Learning Chapter 7 Powerpoint

Myers’ EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed)

Chapter 7

Learning

Worth Publishers

Learning

Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

Types of Learning

1. Classical Conditioning2. Operant Conditioning3. Observational Learning

Association

We learn by association Our minds naturally connect events that

occur in sequence Aristotle 2000 years ago John Locke and David Hume 200 years

ago Associative Learning

learning that two events occur together two stimuli a response and its consequences

Association

Learning to associate two events

Event 1 Event 2

Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock

Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

We learn to associate two stimuli

Operant Conditioning

We learn to associate a response and its consequence

Behaviorism

John B. Watson viewed psychology as

objective science generally agreed-upon

consensus today recommended study of

behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted

by all schools of thought today

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian

physician/ neurophysiologist

Nobel Prize in 1904

studied digestive secretions


Pavlov’s device for recording salivation


Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two

stimuli Begins with a reflex a neutral stimulus that signals an

unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus


Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally--

automatically and naturally--triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response

to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth


Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally irrelevant stimulus that, after

association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral

conditioned stimulus

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment

Before Conditioning

During Conditioning After Conditioning

UCS (foodin mouth)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

Nosalivation

UCR (salivation)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

UCS (foodin mouth)

UCR(salivation)

CS(tone)

CR (salivation)


Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase associating a neutral stimulus

with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response

in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Classical ConditioningUCS(passionate kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

CS(onionbreath)

CS(onion breath) CR

(sexualarousal)

UCS(passionate Kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)


Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when

a UCS does not follow a CS in operant conditioning, when

a response is no longer reinforced


Strengthof CR

Pause

Acquisition(CS+UCS)

Extinction(CS alone)

Extinction(CS alone)

Spontaneousrecovery ofCR


Spontaneous Recovery reappearance, after a rest

period, of an extinguished CR

Generalization tendency for stimuli similar

to CS to elicit similar responses


Discrimination in classical conditioning, the

learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS

Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli

that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by

using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When

he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation

dropped.

Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS(waiting room)

CS(waitingroom) CR

(nausea)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)


Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the

scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of

cognitive processes and biological constraints.

Cognitive Processes

Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be

reduced to mindless mechanisms.

However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a

stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla &

Wagner, 1972).

Biological Predispositions

Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals.

Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning.

However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an

animal’s biology.


John Garcia

Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in

conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to

conditioning but other stimuli (sight or sound) did not.

Courtesy of John G

arcia

Biological Predisposition

The “Garcia effect” Each specie has a biological

predisposition or preparedness to learn associations that enhance its survival.Birds and sightRats and tasteHumans and taste

Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology

is isolating elementary behaviors from more

complex ones through objective scientific

procedures.

Pavlov’s Legacy

Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)

1. Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.

2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising

campaigns for a number of organizations,

including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break”

an American custom.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

John B. Watson

Brow

n Brothers


Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is

strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors

followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely


Operant Behavior operates (acts) on environment produces consequences

Respondent Behavior (Classical) occurs as an automatic response

to stimulus behavior learned through

classical conditioning


B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

developed behavioral technology

Operant Chamber

Skinner Box chamber with a

bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer

contains devices to record responses

Shaping

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target

behavior through successive approximations.

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

Kham

is Ram

adhan/ Panapress/ Getty Im

ages

Fred Bavendam

/ Peter Arnold, Inc.

Types of Reinforcers

Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.

Reuters/ C

orbis

Principles of Reinforcement

Primary Reinforcer innately reinforcing stimulus i.e., satisfies a biological need

Conditioned Reinforcer A learned reinforcer (stimulus)

that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer

secondary reinforcer

1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.

2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers

We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large

delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired response each

time it occurs Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time

results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction


Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a

specified number of responses faster you respond the more

rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay


Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an

unpredictable number of responses

average ratios like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of

unpredictability


Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after

a specified time has elapsed response occurs more

frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

Mail delivery, waiting for cake to bake


Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at

unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like pop quiz, waiting for a busy

phone line to clear.


Variable Interval

Number of responses

1000

750

500

250

010 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (minutes)

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Steady responding

Rapid respondingnear time forreinforcement

80

Discriminative Stimulus

Sd Discriminative stimulus = in operant conditioning, a stimulus (cue) signaling that a response will be reinforced Logos such as golden arches – turn in

here and you will find food Word “Sale” - Others?

Punishment

Punishment aversive event that

decreases the behavior that it follows

powerful controller of unwanted behavior

Punishment

Punishment

1. Results in unwanted fears.2. Conveys no information to the organism.3. Justifies pain to others.4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear

in its absence.5. Causes aggression towards the agent.6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear

in place of another.

Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind,

2002), it usually leads to negative effects.

Extending Skinner’s Understanding

Skinner believed in inner thought processes and biological underpinnings, but many psychologists criticize him for

discounting them.

Skinner’s LegacySkinner argued that behaviors were

shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued

that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.


Instinctive Drift - when an animal is engaged in operant conditioning, its behavior will drift in the direction of instinctive behaviors related to the task it is learning Pig will return to pushing coins with its

nose if not constantly reinforced for picking up the coin instead.

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Map mental representation of the layout of

one’s environment Example: after exploring a maze, rats

act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Latent Learning learning that occurs, but is not

apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Intrinsic MotivationIntrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps

and provide reinforcements for correct rewards.

In School

LW

A-JD

L/ C

orbis


Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share

profits and participate in company ownership.

At work


At Home

In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring

unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

Learning by Observation

Higher animals, especially humans,

learn through observing and

imitating others.

The monkey on the right imitates the

monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to

obtain a reward.

© H

erb Terrace

©H

erb Terrace

Mirror Neurons

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

Rep

rint

ed w

ith p

erm

issi

on f

rom

the

Am

eric

an

Ass

ocia

tion

for

the

Adv

ance

men

t of

Scie

nce,

Sub

iaul

et a

l., S

cien

ce 3

05: 4

07-4

10 (

2004

) ©

200

4 A

AA

S.

Observational Learning

Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire

when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so

may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

Imitation Onset

Learning by observation begins early in life. This

14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV

in pulling a toy apart.

Mel

tzof

f, A

.N. (

1998

). I

mita

tion

of te

levi

sed

mod

els

by in

fant

s. C

hild

Dev

elop

men

t, 59

122

1-12

29. P

hoto

s C

ourt

esy

of A

.N. M

eltz

off

and

M. H

anuk

.


Observational Learning learning by observing others

Modelingprocess of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Factors in Observational Learning

Observational learning depends on these: Attention – the extent to which we focus on

others’ behavior Retention – our ability to retain a

representation of others’ behavior in memory Production Processes – our ability to act on

these memory representations Motivation – the usefulness to us of the

information acquired


Alfred Bandura’s Experiments Bobo doll we look and

we learn


Prosocial Behaviorpositive, constructive, helpful behavior

opposite of antisocial behavior

Applications of Observational Learning

Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies

show that antisocial models (family,

neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial

effects.

Modeling Violence

Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

Bob

Dae

mm

rich

/ The

Im

age

Wor

ks

Gla

ssm

an/ T

he I

mag

e W

orks

Television and Observational Learning

Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video

games express increased

aggression.

Ron

Cha

pple

/ Tax

i/ G

etty

Im

ages

Television and Observational Learning

Documents

Learning Chapter 7 Powerpoint