >32,100 -22.4 pieces of wood and twigs UCR-2588 H (E2S I) charcoal F9 33,830 ? 950 -20.6 large pieces of charcoal UCR-2592a I (WlSI) charcoal 27,960 ? 970b 22.1 small pieces of charcoal UCR-2645 I (WI S2, charcoal 32,000 ? 1200b -21.9 small pieces of charcoal

WISI, EOS2) BETA-44296 I (WIS2) charcoal 35,960 ? 790b n.d. charcoal fragments UCR-2646a J (EIS2) charcoal F17 26,400 ? 600 -23.4 charcoal fragments UCR-2590a J (WISI) charcoal 27,860 ? 700 -20.2 charcoal fragments UCR-2498 J (WINO) charcoal >32,500 -20.8 charcoal fragments BETA-43791 J (E2S I) charcoal >37,000 n.d. small pieces of charcoal UCR-2591A K (E2SI) wood >28,500b -19.2 small pieces of wood UCR-2591 B K (E2S I) wood >36,400b -19.2 base soluble fraction of UCR-2591 A UCR-2647 K (E2S2) charcoal/wood >35,900b -21.7 small pieces of charcoal and wood UCR-2648 K (E I S2) charcoal >35,600b -21.4 large pieces of charcoal BETA-43721 K (E2S I) charcoal >36,920b n.d. small pieces of charcoal UCR-2499Aa L (EINO) charcoal near F4 25,420 ? 560 -21.2 small pieces of charcoal UCR-2627Aa L (E2S I) organic carbon 31,400 ? 2300 -23.3 carbonized Neotoma feces UCR-2627Ba L (E2SI) organic carbon 37,900 ? 2700 -23.2 base soluble fraction of UCR-2627B

REPORTS 359

Table 1. Continued

Lab No. Zone (Unit) Material Feature 14C age B.P. 6'3C %o Comments BETA-43720 L (E2S1) charcoal >38,100 n.d. small pieces of charcoal UCR-2495 M/MI (W1N2) charcoal F8 >29,200 -21.2 small pieces of charcoal UCR-2589 M/MI (W2N2) charcoal F8 >31,500 -21.3 charcoal fragments BETA-43718 M/Ml (W2N2) charcoal F8 >35,560 n.d. charcoal fragments QL-4626 M/Ml (E2S2) charcoal/wood F25 >51,000 -21.7 charcoal and wood fragments UCLA-2856a N (WISI) wood 30,210 ? 1080 n.a. large pieces of wood BETA-43722 N (E2S1) wood >36,240 ? 950 n.d. large pieces of wood QL-4625 N (EOS2) wood near F5 >55,000 -20.7 large pieces of wood Notes. BETA=Beta Analytic, Miami; QL=Quaternary Research Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle; UCLA=University of California, Los Angeles; UCR=University of California, Riverside; CAMS=Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; n.d. = no date; n.a. = not analyzed. 613 values for UCR 14C values analyzed by D. Winter, Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, University of California, Los Angeles. aRadiocarbon values appear to be stratigraphically anomalous. bDate based on material associated with friction skin imprints.

remains, we have examined them in detail, using The cave is situated in the south face of the lime- Griffin's criteria as a model. stone cliffs forming the south branch of Rough

After brief comments on the excavation of the Canyon, which cuts through the scarp of Otero cave, this article presents chronological evidence Mesa and drains into an eastern arm of Tularosa that indicates that eight friction skin imprints Basin. At an elevation of 1,490 m, the cave is found on fired clay probably belonged to the pre- located about 100 m above the arroyo in a twist Clovis period. The geological and pedological or fault in an 18-m-high cliff of the Yeso data from 18 superimposed pre-Clovis strata are Formation formed in Permian times (Gile et al. described, showing 41 acceptable radiocarbon 1981). The cave itself faces north and is about 13 determinations out of 50 (Table 1). These data are m deep north-south, with a maximum east-west followed by contextual evidence from the three width of 6 m and a maximum height of 8 m. At zones where the eight imprints were found. The the beginning of excavation in 1990, two to three floral and faunal remains provide evidence of the meters of refuse covered the floor of the cave, Pleistocene climatic systems. Associated cultural which sloped upward toward the southern materials and other data are discussed before pro- extremity (Figures 1 and 2). ceeding to the detailed description of the imprints Pendejo Cave lies within the Chihuahua Desert themselves and their respective zones (MacNeish vegetational zone, with such flora as Prosopis sp., 1992). The use of a zone as a unit of analysis fol- Opuntia sp., Yucca sp., Larrea tridentata, and sim- lows Harris (1989). He describes a zone as being ilar xerophytic plants predominating. The local much like a stratum but marking time rather than xerophytic-adapted fauna include Odocoileus sediment content. According to Harris, a zone is a hemionus (mule deer), Lepus californicus relatively uniform layer of materials that is built (ackrabbit), Canis latrans (coyote), and numerous up in a definite or cultural timeframe and is ter- smaller mammals and reptiles. This northern part minated by making a well-marked interface. The of the Chihuahua Desert receives about 360 mm of latter is often a charcoal or burned earth "floor" rainfall per year, most of it occurring in a mon- that was deposited at a definite time, after which soonlike period in the late summer and early fall. another zonal deposit begins accumulating. Winters tend to be mild, with only three or four

nights of frost, while summer temperatures may Background reach 100?F (34?C). The average annual tempera-

Pendejo Cave is located in south-central New ture is about 58?F. The ecology has changed con- Mexico, 13 miles east of the town of Orogrande, siderably during the past 60,000 years, with which is about halfway between El Paso, Texas, Paleoindians adapting to very different faunal and and Alamogordo, New Mexico (Figure 1 inset). floral regimes than are found today.


