LATIN SOURCES

GCSE Latin Verse Literature: Prophecies and Portents

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Prophecies and Portents

Latin GCSE Verse Literature


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GCSE Latin: Verse Literature (Unit A404)

• The exam This paper counts for 25% of the total GCSE. The paper lasts 1 hour. The exam tests understanding and appreciation of the set texts that you have studied. You will be asked both short-answer questions, and questions requiring a more extended response.

• The Set Texts All the texts are selected from the OCR Latin Anthology for GCSE, Section 6 ‘Prophecies and Portents’.

� Lucan: Caesar crosses the Rubicon, Civil War 1.183-205, 223-227 � Persius: Praying for profit, Satires 2.44-52

� Horace: A sign from heaven, Ode 1.34

� Virgil: The Shield of Aeneas, Aeneid 8.608-629, 671-731

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Lucan (39-65 AD). Born at Corduba in Spain, he was educated in Rome. After joining a conspiracy against the emperor Nero, he was forced to commit suicide. His incomplete poem in 10 books, the Bellum Civile (Civil War), deals with the war between Caesar and Pompey. Also known as Pharsalia after Caesar’s victory over Pompey at Pharsalus in 48BC, it promotes the Republican cause, a bold stance under Nero. Persius (34-62 AD). Born into an equestrian family at Volaterrae in Etruria, he fell under the influence of the Stoics at Rome. He wrote one book of six Satires, modelled on Lucilius and Horace. Horace (65-8 BC). Born the son of a freedman in Venusia in Apulia, south Italy, he later became part of the circle of Maecenas, Augustus’ patron of the arts. As such, he rubbed shoulders with the most powerful politicians and the leading poets of his day. Virgil (70-19 BC). Born in Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul, Virgil was educated at Cremona, Milan and Rome. He became part of the circle of Maecenas, the great Augustan patron, and a friend and supporter of Augustus. His pastoral poems, the Eclogues, were perhaps published in 37BC; the Georgics, his four-book didactic poem on framing, in 29BC; and his great twelve-book epic, the Aeneid, after his death. He was buried near Naples. The mediaeval Italian poet Dante regarded Virgil as ‘our greatest poet’.


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Revision Text

Lucan: Caesar crosses the Rubicon iam gelidas Caesar cursu superaverat Alpes ingentesque animo motus bellumque futurum ceperat. ut ventum est parvi Rubiconis ad undas, ingens visa duci patriae trepidantis imago clara per obscuram vultu maestissima noctem 5 turrigero canos effundens vertice crines caesarie lacera nudisque adstare lacertis et gemitu permixta loqui: 'quo tenditis ultra? quo fertis mea signa, viri? si iure venitis, si cives, huc usque licet.' tum perculit horror 10 membra ducis, riguere comae gressumque coercens languor in extrema tenuit vestigia ripa. mox ait 'o magnae qui moenia prospicis urbis Tarpeia de rupe Tonans Phrygiique penates gentis Iuleae et rapti secreta Quirini 15 et residens celsa Latiaris Iuppiter Alba Vestalesque foci summique o numinis instar Roma, fave coeptis. non te furialibus armis persequor: en, adsum uictor terraque marique Caesar, ubique tuus (liceat modo, nunc quoque) miles. 20 ille erit ille nocens, qui me tibi fecerit hostem.' inde moras solvit belli tumidumque per amnem signa tulit propere… Caesar, ut adversam superato gurgite ripam attigit, Hesperiae vetitis et constitit arvis, 25 'hic' ait 'hic pacem temerataque iura relinquo; te, Fortuna, sequor. procul hinc iam foedera sunto; credidimus satis his, utendum est iudice bello.' Horace: A sign from heaven parcus deorum cultor et infrequens insanientis dum sapientiae consultus erro, nunc retrorsum vela dare atque iterare cursus cogor relictos: namque Diespiter, 5 igni corusco nubila dividens plerumque, per purum tonantes egit equos volucremque currum, quo bruta tellus et vaga flumina, quo Styx et invisi horrida Taenari 10 sedes Atlanteusque finis concutitur. valet ima summis mutare et insignem attenuat deus, obscura promens; hinc apicem rapax Fortuna cum stridore acuto 15 sustulit, hic posuisse gaudet.


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Persius: Praying for profit rem struere exoptas caeso bove Mercuriumque 1 arcessis fibra: 'da fortunare Penates, da pecus et gregibus fetum.' quo, pessime, pacto, tot tibi cum in flamma iunicum omenta liquescant? et tamen hic extis et opimo vincere ferto 5 intendit: 'iam crescit ager, iam crescit ovile, iam dabitur, iam iam'; donec deceptus et exspes nequiquam fundo suspiret nummus in imo.

Virgil: The shield of Aeneas at Venus aetherios inter dea candida nimbos dona ferens aderat; natumque in valle reducta ut procul egelido secretum flumine vidit, talibus adfata est dictis seque obtulit ultro: ‘en perfecta mei promissa coniugis arte 5 munera. ne mox aut Laurentes, nate, superbos aut acrem dubites in proelia poscere Turnum.' dixit, et amplexus nati Cytherea petivit, arma sub adversa posuit radiantia quercu. ille deae donis et tanto laetus honore 10 expleri nequit atque oculos per singula volvit, miraturque interque manus et bracchia versat terribilem cristis galeam flammasque vomentem, fatiferumque ensem, loricam ex aere rigentem, sanguineam, ingentem, qualis cum caerula nubes 15 solis inardescit radiis longeque refulget; tum leves ocreas electro auroque recocto, hastamque et clipei non enarrabile textum. illic res Italas Romanorumque triumphos haud vatum ignarus venturique inscius aevi 20 fecerat ignipotens, illic genus omne futurae stirpis ab Ascanio pugnataque in ordine bella.

haec inter tumidi late maris ibat imago aurea, sed fluctu spumabant caerula cano, et circum argento clari delphines in orbem 25 aequora verrebant caudis aestumque secabant. in medio classes aeratas, Actia bella, cernere erat, totumque instructo Marte videres fervere Leucaten auroque effulgere fluctus. hinc Augustus agens Italos in proelia Caesar 30 cum patribus populoque, penatibus et magnis dis, stans celsa in puppi, geminas cui tempora flammas laeta vomunt patriumque aperitur vertice sidus. parte alia ventis et dis Agrippa secundis arduus agmen agens, cui, belli insigne superbum, 35 tempora navali fulgent rostrata corona. hinc ope barbarica variisque Antonius armis, victor ab Aurorae populis et litore rubro, Aegyptum viresque Orientis et ultima secum Bactra vehit, sequiturque (nefas) Aegyptia coniunx. 40 una omnes ruere ac totum spumare reductis


