Learning Design

Birgit Mayer17th May

Introduction

How can we help people to learn? What support do people need in order to learn? How can we assess and communicate the results

of a learning process? How can we make learning and support as

effective, efficient, attractive, and accessible as possible for everyone involved in the process?

Introduction

No straigthforward answer Depending on specific situation, solution X will

work best for person Y Learning can be improved by making conditions

explicit and by using this knowledge to design new learning events

Learning design: Conceptual model for the description of teaching and learning processes

Learning design

Related to the nature of knowledge, learning, motivation, social exchange

Learning design knowledge: captured by Instructional design approaches: theories (set of design principles) Identifying best practice in teaching and learning Pedagogical design patterns (between theory and best practice)

Teachers are influenced by these aspects w.r.t. their

believes about good teaching and learning

Learning Design – Definitions (Koper, 2005)

Learning design Application of learning design knowledge when developing a Unit of

Learning

Unit of Learning (UoL) Lesson, course, curriculum, learning event, etc. Quality of UoL depends on quality of learning design Every UoL has an underlying learning design that is more generic

than the UoL itself

Learning Design - Definitions

Learning designer Teacher, coach, mentor, curriculum developers etc. Task is to design a UoL that meets a set of learning objectives

How does the designer proceed? What steps must be taken to develop e.g. an effective a course?

Best solution depends on the context of the e.g. course Requires to make use of design knowledge, i.e. set of rules that

can be applied to the design problem

Learning Design Rules: What are they?

Koper (2005) Based on Reigeluth (1999)

Learning design knowledge = Instructional Design Theory Guidance on how to help people to learn and develop, including

cognitive, emotional, social, physical, and spiritual aspects

Learning Design Rules: What are they?

Characteristics of Instructional Design Theory (Reigeluth, 1999) Orientation towards design, focusing on the means to attain goals for

learning and development (rather pre-scriptive than descriptive, but there is a bridge to the descriptive science of Learning Theory)

Identification of methods of instruction, which are ways to support and facilitate instruction, and the situations in which those methods should and should not be used (situational, not universal, one method works best for situation X, another for situation Y)

The methods are probabilistic rather than deterministic (increasing the chances of attaining the goals rather than ensuring attainment of the goals)

Methods, learning outcome etc. have underlying values (e.g. people prefer certain methods above others)

Learning Design Rules: What are they?

Prescriptive, probabilistic, not value-free rules

If learning situation S (and value V)then use learning design method M (with probability P)

Learning Design Rules: Learning Situation

Contains factors that are of importance when selecting adequate learning design methods Requirements to meet Descriptors of situation in which a new learning design method is

applied

Situational factors Learning outcomes

Level of effectiveness, efficiency, attractiveness, accessibility of learning design method

Learning conditions Characteristics of learning objectives, learners, setting, media

Learning Design Rules: Situational Factors: Learning Outcomes

Effectiveness How well learning objectives are met by learnig design method (e.g.

number of students who passes a test) Efficiency

Labour intensity and cost of method (for learners to attain objective, for teachers to support learners)

Attractiveness How much activities appeal to learners and teachers

Accessibility How easily learners and teachers can access learning facilities

(location dependent?, time constraints?, adaptation?)

Learning Design Rules: Situational Factors: Learning Conditions

Learning objectives Knowledge, skills, attitudes, competences

Learners Pre-knowledge, motivation, situational circumstances

Setting Individual and/or group work, at school and/or home

Media (A)synchronous, linear/interactive, media types

Learning Design Rules:Learning Design Methods

Describes teaching/learning process Process undertaken by persons interacting within a learning

environment

Definition of roles, activities, activity structures, interaction, learning resources etc.

Derivation of Learning Design Rules

From instructional design theory (prescriptions) From best practice (examples) From patterns in best practice (patterns)

Derivation of Learning Design Rules: From Instructional Design Theories

E.g. based on the knowledgebase of learning research/theory

3 Main directions Behaviourism Cognitivsm Constructivism

Behaviourism

Basic Principles Goals of Instruction Models Instructional Models

Emphasis is on observable and measurable behaviors

Learning happens when a correct response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus

“Black box" metaphor

Emphasis is on relationships between environmental variables and behavior

Instruction utilizes consequences and reinforcement of learned behaviors

Embedded theories:e.g.

