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Late Quaternary climatic and tectonic mechanisms driving river terracedevelopment in an area of mountain uplift: A case study in the Langshan area,Inner Mongolia, northern China

Liyun Jia, Xujiao Zhang, Zexin He, Xiangli He, Fadong Wu, YiqunZhou, Lianzhen Fu, Junxiang Zhao

PII: S0169-555X(15)00028-8DOI: doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.12.043Reference: GEOMOR 5060

To appear in: Geomorphology

Received date: 22 July 2014Revised date: 22 December 2014Accepted date: 24 December 2014

Please cite this article as: Jia, Liyun, Zhang, Xujiao, He, Zexin, He, Xiangli, Wu, Fadong,Zhou, Yiqun, Fu, Lianzhen, Zhao, Junxiang, Late Quaternary climatic and tectonicmechanisms driving river terrace development in an area of mountain uplift: A casestudy in the Langshan area, Inner Mongolia, northern China, Geomorphology (2015),doi: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.12.043

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Late Quaternary climatic and tectonic mechanisms

driving river terrace development in an area of

mountain uplift: a case study in the Langshan area,

Inner Mongolia, northern China

Liyun Jiaa, Xujiao Zhang, a,*, Zexin Hea, Xiangli Hea, Fadong Wua, Yiqun Zhoua,

Lianzhen Fua, Junxiang Zhaob

a School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences,

Beijing 100083, China

b The Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing

100085, China

*Corresponding author. Tel:+86 10 82322082; E-mail: zhangxj @ cugb.edu.cn.

Abstract

The Langshan Range is located in the western Yin Mountain orogenic belts

and the western Hetao fault-depression zone in Inner Mongolia, northern

China. This area is on the northwestern margin of the East Asian monsoon

region. The fluvial terraces in the transverse drainage of the Langshan Range

represent a primary geomorphic response to local tectonic uplift and climatic

changes. The terrace evolution was reconstructed using a combination of

optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating and terrace tread

measurements. The terraces, designated T4 through T1, were abandoned at

about 58.00, 46.25, 32.19, and 15.79 ka BP, respectively. Their aggradation

occurred primarily during cold periods of the last glacial stage, and incision

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occurred primarily during shifts from cold to warm climate stages. Geomorphic

analysis showed the terrace heights were controlled by the tectonic uplift in the

area. Differences in river incision rates and terrace geomorphic features

indicate that the uplift of the Langshan Range included a component of tilting

north to south during the period of 58.00 - 41.28 ka BP, whereas the uplift of

the Langshan area tended to be equal on a regional scale after 32.19 ka BP.

Key words: the Langshan Range; fluvial terrace; tectonic uplift;

climate cycle; dating

1. Introduction

Fluvial terraces preserve excellent records of geologic processes in the

form of geomorphologic features and fluvial deposition as a result of intrinsic

and external actions (Schumm, 1977). Intrinsic changes tend to occur on

relatively short time scales (10-1000 a) and produce small landforms (on a

scale of 10-1000 m) resulting from adjustments along individual river reaches.

(Vandenberghe, 2002; Maddy et al., 2001a, 2008). The primary factors

affecting river terrace evolution on greater spatiotemporal scales consist of

external processes, i.e., tectonic activity, climatic variations and base level

changes.(e.g., Bridgland, 2000; Vandenberghe and Maddy, 2001;

Vandenberghe, 2002, 2003). Climatic changes result in alternating incision and

deposition caused by changes in the ratio of stream flow to sediment flux.

Such processes may explain terrace development in areas of minor tectonic

activity but cannot explain the development of multistage terraces (Bull, 1979,

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1990; Xu and Zhou, 2007). Sustained tectonic uplift plays an important role in

terrace development by providing the dynamics for river incision (incision is

also controlled by sea level changes in low-elevation coastal zones).

General understanding of the forces driving fluvial terrace development in

areas of mountain uplift has evolved. During the nineteenth and twentieth

centuries, the pangeosyncline theory was the basis for models of crustal uplift

and its control over fluvial terrace development (e.g., Chambers, 1848; Home,

1875; Whitaker, 1875). Presently, most geologists agree that fluvial terrace

development in areas of mountain uplift is driven by the combined effects of

tectonic uplift and climatic change (e.g., Maddy et al., 2000; Bridgland et al.,

2004; Bridgland and Westaway, 2008; Westaway et al., 2009; Wang et al.,

2010; Herfried et al., 2012; Hu et al., 2012; Viveen et al., 2013; Ren et al., 2014)

or by downcutting because of tectonic activity and aggradation for climatic

cyclicity (Starkel, 2003; Westaway, 2009). Others have concluded that the

primary factor controlling terrace development is tectonic uplift and that climate

change can be ignored in areas of rapid uplift (e.g., Cheng et al., 2002; Sun,

2005, Zhang et al., 2014a). In fact, the climate and the geologic setting both

count for a great deal as leading factors driving terrace formation.

The Langshan area is located in the western Yin Mountain orogenic belts

and in the western Hetao fault-depression zone in Inner Mongolia, northern

China. Earthquakes occur frequently in this area as a result of intense tectonic

activity that began in the late Cenozoic (Wang et al., 1984；Sun et al.,1990;

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Deng et al., 2002；Cheng et al., 2006; Li, 2006). In addition, this area is located

on the northwestern margin of the East Asian monsoon region. Large-scale

normal faulting affecting the piedmont zone(Research group of Active fault

system around Ordos Massif, 1988；Chen, 2002; Ran et al., 2003) has created

the fault-block depression of the Hetao basin and has led to uplift of the

Langshan Range and development of a transverse drainage network

associated with further uplift of the Langshan Range. A system of river terrace

sequences developed along these transverse drainages, and the terrace

surface geomorphology and the underlying fluvial sediments reflect not only

the tectonic uplift but also are very sensitive to climatic changes and thus

provide good records for the study of this area.