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convulsum remis rostrisque tridentibus aequor. alta petunt; pelago credas innare revulsas Cycladas aut montes concurrere montibus altos, tanta mole viri turritis puppibus instant. 45 stuppea flamma manu telisque volatile ferrum spargitur, arva nova Neptunia caede rubescunt. regina in mediis patrio vocat agmina sistro, necdum etiam geminos a tergo respicit angues. omnigenumque deum monstra et latrator Anubis 50 contra Neptunum et Venerem contraque Minervam tela tenent. saevit medio in certamine Mavors caelatus ferro, tristesque ex aethere Dirae, et scissa gaudens vadit Discordia palla, quam cum sanguineo sequitur Bellona flagello. 55 Actius haec cernens arcum intendebat Apollo desuper; omnis eo terrore Aegyptus et Indi, omnis Arabs, omnes vertebant terga Sabaei. ipsa videbatur ventis regina vocatis vela dare et laxos iam iamque immittere funes. 60 illam inter caedes pallentem morte futura fecerat ignipotens undis et Iapyge ferri, contra autem magno maerentem corpore Nilum pandentemque sinus et tota veste vocantem caeruleum in gremium latebrosaque flumina victos. 65 at Caesar, triplici invectus Romana triumpho moenia, dis Italis votum immortale sacrabat, maxima ter centum totam delubra per urbem. laetitia ludisque viae plausuque fremebant; omnibus in templis matrum chorus, omnibus arae; 70 ante aras terram caesi stravere iuvenci. ipse sedens niveo candentis limine Phoebi dona recognoscit populorum aptatque superbis postibus; incedunt victae longo ordine gentes, quam variae linguis, habitu tam vestis et armis. 75 hic Nomadum genus et discinctos Mulciber Afros, hic Lelegas Carasque sagittiferosque Gelonos finxerat; Euphrates ibat iam mollior undis, extremique hominum Morini, Rhenusque bicornis, indomitique Dahae, et pontem indignatus Araxes. 80

talia per clipeum Volcani, dona parentis, miratur rerumque ignarus imagine gaudet attollens umero famamque et fata nepotum. 83


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Lucan: Caesar crosses the Rubicon Civil War 1.183-205, 223-237

Lucan's Civil War was written approximately a century after the events it chronicles took place. Lucan was born into a prominent Roman family (Seneca the Elder was his grandfather, and Seneca the Younger his uncle), and seems to have befriended the young Emperor Nero at an early age. He was for several years a poet of some prominence in the Emperor's court, and it is during this period that the Civil War was probably begun. However, Nero and Lucan's friendship evidently soured, and in A.D. 65 Lucan joined Calpurnius Piso's conspiracy to overthrow Nero. When the conspiracy was discovered, Lucan was given the option of suicide or death; he chose suicide. Lucan's Civil War was left (probably) unfinished upon his death. Ten books are extant; it is not known how many more Lucan planned, but two to six more books (possibly taking the story as far as Caesar's assassination in B.C. 46) seem likely. It should be noted that, as history, Lucan's work is far from being scrupulously accurate, frequently ignoring historical fact for the benefit of drama and rhetoric. For this reason, it should not be read as a reliable account of the Roman Civil War. However, its powerful depiction of civil war and its consequences prompted many Medieval and Renaissance poets to regard Lucan among the ranks of Homer, Virgil, and Ovid. In this passage, Caesar, having crossed the Alps, meets with an image of patria. He then crosses the Rubicon. Caesar was an outstanding statesman and general of the late Roman Republic, eventually assassinated in 44BC by senators because of suspicions that he was aiming for absolute rule. One of his greatest achievements was his conquest of the province of Gaul, from which he is returning in this passage. As proconsul of Gaul, Caesar won many battles on behalf of Rome. His supporters wanted him either to be allowed to stand for election as consul or to retain control of his armies. With relations between him and Pompey worsening, he declined to give up his command and lay down his arms unless Pompey did the same. When the senate refused his demand, in 49BC he crossed the river Rubicon from Gaul into Italy with his army.

The Rubicon was the boundary of Caesar’s province. By crossing it with his army he would he committing treason. Because it was illegal for a Roman general to enter Italy from his province at the head of an army, Caesar by this action declared war on the senate and started the civil war between himself and Pompey. For Lucan, the appearance of the image of patria at the point when Caesar is crossing the Rubicon indicates that civil war was already Caesar’s intention. By refusing patria’s plea, he is symbolically embarking upon civil war. This both condemns Caesar and gives a sense of his inevitably approaching victory. Lucan’s poem about the civil war is written from an anti-Caesar standpoint, perhaps influenced by the example of Nero as a bad absolute ruler. Themes: - Personification - Ambition and destiny - Conquest / images of conquest - Boundaries and their transgression


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The river Rubicon was the boundary of Caesar’s province. By crossing it with his army Caesar would be committing treason.

iam gelidas Caesar cursu superaverat Alpes 1

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ingentesque animo motus bellumque futurum ……………………………………………………………………………… ceperat. ut ventum est parvi Rubiconis ad undas, ……………………………………………………………………………… ingens visa duci patriae trepidantis imago 4 ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • Metre: Hexameters • 1: Alps – mountain range separating Gaul from Italy. The focus on the Alps links Caesars actions to the invasion

of Italy by Hannibal in 218. • 2: Motus: rebellion. This is followed by war, bellum. • 3: Ventum est – archaic tone • 3: Rubicon – this river was the boundary between Italy and Cisalpine Gaul • 4: Ingens: ghosts and spirits were thought to be larger than the earthly shape of the person they represented, and

also larger than the person to whom they appeared. Here the larger than life figure represents the nation of Rome. She is shown prophetically in mourning, as if Caesar’s transgression had already taken place.

Questions 1. What is the significance of Caesar crossing the Alps and reaching the Rubicon? 2. How does Lucan convey the speed with which Caesar is acting? 3. How does Lucan’s use of language convey Caesar’s impulse for domination? 4. How is the vision portrayed? Why is she ingens? Why is she trepidantis?

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clara per obscuram vultu maestissima noctem 5 ……………………………………………………………………………… turrigero canos effundens vertice crines ……………………………………………………………………………… caesarie lacera nudisque adstare lacertis ……………………………………………………………………………… et gemitu permixta loqui: ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 6: Turrigero: because the image represents the city of Rome. • 7: Caesarie: a pun on the popular etymology of Caesar’s name Questions 1. How does Lucan give a magical/supernatural quality to the figure of patria? 2. Which emotions is patria feeling? 3. How does Lucan’s use of language convey patria’s distress? 1. Explain in your own words why she patria is distressed. 2. Lines 4-8: which aspects of Lucan’s description liken patria to a human figure? 3. What literary technique is Lucan using in making patria appear to Caesar in this way? Why do you think he

employs this?

