Lecture Date: March 12, 2008

Nationalism and Sectionalism:

After the war of 1812 and the Treaty of Ghent, the country was swept by a

wave of nationalism. This nationalism can be classified in four categories:

economic, political, judicial and diplomatic nationalisms.

Economic Nationalism.

During this period, the US experienced massive growth:

1. Population grew from 7.5 to 9.5 million between 1810 and 1820.

2. Four new states were added between 1815 and 1820 (Indiana, Illinois,

Alabama and Mississippi).

3. Expansion in the west continued.

4. By 1815, the US had transitioned from a subsistence to market

economy. Subsistence economy is when people produce to meet the

bare minimum, whereas in a market economy, people produce more

to sell in the market (ruled by the principle of supply and demand).

The process of growth wasn't smooth by any means. Market economies

generally provide a better standard of living for some but it can produce

hardship for others. The same was true for America. Some tried to resist the

growth of the market economy but they had little choice but to comply with

the new trends.

Expansion of Transport Network:

Market economy implies the increased production and consumption of

goods. This naturally produces a demand for an extensive transportation

network. With the expansion of market economy in the US, the transport

network had to keep pace. Two important developments helped the

transportation revolution:

1. Canals - Canals are man made waterways where boats are towed by

animal power. Erie Canal is an example of the benefits of canal

transportation. Erie Canal (EC) is 320 miles long and was completed

in less than a decade by the State of New York (1817 to 1825). The EC

connects Hudson River to Lake Erie. EC was unique because it used

River Lock technology and the transportation was made so efficient

that transportation costs were reduced by 90% in some cases. The

success of the EC encouraged the excavation of many other canal

networks mostly in New York, Ohio and Pennsylvania.

2. Steam Boats - First documented use of steam boats in 1807 by Robert

Fulton in Hudson River. Steam boats eventually came to dominated

transportation in the bigger and more placid southern states. By

1830s over 300 steamboats were sailing in Mississippi and Ohio

Rivers.

3. Railroads - Steam power was harnessed into railways which greatly

facilitated the growth and expansion westwards.

Industrial Revolution:

This period also saw the beginning of significant industrial growth in the

US. The revolution was fueled by technological inventions (such as the

cotton gin and interchangeable parts).

Outcome of Economic Growth:

Politically, the new economic expansion forced the new generation of

Republicans to rethink their party policies of benign neglect towards

industry and seek to actively promote the growth of domestic industry. Men

like Henry Clay and John Calhoun were at the forefront of this New

Republican movement. Their policies constituted Economic Nationalism.

1. Tariff of 1816 - First protective tariff to be imposed by the US. The

intended aim of this tariff was to push prices of foreign good higher so

that consumers will choose cheaper American goods.

The tariff benefited only the industrialized north east (where abundant

water power drove industrial production) and had little benefit for the

southern economy (good weather made conditions ideal for

agriculture). However, even southerners like Clay and Calhoun

supported the tariff even though it did not benefit the south. They

acted out of national interest.

2. Second Bank of the US, 1816 - The Republicans had allowed the

charter for B.U.S. to lapse in 1811. However, states began to charter

their own banks and numerous banks sprouted all over the country.

Each state bank issued its own paper money and followed its own

monetary policies. Fairly soon, Congress was forced to charter the

Second B.U.S for 20 years with $ 35 million in stock. The B.U.S

controlled federal deposits and issued national financial guidelines.

3. Henry Clay's American System - Madison was reluctant to sign the

Internal Improvement bill and decided to abandon the issue to the

states. Henry Clay decided to combine the Tariff, Bank and Internal

Improvement acts together and call it the American System. The idea

was to provide an integrated national economic system: the bank

provided capital for the industry, the tariff created a market and

internal improvements made the transportation (back and forth) of

raw materials and manufactured good easier.

Why can this be considered nationalism? Because Henry Clay wa from

the south which benefited the least from industrialization.

Nonetheless, he supported a program that he was thought was good

for the whole nation.