PENDEJO CAVE - LAYER C2 Zravted aure for whlcb protiles ars asilc

UCR.2603: 12,970_170 BP UCR-32761CAMS 12367: 1232470_0 BP

NO\ FINGERPRINTS _

Excavation Progress

Lul1990

PENDEJO CAVE- LAYER J 1991 crated ae for which profiles are vrallable U 1992

UCR-2645: 32.000_t1200 BP ! \CR-2645: 32,000?1200 OP BETA44296: 35,960j790 B L ] Unexcavated Position of imprints

-

REPORTS 361

The Excavation In April 1991 Dena Dincauze and Chrisman completed the excavation of zone G, a 10-cm-

Pendejo Cave was discovered during a 1976 sur- thick stratum of gray loam that included the bot- vey by the University of Texas, directed by tom end of a pack rat tunnel. From this zone they Betancourt. The cave's potential was vividly obtained a carbon sample and a few bones and described in Betancourt's original notes recorded no evidence of any intrusion through to (Betancourt 1977). In 1989 MacNeish, in a search or into underlying zone H. Their work was con- for rock shelters containing preserved floral tinued by crew member Aame Vennes, who com- remains and artifactual material relating to the pleted the excavation of the underlying gray loam Archaic period, called on Glen DeGarmo of the of zone I, which contained three large flat rocks Environmental Office at Fort Bliss, who gave and two flat pieces of burned clay that may have access to that office's reconnaissance files. In the indicated a hearth. As she screened the sediments spring of that year, Paul Lukowksi and Mike of zone I, Vennes noticed a peanut-sized piece of Foster of the Environmental Office, without whom burned clay that had unusual markings. Cunnar Pendejo Cave might not have been located, took (1992), who supervised the entire excavation of MacNeish and various crew members to visit the Pendejo Cave, suspected that these markings rep- Rough Canyon area. Convinced that the presence resented a fingerprint. During the daily review of of small corncobs on the surface indicated that excavation results, MacNeish examined the clay, Pendejo Cave had great potential, MacNeish using tweezers and magnifying glass, and con- decided to carry out a test excavation in 1990. A 1 - firmed Cunnar's suspicion (Figures 3 and 4). m-deep test trench revealed not only good preser- Because of the importance of this find, Cunnar vation, but uncovered seven or eight charcoal took over excavation of the unit. In the 20-x-25- interfaces, then believed to be of early Archaic cm, 3-cm-thick burned clay in the square's north- times. The first indication of Pleistocene materials east corner, he found a fractured middle phalange in the cave came with the discovery of the pha- of Equus alaskae impaled by a stone wedge. lange of an extinct horse in zone G. During the When he broke up the original clay deposit, he remainder of 1990 the slit trench was extended 5 found what seemed to be another print. At the m southward from the mouth of the cave, widened southern edge of this clay slab he found, in situ at to 3 m, and excavated down to the rock floor, some E0.99S1.21, a piece of fractured horse phalange 2.5 m from the surface (Figure 1). A radiocarbon and a small crescentic burned clay fragment with date of 25,420 ? 560 B.P (charcoal, UCR 2499A) a tiny imprint (Figures 5 and 6). Nearby was a on zone L confirmed the suspicion that this was a worked flake of lithic material foreign to the cave Pleistocene site, and the few crude tools uncov- (Clemons 1992). A second slab of burned clay ered suggested Paleoindian occupation. had charred oak remains that were dated to

To explore this possibility an interdisciplinary 32,000 ? 1200 B.P. (charcoal, UCR 2645); a team was organized in 1991 to investigate differ- duplicate sample went to BETA (44296) and was ent aspects of the cave and its surroundings and dated at 35,960 ? 790 B.P. The party now believed plans were made for extensive radiocarbon deter- it had all the elements Griffin had required a minations to be undertaken from different labora- very probable human fingerprint in situ in a defi- tories. The excavation party employed the La nite stratum with a clear date. This specimen was, Perra technique (MacNeish et al. 1975), stripping furthermore, associated with botanical and faunal sediments from a vertical profile and working on remains of species no longer present in the area- alternate 1-m squares both north and south of the Quercus sp., the middle phalange of extinct original test trench (Figure 1). Recognizing the Equus alaskae and cultural remains in the form controversial nature of any finds attributed to a of the worked flake. These finds set the parame- pre-Clovis horizon, the party also invited inspec- ters for the 1992 season. tions of the cave and laboratory by colleagues During this final season at Pendejo Cave we who support the Clovis date for the earliest moved the east-west face of the trench southward human remains in the Americas (Martin 1973). and cleaned up some undug squares to the west

362 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 61, No. 2,1996]

E3,S1 1 12,970t ?170 RCYBP

EUR 2648) ( UCR2UCR 26 03)(

35,960 + 790 RCYBP

0 25 50 100 cm (BETA 44296)

Zone Matrix Description Outside dripline

a soft light brown sandy loam, F black loam, abundant -

N orange/brown loam, unbumed rock, roots charcoal Ei organics

b soft brown sandy loam, rock, Fl slightly hard, black charcoal 0 yellowish brown, sandy loam 1111111 b scattered charcoal, roots w s g c very hard under dripline, pale G gray, clay loam non-stratified matrix X,1 brown, rock iEi