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'quo tenditis ultra? ……………………………………………………………………………… quo fertis mea signa, viri? si iure venitis, ……………………………………………………………………………… si cives, huc usque licet.' tum perculit horror 10 ……………………………………………………………………………… membra ducis, riguere comae gressumque coercens ……………………………………………………………………………… languor in extrema tenuit vestigia ripa. ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 8: This is the first direct speech of the epic, emphasising its importance. • 9: viri: Note that patria is not just addressing Caesar, but all his troops (viri) – in the previous passage, Lucan has

presented them as in favour of his march into Italy. • 10 cives: i.e. not as rebels Questions 1. What is the tone of patria’s speech? How does Lucan’s use of language convey this? 2. How does patria claim that right is on her side? 3. How does Caesar respond to the vision? How does Lucan’s language emphasise this? 4. How genuine and serious do you feel Caesar’s terror is?

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mox ait 'o magnae qui moenia prospicis urbis ……………………………………………………………………………… Tarpeia de rupe Tonans Phrygiique penates ……………………………………………………………………………… gentis Iuleae et rapti secreta Quirini 15 ……………………………………………………………………………… et residens celsa Latiaris Iuppiter Alba ……………………………………………………………………………… Vestalesque foci summique o numinis instar ……………………………………………………………………………… Roma, fave coeptis.


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Notes • Caesar mentions all the key deities associated with Rome, going back to the household gods brought from Troy and

including the spirit of Rome. In this way, he presents himself as a citizen – despite patria’s jibe. Caesar’s prayer also refers to the gods in terms that were characteristic of the Julio-Claudian emperors.

• 13: Magnae…urbis: Rome. • 14: Tarpeia: the Capitol was formerly called the Tarpeian Hill after Tarpeia betrayed the citadel, of which her father

was governor, to the Sabines (Gauls). The Tarpeian Rock was a rock on the SW corner of the Capitoline from which traitors were thrown. The reference here is to the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. Lucan is evoking a historical paradigm of treachery. Later, Caesar plunders the temple.

• 14: Tonans, The Thunderer = Jupiter, god of Thunder • 14: Penates: these were brought from Troy in Phrygia by Aeneas and kept in the temple of Vesta. Caesar is claiming

a connection with Aeneas: Caesar, a member of the Julian family, claimed descent from Iulus, Aeneas’ son (15: gentis Iuleae)

• 15: Rapti secreta Quirini: Quirinus = Romulus, mythical founder of Rome. Romulus was meant to have been carried to heaven by the horses of his father Mars. Caesar may be cultivating the cult of Romulus as a blueprint for his own apotheosis.

• 16: Alba Longa - mother city of Rome in Latium • 16: Latiaris. The name by which Jupiter was worshiped on Mons Alba. This reinforces the personal connection

between Caesar and Jupiter, since Iulus founded both Alba Longa and the Julian line. • 17: Vestales: title given to the virgin priestesses who tended the sacred fires of Vesta, goddess of the hearth. Questions 1. mox: why do you think Lucan includes this word? 2. What does Caesar ask the gods to do? 3. How is his language designed to flatter the gods, and create a respectful tone? 4. Why do you think he appeals to so many gods? 5. How does Lucan’s choice of language here contribute to the impression of Caesar’s ambition (and destined victory)? 6. How is the reference to Tarpeia rupe potentially ironic?

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non te furialibus armis

……………………………………………………………………………… persequor: en, adsum victor terraque marique ……………………………………………………………………………… Caesar, ubique tuus (liceat modo, nunc quoque) miles. 20 ……………………………………………………………………………… ille erit ille nocens, qui me tibi fecerit hostem.' ……………………………………………………………………………… inde moras solvit belli tumidumque per amnem ……………………………………………………………………………… signa tulit propere… ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 18: furialibus: associated with public enemies • 19: en: marks the high point of Caesar’s prayer • 20: Tuus: Caesar presents himself as the warrior and servant of Rome. • 20: Liceat modo, nunc quoque: Caesar is saying that he hopes to remain patria’s soldier in the new circumstances

of civil war. • 20-21: Miles-hostem: note the juxtaposition: Caesar is casting himself as the miles, not the hostem. To be a hostem

of patria is to be a state enemy. • 21: ille: a general reference, probably referring to the senate and consuls. • 22: the small river was in flood because of winter rains and melted snow (explained in omitted lines) – but there

may be additional overtones. • 23: In Suetonius’ account, a divine figure appears to Caesar at this point, leading him on. Questions 1. How does Caesar try to present his actions as right and well intentioned, and his opponents as in the wrong? 2. How does he add impact to these final lines of his speech? 3. How does Lucan suggest Caesar’s arrogance and self-importance? 4. How does Lucan suggest that Caesar is prone to violence? (NB also moenia 13, rapti 15) 5. 22-23: how does Lucan suggest that Caesar crossed the Rubicon swiftly and without hesitation? 6. 22-23: How does Lucan’s description of Caesar’s actions emphasise their significance? 7. tumidum: how was the river described in 3? What is suggested by the changed description?

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Caesar, ut adversam superato gurgite ripam ……………………………………………………………………………… attigit, Hesperiae vetitis et constitit arvis, 25 ……………………………………………………………………………… 'hic' ait 'hic pacem temerataque iura relinquo; ……………………………………………………………………………… te, Fortuna, sequor. procul hinc iam foedera sunto; ……………………………………………………………………………… credidimus satis his, utendum est iudice bello.' ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 25: Vetitis arvis: the illegality of Caesar’s action is emphasised. It was forbidden to enter Italy at the head of an

army. • 25: Hesperia – the western land i.e. Italy • 26: Temerata: Caesar saw himself as persecuted by Pompey and the senatorial party. There is irony here, as Lucan

presents Caesar as trying to redress violated laws by breaking further laws himself. In his own account, Caesar claimed to be seeking peace and portrayed the senate as raising troops for Pompey. The overturned laws may be a reference to the apparent snub to the tribunes, who were resisted in their attempts to read out messages from Caesar and evicted from the senate in defiance of their rights and authority. They reported this to Caesar, giving him his pretext for action.

• 27: foedera: The treaties are probably a references to the alliance between Caesar, Pompey and Crassus (the First triumvirate) which ended with Crassus’ death in 53BC, and the marriage of Caesar’s daughter Julia to Pompey. She died in 54BC.