In this study, four to five river terraces along one transverse drainage of

the Langshan Range were identified during field investigations of 25

representative river valleys. These terraces were designated T5 through T1.

Their evolution was reconstructed using a combination of optically stimulated

luminescence (OSL) dating and mapping of the terrace treads. The climatic

and tectonic mechanisms driving the river terrace development and the

relationships between the terraces and a palaeolake were studied. In addition,

a model of the spatial relationships generated during uplift was developed

based on an analysis of the rates of river incision and the geomorphic features

of the terraces. Below, we summarise the uplift of the Inner Mongolian plateau

and the evolution of the Hetao plain and Yellow River during the late

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Quaternary.

2. Geologic and geomorphic setting

The Langshan Range is located in the western Yin Mountains, northwest

of the Hetao basin, through which the Yellow River flows. The Langshan

Range is elongated in the NE-SW direction, is 370 km wide at its base, and

rises 1500-2200 m above sea level (Fig. 1A). It is bordered on the south by the

Hetao basin, which lies at an elevation of 500-1200 m lower than the mountain

crest (Fig. 1C); this elevation difference is marked by several fault scarps (Fig.

1B). The mountain’s northern flank slopes gently down to the Inner Mongolian

plateau, and to the west lie the Boketai and Yamalek deserts (Fig. 1A).

Fig. 1(JPG)

The basement rocks in this area primarily consist of an Archaean group

and the Proterozoic Langshan (Cha'ertaishan) group. Jurassic breccia and

Cretaceous brick-red gravel strata overlie these older rocks along an angular

unconformity. Palaeogene, Neogene, and Quaternary deposits are

distributed in the valleys and piedmont of the Langshan Range. A Quaternary

upper Pleistocene series (Qp3)is exposed primarily along the Langshan

piedmont and consists of diluvial, alluvial, and lacustrine sediments. Due to the

Yanshan movement during the Mesozoic, the crust in the Langshan area

thickened and underwent lateral shearing, and a NE-trending orogenic belt

formed owing to northsouth extension and thrust nappes. Meanwhile, a set of

small NE-trending faults developed. During the Eocene (E2), for deformation of

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the Himalaya, large-scale normal faults developed, the Hetao fault-block basin

began to form, and the uplift of the Langshan Range block began. The

Quaternary was a period of extensive vertical offset in the area when relative

movement between the uplifted Langshan Range block and the down thrown

piedmont basin block was measured at a maximum of 1.00 mm/a (Research

group of Active fault system around Ordos Massif, 1988), and the transverse

drainage network developed on the Langshan Range (Fig. 1C).

3. Methods

3.1. Measurement

The river terrace elevations were measured using a high-resolution global

positioning system (differential GPS), and the thicknesses of the alluvial

deposits were measured by tape. Not all of the alluvial deposit thicknesses

could be measured because of human modification of the deposits.

3.2. Field investigation

3.2.1. The valley characteristics in the transverse drainage of the Langshan

area

Most valleys in the transverse drainage of the Langshan Range trend

NW-SE, nearly perpendicular to the main boundary normal faults. The valleys

developed on the Langshan Range along the topography and extend onto the

Hetao plain (Fig. 2). Typically, these valleys, in succession from the headwater

areas to the lower reaches, consist of gullies, gorges, V-shaped valleys, and

wide valleys. Our study of the river terraces primarily focused on the wide

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valleys, which are primarily located in the downstream areas (Figs. 1C, D; 2).

The Langshan Range may be divided into three sections (designated the

southern, middle, and northern sections) based on their various geomorphic

characteristics (Fig. 2). Most of the valleys south of Hariganna (southern

section) are mature and wide. The terrain between Hariganna and

Dabatuyinsumu (middle section) is very steep, and the valleys in this section

are primarily deep gorges. The valleys north of Dabatuyinsumu are mostly

V-shaped. The valley walls are steep and are underlain by exposed bedrock,

but several valleys at lower elevations are relatively wide.

Fig. 2（JPG）

3.2.2. Characteristics of the river terraces in the Langshan area

The well-developed river terraces are primarily located in the downstream

portions of the valleys in the southern and northern sections. In this study, we

selected 25 representative valleys to investigate, as shown in Fig. 2.

For convenience, the 25 river valleys were assigned numbers in succession

from south to north; these number designations are used to refer to the valleys

in the discussions below.

Table 1

Elevations of the terrace treads above riverbed levels

No. Vally name Geology

point No.

Altitude above river（m） No. Vally name Geology

point No.

