LEARNINGPRESENTED BYDR.DALEEP PARIMOO

The cognitive (Latin: cognoscere,

"to know", "to conceptualize" or "to

recognize" ) process of acquiring skill or knowledge

WHAT IS LEARNING

Definitions Definitions

LEARNING IS:

1. “A persisting change in human performance or performance potential . . . (brought) about as a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9). 2. “The relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience” (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).

3. “An enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

LEARNING THEORIES

There are 6 main theories of learning

1. Behaviorism

2. Cognitivism

3. Social Learning Theory

4. Social Constructivism

5. Multiple Intelligences

6. Brain-Based Learning

THEORIES: BEHAVIOURAL

Primary Focus Observable behaviour Stimulus-response

connections Assumptions

Learning is a result of environmental forces

Subcategories Contiguity Respondent (Classical) Operant (Instrumental)

Major Theorists Thorndike Pavlov Watson Skinner

Principles Time/place pairings Biological basis of

behaviour Consequences Modelling

Behaviorism assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli.

The learner starts as a clean slate and behavior is shaped through positive or negative reinforcement.

Both positive and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen again.

In contrast, punishment (both positive and negative) decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again.

Positive indicates the application of a stimulus; Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus.

Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner. Lots of (early) behaviorist work was done with animals (e.g. Pavlov’s dogs) and generalized to humans.

BEHAVIORISM

Learning is defined by the outward expression of new behaviors

Focuses solely on observable behaviors

A biological basis for learning

Learning is context-independent

Classical & Operant ConditioningReflexes (Pavlov’s Dogs)Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon Box)

BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that assumes that learning occurs through with learning occurs through with the environmentthe environment. Two other interactions assumptions of this theory are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behavior.

BEHAVIORISM

Confined to observable and measurable behavior

Classical Conditioning - Pavlov

Operant Conditioning - Skinner

BEHAVIORISM

One of the best-known aspects of behavioral learning theory is classical conditioning. Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. In order to understand how classical conditioning works, it is important to be familiar with the basic principles of the process.

BEHAVIORISM

The Unconditioned Stimulus The unconditioned stimulus is one that

unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.

The Unconditioned Response The unconditioned response is the unlearned

response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.

BEHAVIORISM The Conditioned Stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.

The Conditioned ResponseThe conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e., making a new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning.

BEHAVIORISM

Classical Conditioning - PavlovClassical Conditioning - Pavlov

S R

A stimulus is presented in order to get a response:

Pavlov’s Dogs

In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled “psychic reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.

Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed..

In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food

John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings. In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS).  At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans.

BEHAVIORISMClassical Conditioning - Pavlov

S US

UR

CS US

CR

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner which is why it is referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences" (1953).

In other words, Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.

EXAMPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

Case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise/incentive/promotions.

In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior.

Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors.

For example, a child may be told he will lose recess privileges if he talks out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

KEY COMPONENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

A reinforcer is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.

There are two kinds of reinforcers

Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.

Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.

In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

EXAMPLES OF OPERANT EXAMPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONINGCONDITIONING

Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows.

There are two kinds of punishment:

Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.

Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.

 In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior

decreases 

BEHAVIORISM Operant Conditioning - Skinner

The response is made first, then reinforcement follows.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

AcquisitionAcquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened. For example, if you are trying to teach a dog to shake in response to a verbal command, you can say the response has been acquired as soon as the dog shakes in response to only the verbal command. Once the response has been acquired, you can gradually reinforce the shake response to make sure the behavior is well learned.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

ExtinctionExtinction occurs when the occurrences of a conditioned response decrease or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to evoke the conditioned response of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the smell of food) were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear.

Sponteneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.

Stimulus GeneralizationStimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a rat has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

DiscriminationDiscrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds.

BEHAVIORISM IN THE CLASSROOM Rewards and

punishments

Responsibility for student learning rests squarely with the teacher

Lecture-based, highly structured

CRITIQUES OF BEHAVIORISM

Does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed

Advocates for passive student learning in a teacher-centric environment

One size fits all

Knowledge itself is given and absolute

Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing

THEORIES: COGNITIVE

Primary Focus Mental behaviour Knowledge Intelligence Critical Thinking

Assumptions Learning is a result of mental

operations/ processing Subcategories

Information Processing Hierarchical Developmental Critical Thinking

Major Theorists Bloom

Piaget

Gagne

Principles Memory is limited Changes in

complexity Changes over time Good thinking

requires standards

COGNITIVISMCOGNITIVISM

Grew in response to Behaviorism

Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols

Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable way

Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Discovery Learning - Jerome Bruner

Meaningful Verbal Learning - David Ausubel

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Discovery Learning

1. Bruner said anybody can learn anything at any age, provided it is stated in terms they can understand.

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Discovery Learning

2. Powerful Concepts (not isolated facts)

a. Transfer to many different situationsb. Only possible through Discovery Learningc. Confront the learner with problems and help

them find solutions. Do not present sequenced materials.