• 27: Fortuna: Fortune, personified as a goddess. Questions 1. How does Lucan stress Caesar’s transgression of boundaries and his intrusion into places he should not be? 2. 24: What is the implication of ‘superato’? 3. What is the tone of Caesar’s speech? What intentions does he declare? 4. How does Caesar give the impression that he is right and that he has been patient long enough? 5. How does the poet add force and intensity to Caesar’s speech? 6. Why do you think he personifies fortune here?

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Virgil: The shield of Aeneas Aeneid 8.608-629, 671-731

With Aeneas in Italy, where Rome will eventually be founded, his mother persuades her husband Vulcan to forge new armour to help Aeneas in his wars with local Latin tribes. The episode is derived from the armour Hephaestus makes for Achilles in Iliad 18. There the scenes on the shield depict Greek life, but Virgil uses the shield in his patriotic epic to reveal the history of the future Rome. The extract is concerned with the most recent historical events on the shield: the battle of Actium in which Octavian (who became the emperor Augustus) defeated Antony and Cleopatra and gained control of the eastern empire. What is presented to Aeneas as a prophecy he cannot fully understand is a glorification of Rome’s recent past and Augustus’ role in it. It confirms to Aeneas the destiny of the city he is to found. The shield is a supernatural work of art, in which the pictures depicting Rome’s future destiny come alive. Look out for vivid depiction of colour, texture, and the materials used in making the work, as well as the images and sounds evoked by it. Themes: - divine favour - miraculous gifts - history as the future - propaganda - winners and losers - colour and movement


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Virgil: The shield of Aeneas Venus presents her son with his armour. at Venus aetherios inter dea candida nimbos ……………………………………………………………………………… dona ferens aderat; natumque in valle reducta ……………………………………………………………………………… ut procul egelido secretum flumine vidit, ……………………………………………………………………………… talibus adfata est dictis seque obtulit ultro: ……………………………………………………………………………… ‘en perfecta mei promissa coniugis arte 5 ……………………………………………………………………………… munera. ne mox aut Laurentes, nate, superbos ……………………………………………………………………………… aut acrem dubites in proelia poscere Turnum.' ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • Aeneas: Trojan prince destined by the gods to sail for Italy and found a settlement there leading

eventually to the foundation of Rome by his descendents. • 1: Venus (Cytherea) – daughter of Jupiter, goddess of love and beauty, mother of Aeneas • 1: Inter nimbos: the clouds convey Venus to the spot, concealing her arrival • 5: coniugis: Vulcan, Venus’ husband, the blacksmith god • 6, 7: Laurentines (a tribe of Latium), Turnus (prince of the Rutulians) – enemies Aeneas will meet

when he lands in Italy Questions 1. Lines 1-4: How does Virgil set the scene for the divine encounter? 2. Lines 6-7: why has Venus given Aeneas’ the arms? Why does Aeneas need to fight these people? 3. How does Virgil signal that Aeneas is receiving special divine favour?

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dixit, et amplexus nati Cytherea petivit, ……………………………………………………………………………… arma sub adversa posuit radiantia quercu. ……………………………………………………………………………… ille deae donis et tanto laetus honore 10 ……………………………………………………………………………… expleri nequit atque oculos per singula volvit, ……………………………………………………………………………… miraturque interque manus et bracchia versat ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 9: Quercu: oak: probably an allusion to the oak wreath awarded to Augustus in 27BC along with the golden shield

‘ob cives servatos’, for saving the people of Rome at Actium. • 13: Flammas vomentem: the helmet pouring out flames links Aeneas and Augustus: see 32. Questions 1 Lines 8-9: how does Virgil portray the handing over of the weapons as a significant event? 2. What is Aeneas’ response to the weapons? 3. How does Virgil’s use of language emphasise this response?

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terribilem cristis galeam flammasque vomentem, ……………………………………………………………………………… fatiferumque ensem, loricam ex aere rigentem, ……………………………………………………………………………… sanguineam, ingentem, qualis cum caerula nubes 15 ……………………………………………………………………………… solis inardescit radiis longeque refulget; ……………………………………………………………………………… tum leves ocreas electro auroque recocto, ……………………………………………………………………………… hastamque et clipei non enarrabile textum. ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 13: Flammas vomentem: the helmet pouring out flames links Aeneas and Augustus: see 32 • 14: Fatiferum: not found before Virgil. A grim prophecy of the slaughter that has to be accomplished by this sword

to win land in the battles that dominate the rest of the poem. • 18: Enarrabile: Virgilian coinage: it is the indescribable workmanship of the shield which will form the poet’s

ecphrasis. Ironic? – given that he dedicates the next 100 lines to describing it. • 18: Clipei textum: at the same time as receiving the oak leaf frown for saving citizens’ lives, Augustus was also

given a golden shield. textum implies craftsmanship and the interweaving of stories. Questions 1. How does Virgil’s description convey the miraculous nature of the gifts? 2. How does the language offer a vivid image of the craftsmanship of the weapons – their look and feel? 3. How does the description imply a great destiny for Aeneas (and Augustus)?

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illic res Italas Romanorumque triumphos ……………………………………………………………………………… haud vatum ignarus venturique inscius aevi 20 ……………………………………………………………………………… fecerat ignipotens, illic genus omne futurae ……………………………………………………………………………… stirpis ab Ascanio pugnataque in ordine bella. ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 19: Res triumphos – embraces the earliest history before Rome was built right through to Augustus’ triumphs

depicted in the centre of the shield • The description of the shield is modelled on Homer’s Shield of Achilles. In Homer, Achilles has a direct need

for new armour, having lent his armour to Patroclus. In Virgil, this is not the case, but the episode offers the opportunity for offering a preview of future Roman greatness, so that Aeneas can more easily bear the suffering necessary for securing the future of Rome.

The passage is an ecphrasis, in which the poet turns aside from his narrative to describe a work of visual art. We see the shield through the eyes of Aeneas himself.

On Achilles’ shield, the scenes on this have no direct connection to the narrative; they are scenes of Greek life (a city at peace, a city at war, reaping, ploughing, dancing) which contrast with the conflict and function in a similar way to the pastoral and domestic similes.

This is very far from the case with Aeneas’ shield, where the scenes are directly relevant to themes of Aeneas’ destiny, Augustus and the future of Rome. The scenes are critical moments in Rome history. They offer analogies with Aeneas’ own struggles, though imperfectly understood by Aeneas himself. The shield in a sense sums up the Aeneid’s theme of the struggles of a man to deliver Rome from peril. They also illustrate typical Roman virtues, such as keeping faith, worshipping the gods, bravery.