Altitude above river（m）

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

1 Chaasenggaole D009-7 5 11 20 34 14 Baishitougou D060 5 10 36 - -

☆D009-7 0 6 7 5 D061 5 - 40 57

2 Budunmaodegaole D027-1 -- 15 26 -- 15 Noname gou4 D062 7 18 - 43

D033-1 9 21 27 33 16 Dabagou D065 8 14 31 56

☆D033-1 9 10 6 6 ☆D065 8 14 31 7

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D036-1 8 16 24 D066 6 11 38 45 66

D041-1 -- 18 27 35 ☆D066 6 4 13 10

D044-1 8 18 32 D067 6 13 41 59

3 Wenggeleqige D016-1 -- 12 -- 32 ☆D067 6 3 2 8

4 Wusitaigaole D049-1 5 -- 23 D069 8 - 35 -

D053-1 -- 17 -- 36 D070 - - 24 44

D060-1 5 15 21 27 35? 17 Sanguikouzi D076 4 10 25 42 51

☆D060-1 5 10 3 6 ☆D076 1 2 15 7 10

5 Geeraobaogaole D075-1 4 19 D077 6 16 24 45 103?

D081-1 -- 14 ☆D077 7 8 7 5

D083-1 18 D078 5 14 25 38

D084-1 13 ☆D078 4 2 2

6 Sumutugaole D93-1 - 14 18 Nonamegou5 D079 7 17 32- -

D94-1 16 D080 5 12 25 46

D95-1 9 18 -- 31 19 Dalikegou D082 9 - 31 46 66

D97-1 4 -- 24 -- -- D083 6 - 30 50 66

7 Harigannagaole D102-1 3 15 D084 9 17 33 60 75

D103-1 4 15 ☆D084 3 2 1.5 1

D105-1 6 14 20 Xiwugaigou D085 7 14 30 44

D106-1 5 15 19 ☆D085 1.5 3 7

D107-1 4 10 23 35 D086 11 17 21 35 44

D107-2 5 0 3 12 21 Shanda temple D087 3 8 23 54

8 Nonamegou1 D040 3 13 36 51 22 Nonamegou6 D089 7 15 30 38 57

☆D040 3 4 2 0 ☆D089 1 8 15 4

9 Nonamegou2 D042 4 10 28 - 23 Shudinggaolan D090 5 27 44 70

10 Elesitaigou D045 3 12 24 43 D091 5 9 28 48

☆D045 3 3 5 3 ☆D091 2 8 0 4

D046 8 16 35 55 D092 7 17 25 41

11 Yangguikouzi D053 7 - 34 56 24 Bulegesugou D094 10 22 33

D054 11 - 45 66 ☆D094

D055 7 - 27 - D095 7 10 21 46

12 Hongshangou D057 5 16 23 52 D096 5 16 30 43

☆D057 5 16 23 3 25 Dongwugaikou D097 12 18 20 42 57

13 Noname gou3 D059 5 13 25 43 D098 3 11 26 38 51

☆D059 13 25 43 18 ☆D098 3

Note: the “☆” represent alluvium thickness on terrace.

In the southern valleys, four terraces with average elevations of 32.88, 24,

15.43, and 5.64 m above the riverbed were identified. These were designated

terraces T4, T3, T2, and T1 in order of descending elevation (Fig. 3). Their

underlying alluvial deposits measure 5.67, 5.33, 7.25 and 3.5 m thick on

average, respectively (Table 1). Nearly all of the T1 terraces are either fill or

strath terrace, and their underlying deposits consist primarily of fluvial sand

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and gravel. Most of the T1 deposits have been heavily altered by human

activities (quarrying and road construction) in the downstream valleys. The T2

terraces are primarily base terraces except for several accumulation terraces,

are distributed widely throughout the study area and are laterally extensive in

most of the valleys (Figs. 3, 4). The T2 deposits consist primarily of fluvial sand

and gravel. The gravel clast sizes vary from one valley to the next but typically

range from 0.5 to 10 cm; most of the clasts are moderately weathered. The T3

and T4 terraces among the various valleys may be accumulation, base, or

erosion terraces; but base and erosion terraces predominate. It is

worth noting that most of the T3 terraces are concentrated in the northern

valleys and are rare in the southern valleys, where they were identified only in

valleys 2 and 4. These southernmost T3 terraces are small and exhibit only

thin alluvial deposits, The T4 deposits are thick and laterally extensive in the

southern section (Fig. 4A).

Fig. 3(JPG)

The majority of the northern valleys contain sequences of four terraces,

although a few contain a fifth terrace (Fig. 3), which are primarily base and

erosion terraces. The average elevations of the T5, T4, T3, T2, and T1 terrace

surfaces above the riverbed level are 63.3, 46.74, 29.09, 13.46, and 6.31 m,

respectively; and the T4 through T1 average alluvial deposit thicknesses are

5.33, 9.03, 5.77 and 3.96, respectively (Table 1). All of these terrace elevations

above riverbed level are higher than those of their counterparts to the south,

except for terrace T2. The degrees of terrace preservation and the types of

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alluvial deposits of terraces T4 through T1 are similar to those of the southern

valleys except for terrace T3. The T3 terraces in the northern valleys are well

developed and are underlain by thick, laterally extensive alluvial deposits.

Lacustrine sediments were found underlying terrace T4.

Fig. 4(JPG)

3.3. OSL dating

Based on the developmental characteristics of the terraces, such as their

depositional contacts, particle cementation, degree of weathering of the alluvial

gravels, and their topography, we infer that the T4 through T1 terraces may

have formed primarily during the late Pleistocene. We therefore selected the

optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) method for dating samples of the

alluvial terrace deposits.

3.3.1 Sampling

To increase the comparability of the age estimates of the terrace

sediments, all of the sampling sites were located in the downstream ends of

the valleys. These locations provided well-developed alluvial deposits (Figs.

1A, B) consisting of undisturbed silt or fine sand (Fig. 5). We typically collected

a sample from the top and the bottom of the deposit in the event that site

conditions were good. Two batches of samples for dating were collected in

2011 and 2013, as dictated by the study scheduling. The sampling equipment

and procedures were as follows:

Steel tubes 6 cm in diameter and 25 cm long were prepared. Each was

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provided with a black plastic bag to seal one end of the tube.

The surficial, weathered 20 to 30 cm of alluvium was removed.