Political Nationalism

The Republicans continued to win the presidential elections in 1816.

Federalist power continued to diminish during the same period.

In 1820, Monroe ran un-opposed and won every vote except one. The

political unanimity led some to call the era as "We are in an Era of Good

Feelings." There was little political opposition to the Republican political

hegemony.

Judicial Nationalism

The Federalist John Marshall continued to support the growth of national

government using the Broad Construction interpretation of constitution and

supported economic growth. One of his most significant decisions was the

McCulloch vs. Maryland case in 1819.

The State of Maryland decided that the Second B.U.S. was unconstitutional

under the Compact Theory of constitution. They imposed a heavy tax

burden on the B.U.S branch in Maryland. The bank treasurer, McCulloch

refused to pay the tax and the issue came before the U.S. Supreme Court.

John Marshall decided that:

1. The Compact Theory of Constitution (which provided the foundation

for Maryland's claim) was wrong; it was the American people that

created the constitution not the states.

2. The Implied Powers in the constitution granted the government the

power to establish the bank. It was therefore constitutional.

3. States can not tax federal government entities.

Lecture Date: March 24, 2008

Diplomatic Nationalism

1. The Transcontinental Treaty of 1819-1820

Florida territory was controlled nominally by Spain. The area was a safe

haven for Seminole Indians and runaway slaves. The area was very sparsely

populated.

In spring of 1818, General Jackson invaded and conquered Florida. There

was no formal order from the government to do so, but no one attempted to

stop Jackson either. While in Florida, Jackson executed two British citizens

and added diplomatic tension with Britain to the already existing tension

with Spain.

The Secretary of State at the time John Quincy Adams however successfully

negotiated with the Spanish. He offered to pull out American forces from

Florida but suggested that the fault lie with Spanish because they couldn't

control the territory. Spain should therefore relinquish control of the

territory to someone who can govern the area and prevent any future

tensions.

Spain agreed to secede Florida in 1819 under the Transcontinental Treaty.

The treaty also drew a boundary between US claims and Spanish claims in

North America. The newly established boundary extended from the Gulf of

Mexico to the Pacific Ocean (the 44th parallel).

2. Monroe Doctrine

By 1820s many of Spain's Latin American colonies were gaining their

independence. The US favored independence for the colonies and was

afraid that Spain would reassert control with help from other European

powers and close free trade with the region to the US merchants. The US

and Britain found a common cause in weakening Spanish control of North

America in order to benefit from the free trade.

In 1823, President Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine which established

two directing principles for American foreign policy:

1. Non-colonization - The Western hemisphere is closed to colonization

by all other powers.

2. Non-interference - The region is also closed to interference by all

other powers.

Economic Collapse and Sectionalism

By 1820s, the nationalist spirit and consensus began melting away. Two

events perpetuated this outcome:

Economic Collapse of 1819:

Also called the Panic of 1819. By 1819, Europe had recovered from wars

and their economic recovery meant less dependence on American raw-

materials and goods. European demands had sustained high prices and

encouraged over-production. Once demand declined, so did prices. People

were left with massive debts especially in the Western territories. Since the

bank was based in the East, people began to develop regional sentiments

which developed into East/West tension.

Missouri Compromise, 1820:

Disagreement primarily over slavery which created the Missouri

controversy. By 1822, 11 states had abolished slavery while 11 other states

continued to retain slavery. The precarious political balance led to the

Southern fear of being dominated by the more populated north.

In 1819, Missouri applied for admission as a slave state (the state economy

was heavily dependent on hemp production). A congressman proposed that

Missouri should be accepted as a slave state on two conditions:

1. No slaves were to be imported into the new territory.

2. All slaves born in the new state would be freed after reaching 25

years of age.

These provisions would overtime convert Missouri into a free state. A big

debate developed which had three themes:

1. Political - Overtime it meant the Northern free states would gain more

political power over the South.

2. Constitutional - Did Congress have the constitutional authority to ban

slavery?

3. Moral - For the first time in US history the controversy was elevated

into the national stage as a moral problem. Was it right to own slaves?