The scenes depicted on the shield are: the legends of early Rome, from Romulus to the Republic; the battle of Actium; the triple triumph of Augustus.

The shield is not a practical weapon but a symbolic object, as emphasised when Aeneas is described as lifting the fate on his descendents onto his shoulders.

• 21: Ignipotens: the god of fire = Vulcan. Vulcan is knowledgeable and prophetic, in contrast to Aeneas’ ignorance.: Vulcan, the divine craftsman, represents the creativity of the poet.

• 22: Ascanius/Iulus – son of Aeneas • 22: stirpis ab Ascanio: here Virgil presents the Romans as descended from the Trojans. Questions 1. How does Virgil convey the role of the shield as a prophetic object, conveying the destiny of the Romans? 2. How does he suggest that the future of Rome will be great?

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The battle of Actium: the battle lines drawn up haec inter tumidi late maris ibat imago ……………………………………………………………………………… aurea, sed fluctu spumabant caerula cano, ……………………………………………………………………………… et circum argento clari delphines in orbem 25 ……………………………………………………………………………… aequora verrebant caudis aestumque secabant. ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 23: Haec inter: we may envisage a circular band (sea with dolphins) midway between the circumference of the

shield and its centre. The scenes from earlier Roman history lie between the band and the rim, those about to be described lie inside the band (in medio, 27).

• 27: Actia bella. Actium is a promontory off the Western coast of Greece, famous for its temple of Apollo. Actium was the final battle of the civil wars in which Augustus defeated Antony and Cleopatra and was thus able to establish his position as sole ruler over the Roman empire. It was the outcome of worsening relations between Octavian and Antony. Antony held power in the East, and had made an alliance with Cleopatra; Octavian was powerful in Rome and the West. Despite a marriage alliance (Antony married Octavian’s sister in 40BC) the power sharing broke down. Actium, fought in 31BC, gave Octavian control of the East as well as the West. Antony’s fleet of around 230 ships was anchored in the gulf of Ambracia. He had no wish to leave shelter and engage the superior navy of Augustus (around 400 ships), but faced wit the alternative of abandoning his entire fleet and retreating by land, he decided to try to fight his way out of the gulf, in the hope of saving Cleopatra’s 60 ships, which had sails as well as oars and carried valuable treasure.

• Virgil describes: the opposing fleets; battle of fleets and battle of gods; Cleopatra’s flight and Octavian’s triumph

Questions 1. How does Virgil create a vivid picture of the scene for the battle? 2. How does his language blur the boundary between the representation and the events themselves?

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in medio classes aeratas, Actia bella, ……………………………………………………………………………… cernere erat, totumque instructo Marte videres ……………………………………………………………………………… fervere Leucaten auroque effulgere fluctus. ……………………………………………………………………………… hinc Augustus agens Italos in proelia Caesar 30 ……………………………………………………………………………… cum patribus populoque, penatibus et magnis dis, ……………………………………………………………………………… stans celsa in puppi, geminas cui tempora flammas ……………………………………………………………………………… laeta vomunt patriumque aperitur vertice sidus. ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 27: Classes aeratas – the bronze beaks with which ships rammed enemy vessels. The adjective also adds to the

gleaming appearance of the shield. • 27: Actia bella – poetic plural (see previous page for the battle). • 28: instructo Marte: with battle order drawn up: the god of war represents battle order • 29: Leucate is the southern promontory of the island of Leucas, 30 miles south of Actium. There was also a temple

to Apollo here. With poetic license, Virgil seems to have assimilated Leucate and Actium. • 30: Augustus….Caesar = Octavian. Augustus Caesar - Octavian, great nephew and heir of Julius Caesar. Octavian

did not actually take the name Augustus until 27BC • 30: Italos – Augustus is presented as leader and protector of the whole nation. • 31: cum patribus populosque – Augustus was backed by the senate as well as people • 31: penatibus Penates: the Penates were small figures preserved in the temple of Vesta. Aeneas carried the gods from

defeated Troy; Augustus carried them to victory. This indicates divine support for Augustus. • 31: Magnis dis: reference to the main figures of the Graeco-Roman pantheon, who are represented as fighting on the

side of Augustus. The monosyllabic enduing adds to the impact. • 32: geminas flammas: The helmet pouring out flames links Aeneas and Augustus: see 13. The double flame is

associated with the Julian star (28, patrium sidus), a comet which first appeared when Augustus was celebrating funeral games in memory of his adoptive father Julius Caesar. The star was taken to be a symbol of Julius Caesar’s divinity and figures as a heraldic device on statues. Either Augustus was wearing a helmet with fiery crests, or the flames formed an aura of divine favour.

Questions 1. Why is Actium depicted in medio, do you think? 2. Lines 27-29: how does Virgil create a dramatic picture of the battle scene? 3. Which words remind us that this is a description of a shield? 4. Lines 30-33: how does Virgil convey Augustus’ majesty and divine favour? 5. How does Virgil convey the importance of the battle?

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parte alia ventis et dis Agrippa secundis ……………………………………………………………………………… arduus agmen agens, cui, belli insigne superbum, 35 ……………………………………………………………………………… tempora navali fulgent rostrata corona. ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 34: Agrippa: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa – Octavian’s general, in command at Actium. The four lines on

Augustus are followed by three lines on Agrippa with the same syntactical structure. • 34: ventis secundis – Agrippa also has the support of the winds, as befits a naval commander. • 36: Corona navalis: the naval crown was awarded to Agrippa after his defeat of Pompey at Naulochus in

36BC, a rare honour. Questions 1. How does Virgil create a dignified and impressive portrait of Agrippa? 2. Why do you think Virgil talks about Augustus’s commander? 3. Looking at lines 30-36, draw up a table of the corresponding phrases describing Augustus and Agrippa.

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Anthony and Cleopatra hinc ope barbarica variisque Antonius armis, ……………………………………………………………………………… victor ab Aurorae populis et litore rubro, ……………………………………………………………………………… Aegyptum viresque Orientis et ultima secum ……………………………………………………………………………… Bactra vehit, sequiturque (nefas) Aegyptia coniunx. 40 ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • The four lines on Antony and Cleopatra balance the four on Augustus, both beginning hinc. • 37: Antony – former ally of Caesar and Octavian who become estranged from him because of his relationship

with Cleopatra and his support of her and her territorial interests • 38: Victor – Antony had come from Parthia where he had been fighting a campaign. • 38: litore rubro: the Indian Ocean, not the red sea • 39: Egypt – ruled by Cleopatra • 40: Bactra – in central Asia • 40: coniunx: Despite Antony’s marriage to Octavia (he did not divorce her until 32BC), he recognised the

children he had by Cleopatra and gave them and her parts of Roman territory in a bid to restore the Egyptian kingdom.