The steel tube was driven into the fresh terrace deposit.

The sediment-filled steel tube was retrieved and its ends immediately

covered with black plastic. The tube nozzle was sealed with aluminum foil

and wrapped with adhesive tape. Steps were taken to ensure avoiding light

penetration and water loss.

Fig.5(JPG)

We collected four representative samples from the T4 terraces. Samples

LS1-D016-1 and LS1-D016-2 were obtained from the bottom and top of the T4

deposits in valley 3, respectively (Fig. 5C). These intervals were selected as

representing the beginning of aggradation and beginning of incision,

respectively, of the T4 terrace. Sample LS2-D059-2 was obtained from the

lowermost lacustrine sediments underlying the T4 terrace in valley 13 (Fig. 5G),

and sample LS-D057-1 was from the bottom of the T4 deposits in valley 12

(Fig. 5F); these intervals were also selected as representing the approximate

start of aggradation of terrace T4.

The OSL dating of terrace T3 was primarily performed on samples from

the northern valleys as the result of the weak development of this terrace in the

southern valleys. Sample LS-D068-1 was obtained from the uppermost T3

deposits in valley 16 (Fig. 5H) and represents the beginning of incision of this

terrace. Sample LS-D078 was obtained from the lowermost T3 deposits in

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valley 17 (Fig. 5I), which represent the approximate start of aggradation of the

T3 terrace.Four samples were obtained from the T2 terrace. Sample

LS-D093-9 was obtained from a sand lens at the bottom of the T2 sediments in

valley 6 (Fig. 5D) (southern section) and represents the approximate start of

aggradation of the T2 terrace. Sample LS1-D033 was obtained from the top of

the T2 terrace in valley 2, and sample LS1-D009 was obtained from a sand

lens in the upper sediments of the T2 terrace in valley 1 (Figs. 5A, B); these

samples represent the approximate beginning of incision of the T2

terrace.Sample LS-D084-1 was obtained from the bottom of the T1 deposits in

the downstream of valley 19 in the Langshan Range southern (Fig. 5J), and

sample LS-D045-1 was obtained from the upper T1 deposits in valley 10 (Fig.

5E). These samples may represent the aggradation and beginning of incision

of the T1 terrace. Unfortunately, we could not find appropriate sites for

sampling the T5 terrace due to the topography and the erosional nature of the

terrace.

3.3.2. Analysis

In 2011 and 2013, the two batches of samples were transported to the

Crustal Dynamics Key Laboratory of the Institute of Crustal Dynamics, China

Earthquake Administration, for age dating. The samples received

pre-treatment in the laboratory, and their OSL signals were measured using

automatic Risø DA-20–TL/OSL instruments (Denmark). The protocols used to

measure the quartz equivalent doses (De) of the two batches of samples

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differed. The equivalent doses (De) of the first batch of samples, which were

analysed in 2011, were determined using the SAR dating protocol (Murray and

Wintle, 2000, 2003); and the equivalent doses (De) of the second batch of

samples, which were analysed in 2013, were determined using the SMAR

dating protocol (Wang et al., 2005) owning to the particle sizes of the silt. The

environmental dose rate was measured using a variety of techniques. The

Daybreak583 thick-source α-counting technique (Aitiken, 1985) was used to

measure contributions from uranium (U) and thorium (Th) decay chains, and a

flame photometer was used to measure the potassium hydroxide (KOH)

content. The water content was calculated to be 5-10％ of the dry sample

weight. The cosmic ray contribution to the dose rate was calculated at the

same time (Prescott and Hutton, 1994). The uranium (U), thorium (Th) and

potassium (K) levels of the second batch of samples were measured using an

element plasma mass spectrum analyser. The environmental dose rate was

then calculated based on the absorbed dose rate of the quartz and the

transformational relationships among the uranium, thorium， and potassium

concentrations (Aitiken, 1985, 1998). Finally, the sediment ages were

calculated based on the equivalent dose and environmental dose rates of the

samples.

4. Results

Table 1 presents the elevations of the terrace treads above the riverbed

levels and the thicknesses of the alluvial deposits underlying the terraces.

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Table 2 presents the analytical data and results of the OSL dating. Note that

three samples, i.e., LS1-D016-1, LS1-D016-2, and LS-D059-2 may be

undervalued for the saturation tendency of quartz singles (Table 2). Otherwise,

the age of sample LS-D091-1, which was obtained from the T2 deposits in

valley 23, is 51.61 ± 5.92 ka BP, which is close to the ages of the T3 deposits in

other valleys, as a result of influence from the residual luminescence signal of

the sample.

Table 2

Results of the OSL analysis

The

first

batch

Sample code Terrace

sequence

α particle

countingrate

（/Ksec）

K2O

(%)

Dose rate

(Gy/Ka)

Equivalent dose (Gy) Age（Ka）

LS1-D009 T2 4.36 ± 0.14 2.80 2.95 ± 0.29 99.79 ± 12.84 33.87 ± 5.13

LS1-D016-2 T4 14.86 ± 0.26 2.50 4.20 ± 0.42 243.83 ± 20.79 58.00 ± 6.78

LS1-D016-1 T4 9.46 ± 0.20 1.91 2.99 ± 0.29 230.41 ± 34.80 76.97 ± 13.15

LS1-D033 T2 6.12 ± 0.16 2.74 3.15 ± 0.31 101.40 ± 19.47 32.19 ± 6.70

LS1-D093 T2 10.71 ± 0.21 2.94 3.95 ± 0.39 163.06 ± 15.65 41.28 ± 5.16

The

second

batch

Sample code U（μg/g） Th（μg/g） K(％) Dose rate

(Gy/Ka)