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Meaningful Verbal Learning Advance Organizers:

Newmaterial is presented in a

systematic way, and is connected to

existing cognitive structures in a

meaningful way.

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Meaningful Verbal Learning

When learners have difficulty with new

material, go back to the concrete anchors

(Advance Organizers). Provide a Discovery

approach, and they’ll learn.

COGNITIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM

Inquiry-oriented projects

Opportunities for the testing of hypotheses

Curiosity encouraged

Staged scaffolding

CRITIQUES OF COGNITIVISM

Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and absolute

Input – Process – Output model is mechanistic and deterministic

Does not account enough for individuality

Little emphasis on affective characteristics

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (SLT) Grew out of Cognitivism

A. Bandura (1973)

Learning takes place through observation and sensorial experiences

Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery

SLT is the basis of the movement against violence in media & video games

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Learning From Models -Albert Bandura1. Attend to pertinent clues2. Code for memory (store a visual

image)3. Retain in memory4. Accurately reproduce the

observed activity5. Possess sufficient motivation to

apply new learning

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Research indicates that the following factors influence the strength of learning from models:

1. How much power the model seems to have1. How much power the model seems to have2. How capable the model seems to be2. How capable the model seems to be3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems to 3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems to

bebe4. How similar the learner perceives self and 4. How similar the learner perceives self and

model model 5. How many models the learner observes5. How many models the learner observes

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Four interrelated processes establish and strengthen identification with the model:

1. Children want to be like the 1. Children want to be like the modelmodel

2. Children believe they are like the 2. Children believe they are like the modelmodel

3. Children experience emotions 3. Children experience emotions like those the model is feeling.like those the model is feeling.

4. Children act like the model.4. Children act like the model.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Through identification, children come to believe they have the same characteristics as the model.

When they identify with a nurturant and When they identify with a nurturant and competent model, children feel pleased and competent model, children feel pleased and proud.proud.

When they identify with an inadequate model, When they identify with an inadequate model, children feel unhappy and insecure.children feel unhappy and insecure.

SLT IN THE CLASSROOM

Collaborative learning and group work

Modeling responses and expectations

Opportunities to observe experts in action

CRITIQUES OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Does not take into account individuality, context, and experience as mediating factors

Suggests students learn best as passive receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active learners

Emotions and motivation not considered important or connected to learning

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed

around metacognition

Knowledge is actively constructed

Learning is… A search for meaning by the learner Contextualized An inherently social activity Dialogic and recursive The responsibility of the learner

Lev Vygotsky Social Learning

Zone of Proximal Development

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM

Journaling

Experiential activities

Personal focus

Collaborative & cooperative learning

CRITIQUES OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute

Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction

Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES (MI) Grew out of Constructivism, framed around metacognition

H. Gardner (1983 to present)

All people are born with eight intelligences:

1. Verbal-Linguistic1. Verbal-Linguistic 5. Musical5. Musical

2. Visual-Spatial2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist6. Naturalist

3. Logical-Mathematical3. Logical-Mathematical 7. Interpersonal7. Interpersonal

4. Kinesthetic4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal8. Intrapersonal

•Enables students to leverage their strengths and purposefully target and develop their weaknesses

MI IN THE CLASSROOM

Delivery of instruction via multiple mediums

Student-centered classroom

Authentic Assessment

Self-directed learning

CRITIQUES OF MI

Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist

Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular and methodological approach has any discernable impact on learning

Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and standards

BRAIN-BASED LEARNING (BBL)

Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism

D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980’s to present)

12 governing principles

1. Brain is a parallel processor 7. Focused attention & peripheral perception

2. Whole body learning 8. Conscious & unconscious processes

3. A search for meaning 9. Several types of memory

4. Patterning 10. Embedded learning sticks

5. Emotions are critical 11. Challenge & threat

6. Processing of parts and wholes

12. Every brain is unique

BBL IN THE CLASSROOM

Opportunities for group learning

Regular environmental changes

A multi-sensory environment

Opportunities for self-expression and making personal connections to content

Community-based learning

CRITIQUES OF BBL

Research conducted by neuroscientists, not teachers & educational researchers

Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes “brain-based” learning questionable

Individual principles have been scientifically questioned

OTHER LEARNING THEORIES OF NOTE

Andragogy (M. Knowles)

Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)

Situated Learning (J. Lave)

Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)

Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)

HUMANIST

All students are intrinsically motivated to self actualize or learn

Learning is dependent upon meeting a hierarchy of needs (physiological, psychological and intellectual)

Learning should be reinforced.

Stimulus Response

Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response

Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response

Neutral Stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response

Neutral Stimulus

Reward Punishment

Reinforcement Punishment

Positive

Negative

Chocolate Bar Electric Shock

Excused from Chores

No TV privileges

Fixed

Variable

RatioInterval