Henry Clay engineered a compromise which became known as the Missouri

Compromise.

In 1820, Maine became an independent territory and applied for admission

as a non-slave state. This maintained the political balance between slave

and free states at 12 each (Missouri under the compromise was admitted as

a slave state).

In addition, under the Missouri Compromise, all new states north of 36,30

parallel were to be admitted as free states.

The moral nature of the slavery question became a major problem between

northern and southern states.

Protective Tariff:

The South began to protest the imposition of the protective tariff because it

protected only northern manufacturers. With the demise of nationalism the

issue became more divisive between north and south.

Lecture Date: March 26, 2008

Election of 1824:

By the election of 1824 sectionalism becomes so bad that four presidential

candidates emerge:

1. William Crawford - Secretary of Treasury under Monroe. He is from

Virginia and a Jeffersonian Democrat.

2. John Q. Adams - Secretary of State under Monroe. He is from

Massachusetts and highly educated.

3. Henry Clay - Senator from Kentucky. He is the supporter of the

American system.

4. Andrew Jackson - Military hero with no prior public office.

5. John C. Calhoun - Senator from South Carolina. He runs as a vice

president for both Adams and Jackson.

The popular vote is divided by regions with Jackson as the front runner (99

votes from the South and West), Adams in second position with 84 votes

(mostly from the Northeast), Crawford in third position with 41 votes (from

two southern states) and Clay with 37 votes.

With no clear majority, the House of Representative had to decide whom to

appoint as the president. Clay at the time was the Speaker of the House--a

very powerful position--and he supports Adams. His support is ideological

because they both support the American System (internal improvements,

the BUS, and protective tariffs).

Adams is elected to be the next president. Adams appoints Clay as his

Secretary of State.

Jackson and his followers accuse Clay and Adams of collusion and label

their deal as "Bargain and Corruption." This provides Jackson with a

platform for electioneering.

Jacksonian Democracy, 1824-1840

Jackson starts campaigning for the elections of 1828 almost immediately

after his defeat in 1824. A new political party emerges in the wake of this

controversy.

Rise of the Democratic Republicans

Jackson supporters coalesce into the Democratic Republican party (the

party members later refer to themselves as simply Democrats). They retain

the title Republicans in their name just to emphasize their continuity with

the former Republicans. But the party is not formed around issues, instead

the party membership consists of people who are against Adam and Clay.

Two prominent members are:

1. Martin Van Buren - From New York and very influential.

2. John Calhoun - From South Carolina and very influential.

Both Van Buren and John Calhoun view the Democratic party as a stepping

stone to presidency.

The National Republican Party

After the break with the Democratic Republicans, the Republican party

becomes the National Republican party. Led by Adams and Clay, the party

favors:

1. Protective tariff

2. American University

3. Investment in science and research.

Despite their ambitious platform, the National Republican party lost the

mid-term elections in 1826 and with it control of Congress.

Elections of 1828

The National Republican party nominate Adams and Rush as their

candidates for presidency and vice presidency respectively.

The Democratic party nominates Jackson for the presidency and Calhoun as

the vice-president.

The elections of 1828 are significant because it was the first time that

modern electioneering techniques (image and marketing) were used.

Jackson and his followers managed to steer attention away from real issues

to personality based attacks. Lacking any public record, Jackson was

deliberately vague on issues and made "cleaning corruption from

Washington" his main campaign motto.

Jackson won by the biggest majority in the 19th century. Voter turn out was

unusually high during this election--a fact that is attributed to Jackson's

anti-corruption message and his brand of populist democracy.

Jackson's Presidency, 1829-1837

There are several issues that are prominent in Jackson's Presidency:

1. Spoils System

Jackson started the tradition of hiring his party faithful to positions in the

civil government. He was convinced that the turnover of personnel was

healthy for democracy and was adamant that government employment was

no one's God given right. This was not very unusual at the time, but Jackson

turned it into a democratic principle.

This eventually led to massive corruption.