Equivalent dose (Gy) Age（Ka）

LS-D045-1 T1 0.868 2.93 2.37 3.08 48.60 ± 3.99 15.79 ± 2.04

LS-D057-1 T4 3.88 15.9 2.02 5.06 321.77 ± 22.91 63.61 ± 7.81

LS-D059-2 T4 5.03 14.9 2.96 6.29 438.05 ± 37.51 69.68 ± 9.17

LS-D068-1 T3 5.31 9.62 2.32 5.23 241.87 ± 13.68 46.25 ± 5.31

LS-D078-1 T3 4.42 13.3 2.93 5.89 301.73 ± 11.62 51.25 ± 5.49

LS-D084-1 T1 1.66 6.61 2.38 3.73 86.51 ± 0.48 23.22 ± 2.33

LS-D091-1 T2 3.26 13.8 2.52 5.13 264.75 ± 14.85 51.61 ± 5.92

As shown in Table 3, the age dates of the T4 deposits range between

76.97 ± 13.15 and 58.00 ±6.78 ka BP, and the samples from the T3 and T2

deposits yield age estimate of 51.25 ± 5.49 to 46.25 ± 5.31 ka B P and 41.28 ±

5.16 to 32.19 ± 6.70 ka B P, respectively. There are two piedmont terraces in

the foothills of the Langshan Range; the T2 piedmont terrace near

Chahanbuligesu yielded an age of 58.33 ± 6.71 ka BP. (Zhang et al., 2014b),

which is approximately our terrace T4 age. The T1 piedmont terrace near

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Sumutu valley (valley 6) yielded an age estimateof 47.48 ± 6.89 ka BP (He et

al., 2014), which is approximately our terrace T3 age estimate. These findings

indicate that the river and piedmont terraces may have developed in a uniform

tectonic and climatic setting.

Table 3

Terraces sequence in the transverse drainage of the Langshan area

Terrace

level

Height above the river level

(m)

Age (ka BP) Sampling point Geological time

T4 32 76.97 ± 13.15 No.3 downstream

（40°37'20.73"N；106°22'0.78"E）

Early-late Late

Pleistocene

52 58.00 ± 6.78 No.3 downstream

（40°37'20.73"N；106°22'0.78"E）

-- 58.33 ± 6.71 Piedmont terrace T2（Zhang et al., 2014b）

（41°5'55.64"N；107°3'44.41"E）

45 65.33 ± 6.71 debris flow gullyT4（Zhang et al., 2014b）

（49°45.05"N；106°34'16.84"E）

48 69.68 ± 9.17 No.9 downstream

（41°0'46.08"N；106°53'12.41"E）

52 63.61 ± 7.81 No.12 downstream

（40°59'27.93"N；106°51'36.89"E）

T3 21 51.25 ± 5.49 No.17 downstream（T3 bottom）

(41°07'47.84"N；107°06'00.30"E)

late Late Pleistocene

41 46.25 ± 5.31 No.16 downstream

（41°4'2.56"N；107°0'29.90"E）

-- 47.48 ± 6.89 Wulanaobao（He et al., 2014）

（40°45'32"N；106°29'36.26"E）

T2 12 33.87 ± 5.13 No.1 downstream

（40°35'35.2"N；107°20'12.3"E）

late Late Pleistocene

16 41.28 ± 5.16 No.6 downstream

（40°45'56.79"N；106°28'2.05"E）

21 32.19 ± 6.70 No.2 downstream

（40°37'19.62"N；106°20'2.72"E）

T1 2 23.22 ± 2.33 No.19 downstream

（41°10'27.67"N；107°8'57.73"E）

Late-the last stage of late

Pleistocene

9 15.79 ± 2.04 No.10 downstream

（40°55'18.91"N；106°38'11.52"E）

Theoretically, the terraces attained their greatest lateral and vertical

extents as the uppermost sediments were deposited, i.e., at about the time the

terraces were abandoned and began experiencing incision. Consequently, we

may use the ages of the uppermost terrace sediments rather than the

lowermost terrace sediments to characterise the approximate ages of the

terraces. Therefore, the ages of maximum development of terraces T4 through

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T1, i.e., the ages of their surfaces at average elevations of 44, 28, 14, and 6 m

above riverbed level, respectively, are approximately 58.00, 46.25, 32.19, and

15.79 ka BP, respectively.

5. Discussion

5.1. Late Quaternary fluvial evolution and incision history in the Langshan area,

as determined from the river terraces

We can reconstruct the aggradation and incision history of the fluvial

terraces in the Langshan area by means of the elevation data and the

corresponding OSL ages of the terrace treads. Table 4 and Fig. 6 show that the

terraces resulted from four intermittent aggradation and cutting stages since

76.97 ± 13.15 ka.BP The northern and southern sections of the Langshan area

differ substantially in terms of the geomorphology and average terrace incision

and sedimentation rates.