Pavlov's Classical Conditioning

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

Stimulus-Response Theory

Thorndike's Laws and Connectionism

Information Processing

Communicate or transfer behaviors representing knowledge and skills to the learner (does not consider mental processing)

Instruction is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus

Learner must know how to execute the proper response as well as the conditions under which the response is made

Learner acquires skills of discrimination (recalling facts), generalization (defining and illustrating concepts), association (applying explanations), and chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure)

 

Computer-Based Instruction

Contract Learning

Individualized Instruction

Programmed Instruction

Information Processing Model

Implication for instruction

Behavioral objectives

Dick & Carey instructional design model

Performance-based assessment

Systems models

Dick&Carey Instructional Design Model

Predictable link between a stimulus and the response it produces in a learner It is the designer's responsibility

to determine the sub-skills a student must master in order for the behavior to be learned and

to choose the stimulus and strategy for instruction in order to assemble the sub-skills The basic steps

Determine instructional goal Analyse the instructional goal Analyse learners and contexts Write performance objectives Develop assessment instruments Develop instructional strategy Develop and select instructional materials Design and conduct formative evaluation Revise instruction Summative evaluation

Programmed Instruction

Based on Skinner's "operant conditioning“ (behavior can be conditionned by rewarding the right stimulus-response patterns)

Method of presenting new subject matters to students in a graded sequence of controlled steps

Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their own speed and after each step test their comprehension by answering an examination question or filling in a diagram

They are then immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information

Computers and other types of teaching machines are often used to present the material, although books may also be used Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be

reinforced ("shaping") Reinforcements will generalise across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalisation")

producing secondary conditioning

Cognitivism

Basic Principles Goals of Instruction Models Instructional Models

Learning is a change of knowledge state

Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner

Learner is viewed as an active participant in the learning process

Emphasis is on the building blocks of knowledge

Emphasis on structuring, organizing and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing 

Focus is on how learners remember, retrieve, and store information in memory

Examines the mental structure and processes related to learning 

Learning is viewed as an active process that occurs within the learner and which can be influenced by the learner

Embedded theories: e.g.Component Display Theory (Merril)

Dual Coding Theory (Paivio)

Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)

Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)

Mental Models (Norman)

Subsumption Theory (Ausubel)

Communicate or transfer knowledge in the most efficient, effective manner

Focus of instruction is to create learning or change by encouraging the learner to use appropriate learning strategies

Learning results when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful way

Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting learners in organizing information in an optimal way so that it can be readily assimilated 

Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation

Merrill’s Component Display Model

Implication for instruction

Cognitive objectives

Learning strategies

Learning taxonomies

Prerequisite skills

Task analysis

Merrill's Component Display Model

Classifies learning along two dimensions Content (facts, concepts, procedures, principles) Performance (remembering, using, generalities)

Primary presentation forms (expository/inquisitory x generality/instance learning strategies) Rules (expository presentation of a generality) Examples (expository presentation of instances) Recall (inquisitory generality) Practice (inquisitory instance)

Secondary presentation forms: Prerequisites Objectives Helps Mnemonics Feedback

Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)

Instruction should be organised in increasing order of complexity

Learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated

7 Major strategy components: Elaborative sequence (simple – complex) Learning prerequisite sequences Summary (e.g. at lesson, unit level) Synthesis (integrate content elements into a meaningful whole and

assimilate them into prior knowledge) Analogies (relate the content to learners' prior knowledge) Cognitive strategy activators (e.g. pictures, diagrams, mnemonics) Learner control

Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)

Classifying learning objectives: Verb + Noun Two-dimensional

Verb: Cognitive process dimension (underlying continuum is complexity) Remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, create

Noun: Knowledge dimension (continuum: concrete – abstract) Factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive

Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)