Questions 1. Following the depiction of Augustus’ forces, how does Virgil create a contrasting picture of Antony’s Eastern army here? 2. How does he convey horror at Cleopatra’s role? 3. Why might she be considered a ‘nefas’?

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The Battle una omnes ruere ac totum spumare reductis ……………………………………………………………………………… convulsum remis rostrisque tridentibus aequor. ……………………………………………………………………………… alta petunt; pelago credas innare revulsas ……………………………………………………………………………… Cycladas aut montes concurrere montibus altos, ……………………………………………………………………………… tanta mole viri turritis puppibus instant. 45 ……………………………………………………………………………… stuppea flamma manu telisque volatile ferrum ……………………………………………………………………………… spargitur, arva nova Neptunia caede rubescunt. ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 42: remis reductis: the oars are pulled back as the rowers row as hard as possible. • 42: tridentibus rostris: Warships had a bronze beak with three sharp points just below the surface of the water, used

for ramming the enemy • 43: Alta petunt: Anthony and Cleopatra’s ships leave the shelter of the gulf and make a dash for the open sea. • 44: The Cyclades are the numerous small islands of the Ionian sea, east of the Greek mainland. The idea is that the

ships were as large as floating islands: hyperbole. • 45: Turritis puppibus: the ships are particularly impressive due to the towers built on the decks • 46: Flaming tow on flying shafts of iron: a reference to the fire darts used to set fire to ships or fortifications. Questions 1. How does Virgil use language to make this a dramatic and epic battle scene?

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regina in mediis patrio vocat agmina sistro, ……………………………………………………………………………… necdum etiam geminos a tergo respicit angues. ……………………………………………………………………………… omnigenumque deum monstra et latrator Anubis 50 ……………………………………………………………………………… contra Neptunum et Venerem contraque Minervam ……………………………………………………………………………… tela tenent. saevit medio in certamine Mavors ……………………………………………………………………………… caelatus ferro, tristesque ex aethere Dirae, ……………………………………………………………………………… et scissa gaudens vadit Discordia palla, ……………………………………………………………………………… quam cum sanguineo sequitur Bellona flagello. 55 ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 48: regina: Cleopatra. The word regina carried associations of tyranny. • 48: sistro: The sistrum was a kind of rattle use in the worship of Isis, to create a mood of ecstatic frenzy, distasteful to

the Romans, whose religious observances were restrained. Cleopatra is sneeringly said to have used it as a battle signal; Roman troops would have been marshalled using a trumpet.

• 49: Geminos angues: the twin snakes symbolise death. The snake was a royal symbol of Egypt. Cleopatra traditionally died by administering a single asp. Compare the geminas flammas (32) which were the symbol of Augustus’ fortune.

• 49: A tergo: Cleopatra is unaware of her approaching death. • 50: latrator: Anubis was depicted with a dog’s head • 51: Neptunum: here, not only god of the sea, but also a deity of Troy who helped Apollo build and later destroy its

walls. • 51: Minerva: goddess of wisdom and warfare • 52: saevit Mavors: Mavors is an old name for Mars. Mars rages at the heart of the conflict he symbolises. Spondaic

lines convey a sense of menace and the grandeur of this conflict. • 53: Dirae: Furies. Winged creatures of ill omen, associated with death, who appear at the threshold of the underworld. • 54: Discordia: the personification of civil war. • 55: Bellona: an old Italian goddess of war; sister of Mars

Questions 1. Line 48-9: how does Virgil create a negative portrayal of Cleopatra? 2. Line 48-9: how does Virgil suggest that Cleopatra is doomed? 3. Lines 50-52: Virgil’s portrayal of the gods engaged in battle alongside mortals symbolises the conflict between East and west. How does Virgil’s use of language achieve this? 4. Lines 52-55: How does Virgil convey the horror and devastation of the battle? 5. Lines 48-55: how does Virgil make his portrayal of the battle weighty and epic in tone? 6. Is Augustus the only one with divine backing? Why (from a Roman perspective) does he win?

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The flight of Antony and Cleopatra Actius haec cernens arcum intendebat Apollo ……………………………………………………………………………… desuper; omnis eo terrore Aegyptus et Indi, ……………………………………………………………………………… omnis Arabs, omnes vertebant terga Sabaei. ……………………………………………………………………………… ipsa videbatur ventis regina vocatis ……………………………………………………………………………… vela dare et laxos iam iamque immittere funes. 60 ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 56: Actius Apollo: Apollo had a temple on the promontory of Actium, which Augustus restored after the battle.

The epithet also emphasises his involvement in the battle of Actium. Apollo was the guiding deity of the Trojans and of Augustus. His special epiphany here has Homeric precedent. Apollo is portrayed here in his capacity as archer god.

• 60: An example of hysteron proteron – or the two actions could be regarded as taking place almost simultaneously Questions 1.What causes Augustus to win the battle? 2. How is Apollo’s intervention made dramatic and decisive? 3. How does Virgil emphasise the complete retreat that ensued? 4. How does he convey their panic and fear?

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illam inter caedes pallentem morte futura ……………………………………………………………………………… fecerat ignipotens undis et Iapyge ferri, ……………………………………………………………………………… contra autem magno maerentem corpore Nilum ……………………………………………………………………………… pandentemque sinus et tota veste vocantem ……………………………………………………………………………… caeruleum in gremium latebrosaque flumina victos. 65 ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 61: Pallentem: the colour of death • 62: Iapyge: the NW wind, favourable for the flight from Actium to Alexandria, was a decisive factor in Antony’s

escape. • 63: Nilum: The Nile is personified as a river god with full robes, the folds of which perhaps represent the wide

delta. The robes form a cloak into which he can gather the vanquished fugitives, including Cleopatra. She committed suicide in Alexandria in August of the following year 30BC, a few weeks after the suicide of Antony.

Questions 1. Lines 60-61: How does Virgil create sympathy for Cleopatra at this point? 2. Why might Virgil have chosen to do this? 3. Lines 63-65: How does the depiction of the Nile add to the pathos of defeat? 4. Here Virgil personifies the Nile, presenting him as a grieving and benevolent power caring for Egypt. Which words help create the personification? 5. At the same time, how does Virgil’s use of language create a visually vivid image of the Nile as a river?