2. Indian Removal

The most famous and tragic episode is "The Trail of Tears" which was

caused by the removal of Cherokee Indians from their lands to Oklahoma.

Under pressure from U.S. citizens, Jackson decided to forcefully remove

Indians from their land. He chose the course because it seemed the most

humane. His other choices included:

1. To eliminate all the Indians (very unpleasant option).

2. To encourage them to assimilate and change their cultural patterns of

collective land ownership to individual land ownership. This would

have required a long time and the Indians were resistant to cultural

change. Furthermore, there  was no guarantee that settlers and land

speculators would still not swindle the Indians out of their land.

3. Preserve the status quo and provide protection for the Indians. This

would entail having American troops shoot American citizens. This is

again very unpleasant.

4. The fourth option was removal and Jackson decided to opt for this.

Lecture Date: April 2, 2008

Tariff Controversy with North Carolina

Jackson's vice-president Calhoun intends to run for presidency and

therefore must face the issue of Protective Tariff without harming his

national standing. However, he is in constant tension with his own base in

South Carolina where the Protective Tariff is very unpopular. He supported

the imposition of the tariff in 1816, but gradually comes to oppose the tariff

in the 1820s.

In 1828 the Tariff was renewed by Congress. South Carolina continued to

oppose the tariff. Calhoun is forced to maneuver in order to save his

national standing while at the same time uniting his state base. He secretly

draws up the "South Carolina Exposition and Protest" document in 1828.

The South Carolina legislature publishes the document which contains the

following points:

1. The Protective Tariff of 1828 is unconstitutional since it does not

regulate commerce but supports only manufacturers (in other words,

it supports a certain sector of the economy).

2. When Congress attempts an unconstitutional act, the States have the

option of "nullification."

3. Under the "nullification" clause, a state can call a convention to

deliberate on the constitutionality of the law (this was based on the

precedent established by the Constitutional Convention). If the

convention finds the law unconstitutional, they can nullify the law.

The Congress can attempt to reform the law, or propose a

constitutional amendment.

The nullification process is highly problematic on three grounds:

1. It shifts power from national to the state governments.

2. The states must approve any constitutional amendment, once again

shifting the power from national to state governments.

3. If nullification or constitutional amendment options fail, then a state

has no choice but secede.

Calhoun stipulates that South Carolina should not do anything on the issue

until the end of the year (Calhoun anticipates the upcoming presidential

elections).

Jackson and Calhoun won the election. Calhoun assumed that Jackson will

support nullification, but Jackson despite being rumors of strong support for

state rights, becomes a staunch supporter of national government once he

becomes the head of the national government.

End of Jackson-Calhoun Alliance

Van Buren has national aspirations (wants to run for president) and wants

to damage the Jackson-Calhoun alliance. He uses the Peggy Eaton affair to

drive the wedge between them.

Peggy Eaton was the daughter of an inn keeper in Washington D. C. She

eventually married John Eaton who was eventually appointed as the

Secretary of War in Jackson's cabinet. Peggy's marriage raised suspicion

that John had a hand in the disappearance of Peggy's first husband in the

sea. Washington D. C. society showers scorn on Peggy since she got

married before the mourning period was over.  Calhoun's wife is especially

angry at Peggy and spreads a lot of the rumors.

Jackson because of his own personal experience (his wife Rachel was the

subject of similar rumors while alive) is angry at the treatment of Peggy by

the Calhoun's and demands that he restrain his wife's behavior.

Eaton and Van Buren resign to resolve the issue. Jackson uses the

opportunity to fire his other cabinet members.

The break between Jackson and Calhoun is final when Van Buren runs for

the vice presidency in the next election. Eaton departs for Spain as

ambassador.

This is the first time that a personal/social issue affected the policies of the

country.

Lecture Date: April 4, 2008

Tariff of 1832:

In 1832, Congress passed a new protective tariff.

South Carolina responded by calling a convention to nullify the tariff.

Nullification however does not come into effect by 1833. This step is taken

by South Carolina to deliberately delay the date in order to allow Congress

to respond. They hope that the elections of 1832 will help their position.