__V _

Zone Matrix Description p!/////>3 H black, silt loam, unburned Zone MariDsrorganics, abundant charcoal 0 25 50 100 cm E2,S2 A loose brown loam, abundant I dark gray, loam IJ.IIUIUIJJ unburned organics, feces B soft brown loam, abundant J black loam, abundant charcoal

unbumed and burned organics F.7777::..: C gray ashy loam, abundant , 9gK light brownish gray loam Eg1-. .......- Figure 2.:-Thunburned atndburne d o rganics (weakly cemented south of N d line)

uedacst -w bprofi loae(, abundast 2, nrhsu pofileant charoalttom). EC2 grayish brown, abundant [ j ,u2M dark reddish brown, silt loam, _

organics, rock ti'..1 unbumed organics, charcoal ___

m EEl (norho Nl lne) looselight E2,N

ingur u2.aTed straytif tiedznsox edj aesoigrdoabndte soitdwt rcinsi mrns ot E2 eat-es prflE (o)an2at2,nrh-ot4roie(bto)

REPORTS 363

and at the mouth of the cave. On completion of however, relate to zones C 1 and C, with the sec- excavation a sizeable portion of untouched sedi- ond stratum of perishable textiles associated with ments still remained in the southern end of the Clovis and Archaic artifacts. In feature 1, a large cave (Figure 1); Paul Martin had suggested that pit, we found one clay print at W2.02N1.92, next this area be left for future excavation (Martin, let- to a sandal dated to 5480 ? 60 B.P. (cactus fibers, ter September 29, 1995). UCR 2643), and two other clay prints a few cen-

During the 1992 season Chrisman found the timeters to the west of it. earliest friction skin imprint in the cave, exca- Disregarding these three prints, which may be vated from square S2E2 of zone K and found in of Archaic vintage, as well as the five from mixed situ at S1.75E2.30 (Figures 1 and 5). In this area zone C, we did uncover eight friction skin the ashy sediment of zone K was cemented; imprints in excellent geological context in pre- within the compacted fill we found two lithic arti- Clovis zones that have been dated. facts and an Equus first phalange with a pointed bone fragment imbedded in it. Carbon in S2E2 StraUgraphy yielded a radiocarbon date of >35,900 B.P. (char- The stratigraphy of Pendejo Cave was extremely coal, UCR 2647). Moreover, in the same zone K, clear-cut inside the dripline. At a depth of 2 m carbon from square S2E1-1 m east of the near the cave's mouth, 16 definite zones of depo- print yielded a bone with a probable human cut- sition were identified; as the depth of sediments mark and a radiocarbon date of >35,600 B.P. increased to 2.7 m, we isolated 24 unquestionable (charcoal, UCR 2648); two samples of charcoal zones, or strata, that emphasize time frames rather taken 1 m north gave radiocarbon dates of than content. Among these zones were two >36,400 B.P. (UCR 2591B) and >36,920 B.P. indurated ones, zones E and K, which had been (BETA 43721). cemented by an ancient seep of water and there-

Twelve other friction skin imprints were found fore blocked any accidental intrusion into most of while cleaning the west niche; four of these prints them or the zones underlying them. In the south- came from zone C2 (Figure 1), which yielded ern half of the cave, zone E increased to about 20 radiocarbon dates of 12,240 ? 70 B.P. (UCR cm in thickness and zone K was about 10 cm 3276B), 12,370 ? 80 B.P. (UCR 3276A), both thick (Figure 2). from hair, and 12,970 ? 170 B.P. (UCR 2603) As part of our interdisciplinary investigation from charcoal in a square 4 m east of the prints. (MacNeish et al. 1993), we had the sediments of Three of the prints were located by brushing away the different strata collected from four columns the gray-brown loamy sediment of zone C2 near and analyzed by M. McFaul and his colleagues of the center of square W4NO. A more unusual print LaRamie Soils Service. They analyzed these sed- was recovered from the gray soil of the middle of iments as to composition, grains size, organic the west wall of square W4N1. This article will content, Ph, and soil texture, and discussed their later show that this specimen not only bears a fric- conclusions with a number of other geologists tion skin imprint, but also may have incisions and including Vance Haynes, John Hawley, Russell punctations that suggest it was an effigy formed Clemons, and Curtis Monger, who had also vis- of clay that was later fired. Although few faunal ited the cave. Figure 2 shows the composition of remains or artifacts occurred in these squares, we the matrices of the 24 excavated zones as deter- did recover hairs that microscopic examination mined by the LaRamie study (McFaul 1992). As showed to be human in origin. Also recovered Figure 2 shows, zone K was indurated ashy sedi- were two pieces of cordage. ment with refuse; the fired clay nodule with a

In the western and northern portion of these friction skin imprint was imbedded in it. Zone I, a squares, the different substrata of zone C (C2A, grayish loam, had a large disk of burned clay (40 C2, C 1, and C) coalesce into north mixed zone C. cm in diameter and 10 cm thick) in the northeast Above the definite C2 remains in these same of square EOS2; this clay was probably the source squares, we found five more imprints-two in of the three zone I prints. Zone I was capped by W4NO and three in W4N1. These imprints could, the charcoal of zone H that had no signs of intru-


4 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4

Fiur 3 Frget of bakedcla (G05) with pata fitio ski imprit of a prbal huma palm, Pendj Cave,

REPORTS 365

w4w*.., ' 40F',s ;

F\^ so. osts s4s

Figure 4. Magnified portion of baked clay imprint in Figure 3. Small arrows point to a line of sweat pores in a "valley," the negative of a ridge in an impression. Oblique orthobeam light was used to illuminate the sweat pores. Bar =1 mm (75 x) G1051.

counter sizes, experimental conditions, and statis- zones are part of a stratified column of zones that tical criteria applied. QL 4526 (30,200 ? 130) and have yielded 47 (of 57) sequential radiocarbon UCR 2502 (>32,830) were obtained on duplicate determinations that serve to confirm the above- samples. Considering the ranges and variations, mentioned chronometric readings. attempts to equalize calibrations become unim- This chronometric sequence (Table 1) not only portant, according to these laboratories. directly dates the zones where friction skin