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Caesar celebrates his triumph in Rome

at Caesar, triplici invectus Romana triumpho ……………………………………………………………………………… moenia, dis Italis votum immortale sacrabat, ……………………………………………………………………………… maxima ter centum totam delubra per urbem. ……………………………………………………………………………… laetitia ludisque viae plausuque fremebant; ……………………………………………………………………………… omnibus in templis matrum chorus, omnibus arae; 70 ……………………………………………………………………………… ante aras terram caesi stravere iuvenci. ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 66: at: emphatic change of mood and subject, from defeat to victory and celebration. • 66: triplici triumpho: Virgil devotes 3 lines to the statement of Augustus’ triple triumph, celebrated on 13, 14, 15

August 29BC in celebration of his victories in Illyricum, at Actium and in Egypt, giving him decisive control over the east.

• 66: invectus: Augustus rode into Rome in a chariot drawn by four white horses. The triumphator carried a branch of laurel and wore a laurel wreath – he was the earthly personification of Jupiter Capitolinus.

• 67: votum: a thanksgiving for victory. The nature of the vow is explained in the next line. • 68: ter centum: three hundred shrines – large and impressive round number. One of the features of Augustus’ reign

was his building and restoration of temples to the gods. Augustus began his programme of building and restoration in 28BC. He claimed to have built or restored 82 temples.

Questions 1. Lines 66-68: What impression of Augustus does Virgil offer here? Why might Virgil have considered this important? 2. Lines 66-71: How does Virgil’s use of language stress the religious dimension to the celebrations? 3. How does Virgil convey the mood of excitement and celebration in Rome?

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ipse sedens niveo candentis limine Phoebi ……………………………………………………………………………… dona recognoscit populorum aptatque superbis ……………………………………………………………………………… postibus; incedunt victae longo ordine gentes, ……………………………………………………………………………… quam variae linguis, habitu tam vestis et armis. 75 ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 72: candentis Phoebi: Phoebus = Apollo; here the reference is to the temple of Apollo on the Palatine. Virgil is

telescoping events: the temple was dedicated on 9 October 28BC. Niveo and candentis refer to the shining white marble of the newly built temple.

• 74: postibus: spoils were commonly fixed to the entrances of temples as votive offerings. Questions 1. Lines 72-4: How does Virgil portray Augustus in a positive light? 2. Lines 74-75: How does Virgil convey the large extent of Augustus’ empire and the scale of his victories?

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hic Nomadum genus et discinctos Mulciber Afros, ……………………………………………………………………………… hic Lelegas Carasque sagittiferosque Gelonos ……………………………………………………………………………… finxerat; Euphrates ibat iam mollior undis, ……………………………………………………………………………… extremique hominum Morini, Rhenusque bicornis, ……………………………………………………………………………… indomitique Dahae, et pontem indignatus Araxes. 80 ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 76: Nomadum: Africans, also called Numidians, allied to Antony • 76: Mulciber = Vulcan, blacksmith god • Gelonos – Scythian tribe • Dahae – Scythian tribe • Lelages and Carians – tribes of Asia Minor • Sabaeans - tribe of Arabia • 78: Euphrates: in Mesopotamia, an image of the river would have been carried in the procession. Here the river,

described as pacified (mollior), is depicted as conquered too. • 79: Morini: a Gallo-Belgic tribe living near the channel coast • 79: Rhenus bicornis; the Rhine in Germany divides into two – the Rhine and the Waal • 80: River Araxes: in Armenia, the bridge built over the river by Alexander the Great, later swept away by floods,

had recently been rebuilt by Augustus. Questions 1. Lines 76-80: How does Virgil convey the large extent of Augustus’ empire and the scale of his victories? 2. How does Virgil emphasise the theme of defeat and conquest in his description? 3. How are the rivers Euphrates, Rhenus and Araxes portrayed as people? Why? 4. How does he add interest and colour to his description?

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talia per clipeum Volcani, dona parentis, ……………………………………………………………………………… miratur rerumque ignarus imagine gaudet ……………………………………………………………………………… attollens umero famamque et fata nepotum. 83 ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 81: Talia – formally signals that the ecphrasis is ended and we are returning to Aeneas. • 81: Parentis – Venus • 82: Ignarus: Aeneas is unaware of the historical events depicted, but for the reader there are historical happenings.

He has on his shoulders in reality the pictured shield, but metaphorically the future destiny of Rome. • 82: gaudet: Aeneas delights in the gifts, but the shield is also a huge burden, symbolising the future of the Roman

nation. • 83: Fata: destiny. One of the dominant themes of the poem. Questions 1. What is Aeneas’ response to the gifts? 2. Why is Aeneas described as ignarus? 3. What is the symbolic significance of Aeneas taking up the shield? 4. How does Virgil’s use of language convey the significance of Aeneas taking up the shield?

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Aeneid: further questions

1. How does Virgil use the shield to bring together Aeneas’ and Augustus’ achievements 2. What part do the gods play in the battle as a whole? 3. How does the description of the shield go beyond a series of pictures? 4. Why do you think Augustus includes a prophecy of Rome’s future greatness at this point in the Aeneid?


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Horace: A sign from heaven

Horace often writes in the first person, however there are differing views about how much autobiographical content the poems contain. He purports to represent scenes from life, including his own, but is also drawing on the themes and frameworks of the Greek lyric poets. Nevertheless this poem does represent the consistent strand of Epicureanism in Horace’s poetry, the doubt that immortality offers any permanent benefits as compared with the present life, and disbelief with the omnipotence of the gods and their concern with human life. Horace, till now somewhat remiss in matters of religious observance, and a dedicatee of the scientific explanations of Epicureanism – so he tells us - has been forced to change his ways by the awe-inspiring glimpse of Jupiter described in the poem. A clap of thunder out of a clear sky (an impossible event, according to the Epicurean explanation of natural phenomena) has caused him to abandon his confidence in an ordered, predictable world. If the gods and fortune are in control after all, human hopes are precarious. It is usually thought that Horace’s recantation of Epicureanism is not wholly serious. There is no real sense of a conversion, and Epicurean ideas continue to feature in Horace’s poems. Note the key word, plerumque, line 7: Horace is not saying that there is never order to events: there usually is (plerumque) but it can at times be overthrown. The thunderclap is therefore not so much a total refutation of Epicurean physics but a warning to us: there are still arbitrary forces. The ode is made up of three sections:

• First: announces H’s confession • Second: states the reason for his change of view in poetic terms • Third: interprets the symbolic significance of the thunderclap.