Table 4

Terrace formation history in the Langshan area

Terraces

sequence

Time（ka.B.P.） Terrace history Marine

oxygen

isotope

stage

Remark Heinrich

events Process Average sediment

thickness/

downcutting

depth（m）

North South

T4 76.97 ± 13.15 ~ 58.00 ± 6.78 aggradation 5.33 5.67 MIS4 River bed aggradation H6

58.00 ± 6.78 ~ 51.25 ± 5.49 incision 17.83 8.69 Rock and sediments

incision

T3 51.25 ± 5.49 ~ 46.25 ± 5.31 aggradation 9.03 5.33 River bed and flood plain

sediment

H5

46.25 ± 5.31 ~ 41.28 ± 5.16 incision 15.76 8.75 MIS3 Rock and sediments

incision

T2 41.28 ± 5.16 ~ 32.19 ± 6.70 aggradation 5.77 7.25 River bed aggradation H4

32.19 ± 6.70 ~ 23.22 ± 2.33 incision 7.09 9.79 Rock and sediments

incision

T1 23.22 ± 2.33 ~ 15.79 ± 2.04 aggradation 3.96 3.5 MIS2 flood plain sediment H1

15.79 ± 2.04 ~ now incision 6.35 5.64 sediments incision

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The valleys underwent a stage of riverbed aggradation during the period

of approximately 76.97 - 58.00 ka BP. The average thicknesses of these

deposits are 5.33 m in the northern section and 5.67 m in the southern section.

At about 58.00 ± 6.78 ka BP, the rivers began to incise their beds, and terrace

T4 was abandoned. The average terrace elevations above riverbed level were

17.83 and 8.69 m in the northern and southern sections, respectively. The

terrace treads of T4 in the northern section are higher than those in the

southern section due to their thinner deposits and higher elevations relative to

the riverbed level. Around 51.25 ka BP, the river deposition rate surpassed the

incision rate, and the sediments were generally deposited on the riverbeds and

floodplains. The average depositional thicknesses of this stage were 9.03 and

5.33 m (northern and southern sections, respectively) until approximately

46.25 ka BP. A subsequent stage of incision (the second) occurred during the

period of 46.25 - 41.28 ka BP, during which the river incised the earlier

sediment and bedrock and created terrace T3. The average heights of these

terraces are 8.75 and 15.76 m (northern and southern sections, respectively).

The valleys then underwent another aggradation stage during the period of

41.28 - 32.19 ka BP, and a third incision stage during the period of around

32.19 - 23.22 ka BP. The average deposit thickness and decrease in height of

the resulting T2 terraces were about 5.77 and 7.25 m in the northern section,

respectively, and 7.09 and 9.79 m in the southern section, respectively. The

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period of 23.22 - 15.79 ka BP was a subsequent stage of valley aggradation,

primarily flood plain deposition. After 15.79 ± 2.04 ka BP, there were several

cycles of aggradation and incision; but the incision rate generally exceeded the

depositional rate, and the average heights of the resulting T1 terraces were

6.35 and 5.64 m in the northern and southern sections, respectively. The

actual evolution of these terraces may have been more complex than is

summarised in this model. However, the model presented above may still be

useful for understanding the evolution of the river terraces and their tectonic

and climatic settings during the late Pleistocene.

Fig.6(JPG)

5.2 Mechanisms driving river terrace development in the Langshan Range

during the late Quaternary

River terrace development is a result of accumulation and incision of river

systems at various times, and the factors driving these processes primarily

consist of changes in the internal dynamics of the fluvial system and controls

external to the fluvial system; the latter primarily consist of climatic, tectonic,

and base level changes (e.g., Merritts et al., 1994; Vandenberghe, 1995；

Maddy et al., 2001b). In areas of mountain uplift, base and erosion terraces

represent the majority; accumulation terraces are occasionally present in the

wide, downstream sections of valleys (Starkel, 2003; Gao et al., 2005; Wang et

al., 2009). These patterns are the products of fluvial geomorphologic evolution

over long time and large spatial scales, and thus we may neglect changes in

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internal dynamics of fluvial systems (Maddy et al., 2001a; Vandenberghe,

2002) and focus on external controls to explain the development of the

terraces. The terraces on the Langshan Range are typical of terraces in such

areas of uplift.

5.2.1 Terrace formation and climatic changes

The Langshan area is located in western Inner Mongolia, northern China,

along a margin of the East Asian monsoon region. The area is therefore

sensitive to climatic changes, which may be reflected in the terrace evolution.

Fig.7(JPG)

The relationships between terrace evolution and climatic changes may be

discerned by correlating the evolution with oxygen isotope curves and Heinrich

events (Table 4； Fig. 7). First, based on a comparison between terrace

evolution and marine isotope curves, the developmental stages of the T4, T3,

T2 and T1 terraces may be correlated with marine isotope stages MIS4, MIS3,

and MIS2. The incision of the T3 terrace occurred during the shift from the

MIS4 stage to the MIS3 stage, which suggests that the shift to a warm, wet

climate enhanced the palaeohydrodynamic conditions and caused deep

incision by the river system, thus affecting the T3 terrace evolution. Second,

there is a clear correlation between the warm-cold climate cycles and

incision-aggradation terrace cycles when the GISP oxygen isotope curves are

superimposed on a plot of the terrace evolution (Fig. 7). Third, the four stages

of terrace aggradation correlate, respectively, with the H6, H5, H4, and H1

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Heinrich events, which are associated with periods of colder climate.

The above findings indicate that the aggradation and incision of the river

terraces may correlate with periods of cold and warm climates, respectively.

During cold stages, stream flows are reduced, and stream erosion is

weakened; consequently, deposition is the primary process acting on a

floodplain. During shifts from cold to warm climates, stream flows increase,

thus enhancing the incision action of the streams and accelerating the terrace

formation. In addition, the degree of terrace development is also affected by

the climate. Sediment deposition plays an important role in terrace

development, whereby the thicker the sediments, the greater the degree of

terrace development. Figure 6 shows that the periods of T4 and T2 deposition

spanned longer periods than those of T3 and T1 deposition, which may explain

the better development of the T4 and T2 terraces in this area.