All three of the zones having friction skin imprints were found, it also brackets them with a imprints bear radiocarbon determinations in column of 46 radiocarbon dates, 36 of which are sequence: zone K has dates (all from charcoal) of in chronological order-a better sequence than >28,500 B.P (UCR 2591A), >35,600 B.P. (UCR can be found for any other Paleoindian site 2648), >35,900 B.P. (UCR 2647), >36,400 B.P. (Haynes 1967; Waters 1985). These dates ade- (UCR 2591B), and >36,920 B.P. (BETA 43721); quately meet the chronological requirement of zone I has dates from charcoal of 27,960 ? 970 Griffin. B.P. (UCR 2592), 32,000 ? 1200 B.P (UCRs 2645), and 35,960 ? 790 B.P. (BETA 44296);ExatinTciqe charcoal from zone C2 has been dated at The meticulous excavation of the Pendejo Cave 12,970 ? 170 B.P. (UCR 2603), and hair from that strata by the La Perra technique (MacNeish et al. zone has been dated 12,1240 ? 70 B.P. (UCR 1975) made any mixing or intrusion readily 3276B) and 12,370 ? 80 B.P. (UCR 3276A). Even observable. Each stratum was peeled off from a more important, as Table 1 shows, these dated vertical profile, and squares were excavated-

366 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 61, No. 2, 1996J

Figure 5. Fragment of baked clay (G1062) from a crescentric clay piece found in situ in zone I. Branching ridge patterns with a skin crease interrupt the pattern. At the bottom, a recurved (loop) area and to the right, five or six ridge "valleys" containing sweat pores (see Figure 6). Bar =2.5 mm (9.5 x).

usually by trowel and brush-in an alternate pat- 1992) before that of the Clovis period, which tern that exposed the profile for subsequent dig- began about 1 1,200 years ago (Haynes 199 1). ging. Of the 49 squares excavated, 22 had two The earliest, or first, period appears to have faces exposed for excavation, 22 had a single face been a time of warm, dry climate conditions. This open, and four had three exposed faces. Only the was revealed in zones 0 to L, and included such initial square was excavated from above. This species as Aztlanolagus agilis, Bison antiquus, method allowed us to strip off the strata precisely and Camelops, which probably inhabited a xero- and to identify and map exactly any features (a phytic grassland-steppe. In zone K, where the ear- total of 27) and any rodent intrusions (9). liest friction skin imprint was found, a second

Contextual Data climatic system allowed such animals as Equus Conexua Dtaalaskae, deer, fox, salamander, and many oak- Faunal Evidence ~~~~~pine forest-dwelling animals to live in what was Fauna Evienceprobably a very cold, wet climate. Zones J to F, in

The faunal assemblage at Pendejo Cave corrobo- a third period, were deposited in cool and slightly rates the chronological findings. Some 35,000 drier conditions. Directly associated with the animal bones were recovered during the excava- imprints found in zone I were a calcaneus and tion, and about 20,000 of them were identifiable pelvis fragment of E. alaskae. Other fauna as to species. A. Harris of the University of Texas, included gophers (Thomomys bottae), cottontails El Paso, identified 96 species. Harris plotted the (Sylvilagus auduboni, nuttalli, and floridanus), species by zone and concluded that they provided and chipmunks (Tamias minimus). Zone E, the evidence of at least five climatic systems (Harris fourth period, was apparently laid down during a

REPORTS 367

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A w,

Figure 6. Detail of Figure 5 with most of the ridge "valleys" showing lines of sweat pores (small arrows). Long arrow points to an incipient ridge in the center. Length of arrow = 6 mm (38 x).

very cold and wetter time and had forest animals species. About 1,000 burned and unburned floral similar to those in zone K. During the fifth remains were obtained from the lower zones (C2 to period, when zones D and C2 were deposited, N). These floral remains provided evidence that warm and dry semi-desert conditions returned, as supported that of the fauna. Zones L to 0 had flora evidenced by remains of pronghorns (Antilocapra typical of a warm, dry climate--Opuntia (prickly americana), paleo-Ilamas (Hemiauchenia macro- pear), Echinocereus (hedgehog cactus), Prosopis cephala), and jackrabbits (Lepus). Directly asso- (mesquite), Euphorbia (spurge), and Cucurbita ciated with the friction skin imprints in zone C2 foetidissima (buffalo gourd). In zone K the floral were remains of Gopherus agassiz, Coragyps remains, like the faunal, indicate a shift to a more occidentalis, and various types of pack rats wooded vegetation and a cooler, wetter climate. (Neotoma). Among these remains were Pinus edulis (pine),

The remains of fauna recovered from the vari- Celtis laevigata (hackberry), Quercus (oak), and ous zones at Pendejo provide -ample evidence of acorn shells, three of which were found in the samne fauna-some now extinct-associated with fric- square as the zone K friction skin imprint. tion skin imprints. In addition, this record reflects Zones J to F had similar botanical remains, convincing evidence of climatic changes over the although recovery was slim. In zone I, which had millennia. three friction skin imprints, we recovered remains Floral Evidence of Opuntia, Echinocereus, and Quercus, but none

was directly associated with the three imprints. The floral remains from Pendejo Cave were Floral remains from zones Dl1, D, and C2 obtained through flotation by Gish (1992) as well included Opuntia, Echinocereus, Yucca, and C. as archaeological recovery. Hiles [1992] made foetidissima. Directly associated with the floor extensive collections of local plants and studied where the zone C2 imprints occurred were a some 15,000 botanical specimens recovered from mesquite pod, juniper fruit, hackberry and yucca excavation. He determined that they represented 54 seeds, and leaves of ocotillo (Fouquieria splen-


dens), and remains of allthom Koeberlinia spinosa. cavity. In addition, a nearby fragment of a small Gish collected sediments from many zones for long bone shows a long V-shaped line between its

flotation and pollen studies. Her findings (Gish cut ends. Both these bones may exhibit human 1995) supplemented macrobotanical analysis and modification. gave a sharper definition to the climatic shifts. Zone I. The cultural data for zone I, which had

three friction skin imprints, was strong, although the zone contained many fewer artifacts (13) and