Knowledge

Dimension

Cognitive Process Dimension

Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create

Factual

Conceptual

Procedural

Metacognitive

Discovery Learning

Inquiry-based learning method Problem solving situations where the learner draws on his own

experience and prior knowledge to discover the truths that are to be learned

It is a personal, internal, constructivist learning environment "Rich" environments: (Perkins) Combination of five basic resources:

Information banks - allow access to required information (e.g., books, encyclopedias, videos)

Symbols pads - supports learners' short-term memory (e.g., notebooks, laptops)

Construction kits - facilitates manipulation and building (e.g., Lego) Phenomenaria - allows exploration (e.g., terrarium, computer simulation) Task managers - gives help and feedback when tasks are completed (e.g.,

teachers, electronic tutors)

Constructivism

Basic Principles Goals of Instruction Models Instructional Models

Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and interactions

Knowledge is embedded in the context in which it is used (authentic tasks in meaningful realistic settings)

There are many ways (multiple perspectives) of structuring the world and its entities

Meaning is imposed by the individual rather than existing in the world

Embedded theories:e.g.Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro et al.)

Generative Learning Theory (Wittrock)

Situated Cognition  (Clancey, Lave)

Social-Cultural Learning (Vygotsky)

Build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions

Learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge

Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge construction rather than communicating knowledge

Do not structure learning for the task, but engage learner in the actual use of the tools in real world situations 

Learning activities should be authentic and should center around the “problematic” or “puzzlement” as perceived by the learner

The focus is on the process not the product

Role of teacher is a mentor not a “teller”

Encourage reflective thinking, higher order learning skills

Action Learning

Authentic Learning

Case-Based Learning

Cognitive Apprenticeship

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext

Collaborative Learning

Communities of Practice

Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILEs)

Discovery Learning

Distributed Learning

Inquiry-Based Learning

Microworlds/Simulations

Implication for Instruction

Authentic assessment methods

Learning through exploration

Problem-oriented activities

"Rich" environments

Visual formats and mental models

Learning Theories:General Practice of Instructional Design 

Designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist approach Designer analyses the learning situation and sets a goal, objective,

decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner

Individual tasks are broken down, learning objectives are developed

Evaluation consists of determining whether the criteria for the objectives have been met (e.g. perfomance tests)

Learning Theories:General Practice of Instructional Design 

Designing from a constructivist approach: Designer produces a product that is much more facilitative than

prescriptive The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the

learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation of the learner

The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products and journals

First Principles of Instruction Merril (2002)

Identified 5 principles (basic methods) that can be found in a variety of design/instructional theories and models Apply regardless of instructional program or practice described by a

given theory or model

Learning is promoted when Learners are engaged in solving real-world problems Existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge New knowledge is demonstrated to the learner New knowledge is applied by the learner New knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world

Derivation of Learning Design Rules: From Best Practice

Using learning design method of specific example courses Set up database of accessible and usable courses or course components

(e.g. Merlot 2004) Set up database of learning design methods (e.g. frameworks, lesson plans

as guidelines for designing new courses) Awareness of

Situational characteristics Indication of quality (e.g. probability of success, peer review, expert review,

quality ratings of users) Chance of finding a successful example that matches with own needs

is not very high due to conditions Internet offers option to share examples, lesson plans with others (e.g.

overview of databases by Van Es, 2004)

Derivation of Learning Design Rules: From Patterns in Best Practice

Analysis of patterns in collections of comparable best practices Reflect experience of experts Concise description Solve recurrent problems in a learning design Can be used as templates for designing UoL

Two ways of creating patterns: Analysing common structures in a set of learning design methods

(inductive way) Meetings with experienced learning designers to identify recurrent

problems and generic models for solutions (deductive way, more popular)

Summary

Learning designer uses learning design knowledge to create a learning design method for a course

Learning design knowledge consists of series of rules taking the “if situation, then method” format

Rules are derived from theory, best practices, patterns

Implication for eLearning Settings

To enable learning designers to search for, share and re-use learning design methods, there is the need of a standard notation