5.2.2 Terrace development and tectonic activity

Based on the above discussion, terrace development is affected by the

climate, but we cannot explain all terrace phenomena in terms of climatic

changes. First, the terraces are elevated above the riverbed by more than 10

m, which cannot be explained by climatic driving forces alone. Second, the

terrace alluvial thicknesses in the northern section are approximately equal to

those of the southern section, which holds true for all four terrace

developmental stages. However, the depths of incision differ between the two

sections (Table 4; Fig. 6), which indicates that the terrace incision was not only

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driven by the climate. The resistance to erosion of the bedrock in the lower

valleys of the northern and southern sections does not differ markedly; and if

the terrace deposition and incision were only driven by climate in this area,

these depths of incision would be equal. Third, as mentioned before, the river

terraces and piedmont terrace may have developed in uniform tectonic and

climatic settings, judging from the consistency of their OSL dating results.

Based on previous research (He et al., 2014), the piedmont terrace in the

Langshan area was controlled more by normal faulting than by stream incision.

Thus, the driving factor that should be considered in addition to climate is

tectonic uplift.

As we mentioned earlier in section 2, tectonic uplift is prevalent across the

Langshan area (Research group of Active fault system around Ordos Massif,

1988; Chen, 2002; Ran et al., 2003) . This uplift may provide the continuous

driving force for stream incision, resulting in the observed terrace heights

above riverbed levels of more than 10 m. Furthermore, tectonic uplift is also

the primary explanation for the different rates of incision between the northern

and southern sections of the Langshan area.

5.2.3 River terrace development in the Langshan area and Palaeolake

Jilantai-Hetao

The Yellow River is the local erosional base level of the transverse

drainage on the Langshan Range. The development of the Yellow River,

however, was subject to several phases of river-lake cycles during the late

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Pleistocene (Li et al., 2005, 2007; Li, 2006; Chen et al., 2008; Fan et al., 2011).

As indicated by previous studies, Palaeolake Jilantai-Hetao was present in this

area during the late Pleistocene (Chun, 2006; Chen, 2008；Yang, 2008) and

then dried up as the subsequent dry climate and tectonic activity in this area

during the late Pleistocene. Therefore, the river incision activity during the late

Pleistocene should be related to the levels of this palaeolake.

During our field investigation, we identified lacustrine sediments in the

lowermost T4 terrace deposits in the downstream portions of certain valleys.

The silt beds in these lacustrine deposits yielded an OSL age of 69.68 ±9.17

ka.B.P. (Table 3). This finding indicates that the palaeolake was present along

the foothills of the Langshan Range before the development of the T4 terrace.

Episodic uplift events and the dry climate during the late Pleistocene may have

led to lowering of the palaeolake level, thus increasing the downcutting by

rivers and accelerating the river terrace development. Thus, the primary driving

mechanisms are a combination of tectonic uplift and climatic changes.

Therefore, the four river terraces in the transverse drainage on the

Langshan Range were formed by the combined actions of climatic shifts and

tectonic uplift. Tectonic uplift controlled the depth of river downcutting, and the

climate controlled the aggradation of the terraces, which was also affected by

stream incision.

5.3 Implications for climatic changes and tectonic uplift events in the Langshan

area based on the river incision rate

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Climatic shifts and tectonic uplift controlled the terrace incision; thus, the

rates of river incision may reflect the climate and tectonic uplift conditions in

the area. There may be no simple relationship between fluvial incision and

surface uplift (Whipple et al., 1999). Nevertheless, the rate of fluvial incision on

a long time scale may be used to quantify (or at least approximate) the rate of

tectonic uplift in tectonically active regions. This correlation has gained

widespread acceptance during the previous decade, based on the assumption

that the river gradients remain relatively constant (e.g., Maddy et al., 2001a,

2008; Pan et al., 2009; Westaway, 2009; Bridgland, 2000; Hu et al., 2012).

The rates of river terrace incision were calculated based on the OSL

dating results and the terrace elevation data. The average river incision rate in

the transverse drainage of the Langshan Range is close to 0.760 mm/a. Figure

6 shows the spatial and temporal disparities between the incision rates of

valleys in the Langshan area. During the periods of about 58.00 - 51.25, 46.25

- 41.28, 32.19 - 23.22, and 15.79 ka BP to the present, the depths and rates of

incision in the northern valleys were 32.28 m and 4.78 mm/a, 21.77 m and 4.38

mm/a, 13.46 m and 1.50 mm/a, and 6.31 m and 0.4 mm/a, respectively. The

corresponding depths and rates in the southern valleys during those time

periods were 16.45 m and 2.43 mm/a, 17.54 m and 3.53 mm/a, 15.42 m and

1.79 mm/a, and 5.64 m and 0.36 mm/a, respectively.

Note the temporal disparities between the incision rates: the rate of

2.43-4.78 mm/a during the period of 58.00 - 41.28 ka BP is greater than the

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rate of 0.36 - 1.79 mm/a after about 32.19 ka BP. The likely explanation for this

disparity is the climate shift between stages MIS 4 and MIS 3 (Fig. 7), during

which rising temperatures caused greater stream flows and accelerated river

incision. This high river incision rate during this stage was also observed in the

Fenwei basin, Tibet, and other areas (e.g., Hu et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2013),

which also indicates that the climatic change from stage MIS 4 to stage MIS 3

caused the high river incision rate.

Another point worth noting is the spatial disparities between the incision

rates in the northern and southern sections. During the periods of 58.00 -

51.25 and 46.25 - 41.28 ka BP, the northern incision rates were greater than

those in the southern section, whereas these northern and southern rates were

approximately equal after 32.19 ka BP. These trends indicate that the

Langshan Range experienced tilting, whereby uplift in the northern section was

greater than that in the southern section during the period of 58.00 - 41.28 ka

BP; after around 32.19 ka BP, uplift tended to be equal on a regional scale.