The lithic artifacts we have described from ecofacts (33). Nineteen of the lithics were made Pendejo Cave have been criticized as being so from cave dolomite, 17 were of foreign material, crude they cannot be accepted as artifacts. and 9 were made from arroyo pebbles. The zone Nevertheless, the provenance of these lithic included a flake wedge imbedded in a horse pha- remains analyzed by the mineralogist, the late R. lange. One concave flake scraper came from the Clemons, is significant to the whole ecology of the same squares as the imprints. Associated with it cave. He found that about half of the stone objects were four large logs, over 10 cm in diameter. recovered were exotics, that is, their composition Zone C2. Cultural remains in association with was of minerals foreign to the cave. These lithics, the four imprints found in zone C2 included some especially the five anvils, one weighing over 4.5 40 fragments of hair that forensic specialists H. kg, must have been brought to the cave by some Savage and A. Tessaralo have identified as histo- agency. Their size points in the direction of trans- logically human. Among the 15 artifacts in the port by humans, not by wind, water, or an animal. zone were 2 two-ply cords, S- and Z-twisted, both Although most of these possible lithics are not of yucca fiber. skillfully worked, they may have served as expedient tools, and Clemons describes them as such in The Friction Skin Imprints another publication (Clemons 1992). To determine whether the friction skin imprints

The full contextual data for cultural remains could be those of the excavating crew, left inad- from Pendejo Cave are extensive. In this article vertently by hands resting on clay surfaces, we we will deal only with the zones where the pre- had the crew members hand- and fingerprinted. Clovis friction skin imprints on fired clay occur, Mavalwala (1977), an expert in dermatoglyphics, zones K, I, and C2. then compared the modern prints with the

Zone K. The oldest zone where friction skin Pendejo imprints and found no match. Because imprints were found, zone K contained two activ- the clay nodules had been baked at temperatures ity areas. Within the entire zone we recovered 33 of 120?C to 300?C (see below), it is doubtful that artifacts and 36 ecofacts (flakes, chips, or cores). they could have taken new prints. An imprint like Forty-eight of the 69 lithics were made of the those recovered from excavation differs from a dolomite that formed the cave, 12 were of materi- usual superficial print in that it is a negative and als foreign to the cave, and 9 were made from peb- the ridges in the skin appear as valleys. A descrip- bles. Of these tools, 19 were recovered from the tion of the ancient imprints follows. southern activity zone associated with the friction Only the first two of the 16 nodules with skin imprint. In the same square (S2E2) as the imprints (eight pre-Clovis, eight post-Clovis) print, only a horse phalange with an imbedded were discovered in the screen; the rest were found wedge and two convex worked unifaces were dis- in situ. After that first experience, the excavating covered. They were found next to feature 20, an teams were alerted to the need to look hard for ash pit with a piece of large burned log, over 10 such small items as bits of clay, hair, and fibers. cm in diameter. It is unlikely that this log could In zone K, just under a fractured first phalange have been transported by an animal. When the of extinct Equus alaskae, coated with baked clay phalange of the extinct horse was X-rayed and and calcareous deposits, were some clay nodules, imaged three dimensionally by computerized also partially coated with calcium salts. One of tomography, the tip of a probable bone wedge or these nodules appeared to have two areas of con- projectile point could be seen deep in its marrow toured ridges, divided by what seems to be a deep

REPORTS 369

F s l M ,, .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. . ..

Figure 7. Lightly baked and calcified clay fragment from zone K, ca. 36,000 years B.P. Ridge formations (small arrows) appear on both sides of a probable friction skin crease (large arrow). Bar = 1 cm (4.1 x).

skin crease. The caicrete was partially removed of minerals that appear to include sand, feldspar, with dilute acetic-acid-soaked pledgets to obtain quartz, and mica. Some of these originated as better visualization of the ridges (Figure 7). metamorphic rock, which suggests that part of the Mixed with the silt and burned wood in square material originated outside the cave, probably EOS2 in zone K were burned bones and hardened from alluvial clay, and was brought there by some clay lumps, one quite large. The color, hardness, agency. Pavlish (1994) of the Archaeometry and consistency of these clay lumps were similar Laboratory of Toronto University confirmed the to what was obtained by baking wet clay from the presence of traces of these minerals, which were gully in front of the cave to 1 50'-250'C in an foreign to the predominant limestone and silicate oven. Comparison with modern molded clay makeup of the cave sediments. Because heating obtained from the valley just below Pendej o Cave, temperatures of the hardened clay were lower than baked at increments from 1000 to 400'C, showed 400'C, we found that thermoluminescence dating that the nodules were probably baked at tempera- was not possible. We did ascertain its cohesive- tures between 120'C and 300'C. ness, however, by using the simple durability test

High-power orthobeam microscopic examina- devised by Soffer and Vandiver (Soffer et al. tion of the heated clay nodules from the zone I 1993). In this test, small fragments of hardened hearth and C2 pit reveals sharp points and edges clay are boiled in water for one or more hours and


then kept in water for a total of 24 hours. If they baked clay fragments, four of which had con- remain intact, they are judged to be durable toured ridge imprints, were found in situ in zone ceramics. The samples from zones I and C2 C2. Three were found in square W3N2 (Figure 8) remained intact during this test and thus must be and one in the contiguous square, W4N1. This judged durable ceramics. area is part of feature 27, a basin-shaped, clay-