Requirements Comprehensive Support of blended learning, pure online learning Pedagogical flexible Personalisation/Adaptivity: Description of conditions Identification, isolation, de-contextualisation, exchange, re-use of parts of

the learning design (e.g. patterns) Standardised, in line with other existing standards Formal language in order to be processed automatically Enabling a learning design to be abstracted so that repeated execution in

different settings and with different persons becomes possible

IMS Learning Design Specification

IMS Learning Design Specification

Digital format for encoding, transporting, and playing learning designs

A model for describing the structure of tasks and activities, their assignment to roles, and the workflow of a Unit of Learning as a ‘Learning Design’ “Who does what, when, using which materials/services to attain

which learning objectives”

A platform-independent notational convention to allow sharing and re-using of these designs The structure of the learning scenario is separated from the learning

materials and services Materials can be reused within different scenarios Scenarios can be reused and new materials added

Core concepts Regardless of the pedagogical/instructional approach, a

Person gets a Role in the teaching-learning process (e.g. learner or teacher)

In this Role he or she works towards certain Outcomes by performing more or less structured Learning and/or Support Activities within an Environment

The overall scenario or design (e.g. which Role gets which Activities at what moment in the process) is described within the Method element

IMS Learning Design Specification

Formula of Learning Design Rules

If Learning Situation

required level of effectiveness, efficiency, attractiveness, accessibility AND

characteristics of learning objectives, learners, setting, media AND

Values of learning designer

then Learning Design Methoda play of one or more sequential acts with

one or more parallel role-partstaking into account a set of conditions for

the play, act, or role-part

with A certain probability of success

Thank you for your attention!!!!

ISD phases

Analysis Instructional problem

Design Instructional scenario Learning flow Xml coding

Development resources

Implementation Publication and run of UoL

Evaluation

Bloom

three domains of learning: Cognitive (what we know or think), Psychomotor (what we do, physically) and Affective (what we feel, or what attitudes we have). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.

General Concept of Learning Design

Sharing and Re-using The ‘design’ needs to be described

at a sufficient level of abstraction that it can be generalised beyond the single teaching and learning context for which it is created,

but not at such an abstract level that the pedagogical value and richness is lost

IMS-Learning Design intends to solve this

IMS LD Elements

Roles Represent the type of a participant in a UoL

Staff (e.g. teacher, tutor) Learner

Activities Link between Roles and Environment

An Activity references the Role by which it has to be executed as well as the Environment in which the activity has to be executed

Types Learning Activity: directed at attaining a learning objective Support Activity: meant to facilitate a Role performing one or more

learning activities Can be aggregated into an Activity-Structure

Provides the mechanisms to structure Activities and UoL (Sequence vs. Selection)

Can reference other Activities, Activity-Structures, external UoL

IMS LD Components

Environment Is the setting were Activities take place Consists of the appropriate Learning Objects and Services to be

used during the performance of the Activities Learning Objects

Digital or non-digital resources Web pages, text books, productivity tools (text processors, editors,

calculators, ...), instruments (microscope, etc.), test items,….

Services Facilities that are helpful in completing activities

Communication services (e.g. mail, discussion forums, chat) Monitoring services Search services …

Method (link between all components) Can be designed towards

Learning Objectives to be met by learners Specified at the level of UoL or for individual learning activities

Prerequisites Overall entry requirements for learners for doing a UoL Specified at the level of UoL or for individual learning activities

Contains a Play and Conditions Play specifies which Roles perform what Activities in what order

The Play consists of a sequence of Acts Each Act contains one or more Role-Parts Each Role-Part associates a Role with an Activity or Activity-Structure When an Act is completed, the next Act can start

Conditions are used in connection with Properties for further refinement and to add personalisation facilities to the LD

IMS LD Elements

Building a UoL

Narrative Title - a very short description Provided by - author, institution, etc. Pedagogy/Type of learning - case-based, problem-based, etc. Description/Context - idem Learning objectives - idem Roles: - the various participants, such as student, tutor, etc. Different types of learning content used - texts, internet pages Different types of learning services/facilities/tools used Different types of collaborative activities Learning activity workflow - how Actors / Content / Services interact Scenarios - e.g., same content may be used for face-to-face and

distance learning Other needs / Specific requirements - e.g. accessibility, specific

target groups, etc.