Themes: - religious belief and the divine - divine involvement in human affairs


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Horace: A sign from heaven

parcus deorum cultor et infrequens ……………………………………………………………………………… insanientis dum sapientiae ……………………………………………………………………………… consultus erro, nunc retrorsum ……………………………………………………………………………… vela dare atque iterare cursus ……………………………………………………………………………… cogor relictos: namque Diespiter, 5 ……………………………………………………………………………… igni corusco nubila dividens ……………………………………………………………………………… plerumque, per purum tonantes ……………………………………………………………………………… egit equos volucremque currum, ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 1: parcus: negligent, rather than a complete non-believer. Perhaps thrifty in the amount of worship he offered,

perhaps in the amount of money spent of sacrifices. The word conveys a grudging attitude to religious practice. • 1: Cultor: a rare and grandiloquent word • 1: Consultus: expert, a person to whom others bring their problems. • 2: Insanientis sapientiae: a reference to Epicureanism: follows of Epicurus called his wisdom Sapientia. The basic

tenets of Epicureanism were that the gods did not interfere in human affairs and that everything in the world was caused by physical events at an atomic level. For instance, Lucretius argues in DRN that lightning is the expulsion of concentrated atoms of heat from clouds, deriding theological explanations (DRN 6, 160-218, 379-422).

• 5: Namque: for… a word often used in prose to present a reason or explanation. Horace now goes on to present the reason for his changed beliefs.

• 5: Diespiter: archaic and dignified version of Iuppiter, in keeping with the supposed return to traditional religion. • 6: Igni corusco: periphrastic reference to lightning. • 7: Per purum: through a cloudless sky: Horace’s Epicurean beliefs are shattered by thunder from a clear sky: the

phenomenon, according to Epicureansim, cannot be attributed to the clouds. • 7: Plerumque: scientific tone, a word used by Lucretius among the poets. Horace is not saying that there is never

order to events: there usually is (plerumque) but it can at times be overthrown. The thunderclap is therefore not so much a refutation of Epicurean physics but a warning to us: there are still arbitrary forces

Questions 1. Lines 1-3: Which words suggest that Horace has neglected traditional worship of the gods? 2. Lines 1-3: How does Horace’s choice of words suggest that his previous ways were misguided? 3. Lines 3-5: what decision does he announce? How does he stress the change? 4. Line 4: vela dare: what is the metaphor here? Why might Horace have chosen it? 5. Line 5: What does relictos suggest about his previous life? What image is Horace using for belief? 6. What is Horace’s reason for his change of heart? 7. How does Horace suggest that he was logically compelled to change his ideas? 4. How does Horace convey the violence and shockingness of the event? 5. What explanation for the thunder does he imply? 6. How does Horace create an elevated (epic?) tone?

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quo bruta tellus et vaga flumina, ……………………………………………………………………………… quo Styx et invisi horrida Taenari 10 ……………………………………………………………………………… sedes Atlanteusque finis ……………………………………………………………………………… concutitur. valet ima summis ……………………………………………………………………………… mutare et insignem attenuat deus, ……………………………………………………………………………… obscura promens; hinc apicem rapax ……………………………………………………………………………… Fortuna cum stridore acuto 15 ……………………………………………………………………………… sustulit, hic posuisse gaudet. ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 10: Styx: a river of the underworld • 10: Taenarus: a place at the southernmost point of the Peloponnese, where there was a cave believed to be the

entrance to the underworld • 11: Atlanteus: of Mount Atlas in Libya, at the westernmost limit of the known world. • 13: deus: god is here equated with fortune, the force which has power over our human life. The non-specific ‘deus’

(rather than Jupiter) bridges the gap between Jupiter and Fortune. Horace is now referring to a general divine force, rather than a specific god.

• 14: Apicem, crown: the symbol of the absolute ruler Questions 1. Lines 9-12 How does Horace emphasise the violent impact of the thunder on the whole world? 2. Lines 9-12: How does Horace create a solemn and serious tone? 3. Line 12-15: How does Horace convey the power of the divine and the powerlessness of humans? 4.What portrayal of Fortune does Horace create? 5. In the poem as a whole, how does Horace encourage the reader to build up a vivid picture of events? 6. In your own words, write a brief summary of the thought process Horace describes in this poem. How is his mood different at the end from at the start?

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Persius: Praying for profit Satires 2.44-52

This passage shows that within Roman society there were different views about religious ritual, and scepticism about excessive or superstitious use of sacrifice. It takes the common satirical form of the poet interrogating a person who is presented as acting absurdly. The satire from which this extract is taken has a strongly moralising tone, ridiculing superstition, and at the end, urging that a righteous heart, a pure mind and a noble soul are the best offerings.

Themes: - religious observation as superstition - irony / paradox of spending money looking for wealth


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Persius: Praying for profit The poet makes fun of the man who prays for wealth but loses it all in offerings, by portraying a sheep farmer who ironically ruins himself by the extravagant sacrifices that accompany his prayers for prosperity. rem struere exoptas caeso bove Mercuriumque 1 ……………………………………………………………………………… arcessis fibra: 'da fortunare Penates, ……………………………………………………………………………… da pecus et gregibus fetum.' quo, pessime, pacto, ……………………………………………………………………………… tot tibi cum in flamma iunicum omenta liquescant? ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • Metre: hexameters • 1: Mercurium: Mercury is god of wealth and profit. He was traditionally regarded as modest in his demands – e.g.

milk and honey – yet this farmer slays a whole ox to provide a single liver. • 2: Arcessis – stronger than vocas: implies a command – here it expresses the (misplaced) confidence of the

worshipper • 2: Fibra – bathos of grandly summoning the god with a single liver i.e. by sacrificing and employing the harupsex • 2: Penates: household gods • 4: Liquescant: melt: as fast as the gods grant him increase, his flocks and herds are sacrificed. Questions 1. Lines 1-3: What does the sheep farmer hope to do? What does he pray for? What is paradoxical about his actions? 2. How does the poet add impact to his prayer? 3. How does the poet convey the ridiculousness of the farmer’s actions?

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et tamen hic extis et opimo vincere ferto 5 ……………………………………………………………………………… intendit: 'iam crescit ager, iam crescit ovile, ……………………………………………………………………………… iam dabitur, iam iam'; donec deceptus et exspes ……………………………………………………………………………… nequiquam fundo suspiret nummus in imo. ………………………………………………………………………………


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Notes • 5: fertum, a sacrificial cake: an archaic and uncommon word • 5: opimo – emphasises the rich and costly nature of this offering • 7: exspes – this word belongs to the vocabulary of tragedy Questions 1. Lines 5-7, how does the poet mock the farmer’s misguided determination and desperation to win over the gods? 2. What technique does the poet use in his depiction of the coin? 3. What does the coin feel and think? Why is it cheated? 4. Is the poet satirizing the man for being superstitious, over zealous, or for worshipping the gods at all?

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