Close examination of the clay nodules from lined depression, probably a hearth, about 10 cm zone I showed a piece 17 mm long and a tiny frag- deep. Further evidence of the possible presence of ment with closely contoured ridges resembling Homo sapiens were the hairs found in this zone, handprints. Further careful excavation revealed a which could be microscopically identified as larger crescentic piece of clay (3.5 cm long), human. W E. Taylor of the University of which also bore contoured ridges. J. F Hinds, California at Riverside, using the Livermore accel- manager, and C. R. Foley, analyst, of the erator facility, obtained dates of 12,370 ? 80 years Identification Forensic Services of the Ontario B.P (water treated) and 12,240 ? 70 years B.P Provincial Police, which pioneered laser beam (total amino acids) on locks of hair from unit forensic techniques, photographed the fragments W3N2, adjacent to the imprinted clay nodules. for analysis. Their initial laser analysis recorded Also in the C2 collection is a clay piece. Distinct the general ridge formation (Figure 3) of friction carving marks seem to delineate two "feet." The skin and a probable recurved area (loop). The "tail" has V-shaped grooves that are branched or imprint, however, was not a large enough sample intersect other marks. Distinct branched and inter- to allow a definite identification of the friction secting marks could be incisional. Pamela skin imprint as primate in origin. We then used Vandiver of the Smithsonian Institution's parallel-beam fiberoptics along the sides of the Conservation Analytical Laboratory found on specimens; this process illuminated lines of dots chemical testing that the clay in this piece was for- representing sweat pores along the ridge tops eign to the cave soils. (which appear as valleys in the imprint, Figure 4). The three clay fragments from W3N2 of zone The larger clay fragment from zone I had excellent C2 (Figure 8) show areas of contoured ridges con- ridge detail (minutiae) with the standard bifurca- sistent with friction skin. Moreover, a conical clay tions, lakes, crossovers, and independent ridges fragment in this group has an E core, or elliptical found in primate friction skin. It also had a defi- whorl (Figure 9), a characteristic common in pri- nite skin crease ridge and sweat pores (Figure 5), mate skin, as described by Berry (1979) of the with a recurved area (loop) next to the indicated Fingerprint Society of Great Britain. We are not sweat pore zone. These characteristics are consis- aware of reports of the E core in animals other tent with primate friction skin imprints, according than primates. to J. Mavalwala and D. Hilderbrand, Identification Feature 24, in another meter square of zone Council Chairman, Scottsdale Arizona Crime C2, contained more human hair histologically Laboratory (Dwane Hilderbrand, personal com- identified, and a possible bone artifact a frag- munication 12/20/93). Both state that it is highly ment of cortical bone with three connected V- likely that the imprints are of primate friction skin shaped grooves exhibiting shouldering that can be and probably are of human origin. Human ridged interpreted as marks of edge straightening. Also skin displays simpler patterns than that of nonhu- contained in this feature was yucca fiber S- and man primates; most of the latter present a prepon- Z-twist cordage, which is described in another derance of whorls that involve extensively curved publication (Adovasio 1993). ridges, whereas humans show ridges that are less curved, resulting in a smoother, straighter flow. For comparative purposes, Hilderbrand provided Analysis of the friction skin imprints involved us with a similar highly probable human imprint consideration of other natural occurrences of sim- on clay from Sinagua Pueblo dating to ca. A.D. ilar ridge patterns. Contoured ridges are common 1100 (Figure 11). in nature. From a geological point of view, dune

Late in the spring season of 1992, several more marks and ripple marks in sand and silt duplicate

REPORTS 371

I_ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r V

1~~

J~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J

I_ -

Figure 8. Three imprinted baked clay nodules from zone C2 ca. 13,000 years B.P. The nodules were found together in zone C2 inside Feature 27, a clay-lined shallow pit containing locks of human hair. The cone-shaped nodule on the right bears an E-core whorl (Figure 9), the bottom right fragment has a recurved loop. Bar = 5 mm (5.9 x) G1877.

the features of branching fingerprint ridges and samples, a Pleistocene clay geologist, Richard are often frozen into petrified sedimentary layers, Yuretich, of the University of Massachusetts at sometimes complicated by the fossil remains of Amherst, stated (personal communication plants and animals (Pettijohn and Potter 11/27/91) that ridges formed by geological forces 1964:Plates 48-93). After examination of our would be larger than our specimens by a factor of


~ 2

4~~~~~

RIDGE CHARACTERISTCS

.I _U.. I.ON.

7 ~ . ,B *l*l*|l A *:

LAkE.

4 RIOCAEP EN -r

spu R.

.... ; _ ,, X _. , ............. _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.... ..... ....... ....... ...... ~~~7 _CA O SOVEPi. I

Figure 9. Detail of Figure 8 E-core whorl (G1897). Arrowed numbers indicate usual characteristics of primate friction skin (see table). Bar 1 mm (48.3 x).

10 or more. While plants develop ridges (the vas- skin sweat pores, on the other hand, are always cular bundles), the stomae pores are part of the along the tops of the ridges. Furthermore, the respiratory system and are always in the valleys complex recurved patterns of friction skin are not (Raven et al. 1 992:Figure 23-18). Primate friction seen in botanicals.