6. Conclusions

Four to five river terraces developed in the transverse drainage of the

Langshan Range. The surfaces of terraces T4 through T1 are at average

elevations of 44, 28, 14, and 6 m respectively, above the riverbed level,

and their deposits have been assigned age dates of 58.00，46.25, 32.19,

after 15.79 ka BP respectively, according to the optically stimulated

luminescence (OSL) dating.

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Terraces T4 through T1 experienced four intermittent aggradation stages

during the periods of approximately 76.97 - 58.00, 51.61- 46.25, 41.28 -

32.19, and 23.22 - 15.79 ka BP respectively, and incision stages during the

periods of 58.00 - 51.61, 46.25 - 41.28, 32.19 - 23.22, and 15.79 ka BP to

the present, respectively.

The four river terraces developed as a result of the combined driving

forces of climatic change and tectonic uplift. Tectonic uplift controlled the

depth of river downcutting, and climate controlled the aggradation of the

terraces, which was also affected by the incision by the river.

The temporal and spatial disparities in the incision rates indicate that the

climate shift between stages MIS4 and MIS3 caused the high river incision

rate. The uplift of the Langshan Range included a component of tilting

whereby the northern section rose more rapidly than the southern section

during the period of 58.00 - 41.28 ka BP, whereas after about 32.19 ka BP,

the uplift tended to be equal on a regional scale.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the guidance of research fellow Zhonghai Wu

regarding the writing and for the help in the field from Bin Guo of the Inner

Mongolia Bayannur Bureau of Geopark Administration. This paper has

benefited from valuable comments and suggestions by Professor David

Bridgland and anonymous reviewer, whose efforts are gratefully acknowledged.

We also thank Richard A. Marston, our editor, for his time and effort dedicated

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to improving our manuscript in format and English. This study was financially

supported by the Public Welfare Profession Special Research Fund of the

China Ministry of Land and Resources (No. 201211077), the 1:50,000 pilot

mapping project funded by CGS (China Geological Survey) (No.

12120114042101), and the geological heritage conservation project of

―Tectonic movement and environmental effects in Inner Mongolia Bayannur of

China during the Late Pleistocene‖.

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synthesis of data from IGCP 518. Global and Planetary Change 68:

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Bayannuer，Inner Mongolia. Internal Report in Chinese, Unpublished.(in

Chinese )

Figure captions:

Fig. 1.(A) General tectonic setting of the Hetao rift system and adjacent areas.

(B) Faults at base of Langshan Mountain (C) DEM map of the drainage in the

Langshan area (D) Location of sampling area in the drainage area. The

location of the study area in (A) and (C) is denoted by the box.

Fig. 2. Valleys in the Langshan area. Valley designations are as follows: 1.

Chaasenggaole 2. Budunmaodegaole 3. Wenggeleqige 4. Wusitaigaole 5.

Geeraobaogaole 6. Sumutugaole 7. Harigannagaole 8. Nonamegou1 9.

Nonamegou2 10. Elesitaigou 11. Yangguikouzi 12. Hongshangou 13. Noname

gou3 14. Baishitougou 15. Noname gou4 16. Dabagou 17. Sanguikouzi 18.

Nonamegou5 19. Dalikegou 20. Xiwugaigou 21. Near Shanda temple 22.

Nonamegou6 23. Shudinggaolan 24. Bulegesugou 25. Dongwugaikou

Fig. 3. River terraces in the Langshan area

Fig. 4. Photographs of typical river terraces in the Langshan area. (A) River

terraces in (valley 2) Budunmaodegaole, downstream. (B) River terraces in

(valley 12) Hongshangou, downstream. (C) River terraces in (valley 23)

Shudinggaolan, midstream. (D) Gravels on the T3 and T4 terraces of valley 13

(downstream segment) and the overlying gravels.

Fig. 5. Cross sections through the valleys in the Langshan area. (A) Valley 1

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Chaasenggaole (LS1-D009). (B) Valley 2 Budunmaodegaole (LS1-D033). (C)

Valley 3 Wenggeleqige (LS1-D016). (D) Valley 6 Sumutugou (LS1-D093).

(E) Valley 10 Elesitaigou (LS-2D045). (F) Valley 12 Hongshangou (LS-D057).

(G) Valley 13 Noname gou3 (LS-D059). (H) Valley 16 Dabagou (LS-D068). (I)

Valley 19 Dalikegou (LS-D084). (J) Valley 17 Sanguikouzi (LS-D078)

Fig. 6. Formation processes of the fluvial terraces in the Langshan area.

Fig. 7. The relationship between river terrace formation and global climatic

change during the late Quaternary (oxygen isotope curves from Shackleton et

al., 1983; Yao, 1999; and the present study).

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Figure 1A,B

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Figure 1C,D

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Figure 2

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Figure 3

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Figure 4

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Figure 5A

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Figure 5B

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Figure 5C

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Figure 5D

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Figure 5E

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Figure 5F

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Figure 5G

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Figure 5H

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Figure 5I

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Figure 5J

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Figure 6

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Figure 7

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Highlights:

We designated 4 - 5 fluvial terraces in the transverse drainage of

Langshan Range.

The fluvial evolution and incision history was reconstructed in the

Langshan area.

We discussed the genetic mechanism of river terrace in Langshan area,

North China.

We analysed the crustal uplift difference in Langshan area by river incision

rates.