REPORTS 373

The paws of invertebrates and lower verte- the clay used to smooth the gaps between the brates may have ridge detail but do not have lin- adobe bricks at Sinagua, the imprints are more ear sweat pores. Most mammal paws are hairy, than likely human. As further confirmation, we although a few prehensile arboreal mammals, gathered clay from the wash just below Pendejo such as tree shrews, opossums, raccoons, bears, Cave, molded it with water, and made two thumb and some squirrels, have developed primitive impressions on it. The two pieces were then dried ridge lines or wartlike circles of ridges with a over silica gel. After two weeks, one was baked at sweat pore in the middle on hairless grasping 250?C for five hours. Both imprints were reburied areas. Primate friction skin is notably different. It in the Pendejo clay and stored for a month at room is characterized not only by contoured ridges on temperature. The modern ridge formations were hands and feet, but also features sweat pores similar to ancient ones, and had no cracking and (Figures 4 and 6) placed at semiregular intervals distortion. Ridge detail seemed more distinct on on the tops of the ridges (Cummins and Midlo the baked specimen. There were 18 ridges per lin- 1943). ear centimeter in both specimens, which fits

Specialized patterns of epidermal ridges, within the range (13-19 ridges per linear cen- notably the whorls and loops that figure so timeter) of the Pendejo Cave imprints. prominently in forensic medicine, evolved among Conclusions the primates. These regularly spaced sweat pores, creases, and recurved ridge patterns provide con- The foregoing data indicate that eight (of the total clusive evidence that the Pendejo Cave imprints of 16) friction skin imprints originated in late are those of a primate. But which one? The num- Pleistocene times. Especially important were the ber of ridges per linear centimeter varies among sweat pores which can occur only in primates. primates: usually, the larger the animal, the Measurements of the prints indicate that this pri- smaller the number. The prints from Pendejo Cave mate was probably Homo sapiens. measure 13 to 19 per linear centimeter; those of Reviewing Griffin's standards (Griffin 1979) the great apes, Asiatic langurs, and the howler against the evidence for pre-Clovis occupations of monkey (Alouatta) of Brazil measure 20 ridges Pendejo Cave, we find that: per centimeter or more, but are near the human 1. The site has acceptable geological and strati- range (Cummins and Midlo 1943:32). However, graphic integrity, according to three geologists no bones of great apes or New World monkeys and other experts. have been found in Pleistocene excavations in 2. Paleontologic examination of about 35,000 New Mexico, nor were there tropical forests or bone remains included at least 12 extinct species, suitable habitats to support them there. In the which gives us important chronological insight absence of other primates, the size of the prints into the paleoecology of southern New Mexico in and the patterns of ridges and sweat pores have the late Pleistocene. In addition, bones probably led us to conclude that these friction skin imprints modified by humans were found in close prox- are probably human in origin. This finding is sup- imity in the three zones containing human friction ported by the close correspondence between the skin imprints. Pendejo imprints and the palm print found by 3. About 15,000 botanical specimens from the Smith (1976) in a Final Paleolithic (Sebekian) cave were studied, and flotation and pollen analy- site, GS. III on the Kom Ombo Plain of Upper ses carried out, as well as isotopic studies of Egypt near the first cataract of the Nile, dating to plants. These studies demonstrate environmental 14,600 B.C. (Figure 10). On the left of that print changes over a period of 60,000 years and placed is a triradius, and on the right a loop such as we the friction skin imprints in past habitats. have found. The open field contoured ridges are 4. Cultural materials associated with the fric- similar in the two clay fragments. They are also tion skin imprints include open and stone-lined similar to the loop seen in the partial handprint hearths, large logs in the hearths, open and clay- from Sinagua Pueblo, Arizona, ca. A.D. 1100 lined pits, bone probably humanly modified, pos- (Figure 11). Since this ridge detail was found in sible expedient stone tools (many of which were


~~~~~~~~~~ 4:

Figure 10. Portion of an adult palm print in hardened mud found in a Final Paleolithic site (Sebakian), on the Kom Ombo plain in Egypt, near the First Cataract of the Nile, by Philip E. L. Smith. The stratum is dated to 12,600 B.C. Reproduced courtesy of Smith and Scientific American. The width of the artifact = 1 cm (1 5 x).

made from material foreign to the cave and were pies, thermoluminescence, and human modifica- found in nonrandom activity areas), and fiber tions of bone and clay. However, by Griffin's cri- cordage that could be the oldest textile examples teria we believe our findings present acceptable found thus far in North America. A similar antiq- evidence of pre-Clovis human occupations of uity might be assigned to the possible effigy clay Pendejo Cave. piece.

5. Although no human skeleton or its parts was Acknowledgments. We are gratefuil to Glen DeGarmo and his found, the friction skin imprints on clay are very staff at the Environmental Office of Fort Bliss for technical probably of human origin. We also recovered his- and financial assistance. Our paper has benefitted greatly tologically identified human hair associated with from the interdisciplinary work of our AFAR associates, two sets of prints. From a forensic point of view, Ervin Taylor and Bruno Marino for radiocarbon and isotope these vestiges are strong indications of the preS- analyses, paleontology by Arthur Harris, botanical analyses

ence f Hoo sapens n Penejo ave i theLate by Harold Hiles, Janifer Gish, and Janet McVickar, geologi- Penstcenoeoospin.nPndj

aeinteLt cal studies by Russell Clemons, H. Curtis Monger, Michael Pleistocene.

~~~~~~~~McFaul, and his colleagues of the LaRamie Soils Service, 6. The sequence of radiocarbon determinations also Laurence Pavlish and Pamela Vandiver for their studies

is one of the longest series of dates given for a and advice about Pendejo clays. Thanks also to Vandiver and New World Paleoindian site, spanning more than Carol Grissom of the Conservation Analytical Laboratory of

55,000years Of te 57 ates btaind fto four the Smithonian Institution for the excellent repair of a frac- 55,00ayarst fte 57oaore,4 datesi pobtied fhromnour

ture in the possible effigy clay piece. Dwane Hilderbrand sepaate aboatores,44 fll n prperchroolo- and Philip E. L. Smith have given us expert advice on the

ical order in terms of the stratigraphy, a remark- imprints and have allowed us to use their photographs of able degree (77 percent) of congruence. Eleven of ancient clay impressions that they have discovered. A variety these dates, all pre-Clovis in age, were directly of photographic techniques, through the help of Richard

associted wth th fricton skn impints.Fish, Richard Briggs, and Philip Reid, have been employed. asoite with cothenfricton skNA iminnthhars. m Editorial review by Jane G. Libby and by American Antiquity Work is ontinuin on DNAin the hir sam- reviewers has been most helpful.

REPORTS 375

4*w ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

-It ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~A

.,@ s *_. . * . ' 8

Figure 11. Partial handprint in pueblo clay, Sinagua Pueblo, Arizona, ca. A.D. 1100. Reproduced courtesy of D. S. Hilderbrand, Identifcation Department, Scottsdale, Arizona Crime Laboratory. Width of brick over imprint = 6 cm (6 x).

References Cited Adovasio, J. M., and D. C. Hyland

1993 Paleo-Indian Perishables from Pendejo Cave: A Brief Summary. Paper presented at the 48th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, St. Louis.

Berry, J. 1979 Ridge Detail in Nature. Fingerprint Whorld

1979:1-8. South Hatfield, Hertsfordshire, Great Britain. Betancourt, J.

1977 Survey Report of 1977. Copies available from Environmental Office, Ft. Bliss, El Paso, Texas.

Clemons, R. 1992 Interpretation of Petrographic Analysis of Samples

from Pendejo Cave. Manuscript on file with the Andover Foundation for Archaeological Research, Andover, Massachusetts.

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Philadelphia.

Cunnar, G. 1992 Excavation, Stratigraphy and Chronometrics of Pendejo

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Pendejo Cave, Otero County, New Mexico. Manuscript on file with Andover Foundation for Archaeological Research, Andover, Massachusetts.

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North America. In The First Americans: Origins, Affinities andAdaptations, edited by W Laughlin and A. Harper, pp. 43-55. Gustav Fischer, New York.

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Pendejo Cave near Orogrande, NM-The Annual Report ofAFAR for 1993. Andover, Massachusetts.

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1975 Excavation and Reconnaissance. In The Prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley, vol. 5, pp. 69-72. University of Texas Press, Austin.

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Received February 23, 1994; accepted January 10, 1996.

Article Contentsp. 357p. 358p. 359p. 360p. 361p. 362p. 363p. 364p. 365p. 366p. 367p. 368p. 369p. 370p. 371p. 372p. 373p. 374p. 375p. 376

Issue Table of ContentsAmerican Antiquity, Vol. 61, No. 2 (Apr., 1996), pp. 193-443Front Matter [pp. 193-388]Although They Have Petty Captains, They Obey Them Badly: The Dialectics of Prehispanic Western Pueblo Social Organization [pp. 197-216]Risk, Climatic Variability, and the Study of Southwestern Prehistory: An Evolutionary Perspective [pp. 217-241]Mortars, Pestles, and Division of Labor in Prehistoric California: A View from Big Sur [pp. 243-264]Obituary: James Allen Lancaster 1894-1992 [pp. 265-268]Obituary: Frederick Johnson 1904-1994 [pp. 269-273]Obituary: Hannah Marie Wormington 1914-1994 [pp. 274-278]Obituary: John Gerard Witthoft 1921-1993 [pp. 279-284]Obituary: Donald Ward Lathrap 1927-1990 [pp. 285-290]Obituary: Daniel Wolfman 1939-1994 [pp. 291-294]ReportsThe Chaco Wood Project: The Chronometric Reappraisal of Pueblo Bonito [pp. 295-310]Early Cultigens from Fresnal Shelter, Southeastern New Mexico [pp. 311-324]Production of Prehistoric Southwestern Ceramics: A Low-Technology Approach [pp. 325-339]The World's Longest-Lived Corporate Group: Lithic Analysis Reveals Prehistoric Social Organization near Lillooet, British Columbia [pp. 341-356]Late Pleistocene Human Friction Skin Prints from Pendejo Cave, New Mexico [pp. 357-376]Notched Tool Reuse and Raw Material Availability in French Middle Paleolithic Sites [pp. 377-387]

CommentsAn Assessment of the Acid-Extraction Approach to Compositional Characterization of Archaeological Ceramics [pp. 389-404]A Pot is Not a Rock: A Reply to Neff, Glascock, Bishop, and Blackman [pp. 405-413]Comments on the Impacts of Climatic Variability and Population Growth on Virgin Anasazi Cultural Development [pp. 414-418]

ReviewsReview: untitled [pp. 419-421]Review: untitled [pp. 421-422]Review: untitled [pp. 422-423]Review: untitled [pp. 423-424]Review: untitled [pp. 424-426]Review: untitled [pp. 426-427]Review: untitled [pp. 427-428]Review: untitled [pp. 428-430]Review: untitled [pp. 430-431]Review: untitled [pp. 432-433]Review: untitled [pp. 433-434]Review: untitled [pp. 434-436]Review: untitled [pp. 436-437]Review: untitled [pp. 437-438]Review: untitled [pp. 438-440]Review: untitled [pp. 440-441]Review: untitled [pp. 441-442]

Back Matter [pp. 443-443]

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Late Pleistocene Human Friction Skin Prints from Pendejo Cave, New Mexico.pdf