Calhoun resigns from his position as the vice president and becomes a

senator representing South Carolina.

Jackson issues proclamation that declares nullification as treason. Jackson

wins re-election with Van Buren as his Vice President.

The Crises with South Carolina

Nullification was due to run into effect by February 1833. The Congress

passes a bill (the Force Bill) allowing the president to use the army and

navy to enforce the protective tariff. The passage of the bill is intended to

convince South Carolina that the other states support the president (the

power is already implied in the presidential powers).

However, Congress reaches a compromise in 1833 that announces the

reduction of the tariff in phases.

In a face saving gesture, South Carolina calls a convention and nullifies the

Force Bill. However, they accept the Clay compromise on the Tariff and the

crises comes to pass without serious consequences.

War with the Second Bank of the US

Nicholas Biddle is the head of the BUS during Jackson's presidency. Biddle

reforms the operations of the bank and makes it more efficient. He also

forces state banks to comply with the gold and silver standard set by the

BUS to control inflation and restrain irresponsible loans.

Jackson dislikes both soft money and banks. He is supported by many others

who think that the bank is an undemocratic institution sine it has too much

political and economic power.

Biddle is afraid that Jackson may veto he renewal of the charter for the

bank when it comes up for renewal in 1936. Biddle attempts to pass the

renewal in advance in 1932 in Congress. The bill is passed but Jackson

promptly vetoes the bill. Jackson in response composes a piece of

propaganda to explain his vetoe, declaring:

1. The bank is unconstitutional.

2. The bank is a monopoly.

3. The bank is a way for the rich to oppress the poor.

He deliberately appeals to people's emotion.

Biddle anticipates the problem and wants to make it an issue in the

elections of 1932. Biddle and his supporters distribute Jackson's statement

to show that Jackson does not grasp the bank's true purpose. Their strategy

backfires as people enthusiastically back Jackson.

Election of 1832

Jackson runs against Clay in 1832. The election of 1832 is significant

because it is the first time delegates from different states gather to

nominate a candidate for their party.

It is also the first time in US politics that a third political party "The Anti-

Masonic Party" contests the election on the platform of breaking up the

Masonic monopoly of power (most elite politicians were members of the

Masons).

Jackson wins the elections by a landslide.

Completion of the Bank War

Jackson decided to punish Biddle by the removal of federal deposits from

the BUS. He redirected the deposits into smaller state banks (what become

known as "pet banks"). His plan was resisted by at least two Secretaries of

Treasury, whom Jackson promptly fired. Roger Taney finally agreed with his

plan and managed to hold on to his position.

Biddle responded by recalling federal loans to businesses. This created a

panic among businessmen who tried to pressure Jackson to relent. Jackson

evaded the issue by intimidating the delegation. Biddle finally had to relent

and the Second Bank  of the US died in 1836 without a renewal.

Jackson action towards the BUS can be seen as very risky or idealistic. On

the one hand, it set back the banking 70 years and economic growth slowed

down significantly. Furthermore, financial stability was hard to achieve

without a central directing authority. On the other hand, the bank wasn't a

very democratic institution but it had tremendous political and economic

power.

Mid 1830s was also a period of economic crisis. English industrialization

had sustained an economic boom by driving the prices of raw materials and

commodities higher. Americans responded by producing more and soon

speculation became rampant. The boom inevitably went bust and caused

another period of economic hardships.

Election of 1836

Jackson had enough clout by now to hand pick his successor in Van Buren.

The National Republican party dissolved and a Whig Party emerged

(coalesced around opposition to Jackson and not around any specific

political platform). They drew their name from the anti-monarchical Whig

Party of Britain. The Whig Party nominated three candidates to run against

Van Buren. Candidates are from three regions and their main intention is to

divide the votes (they have no hope of winning).

Van Buren won in 1836 by a landslide.

1837 the economic bubble bursts as the price of cotton drops. Van Buren

responded to the crises by establishing an independent treasury under the

Independent Treasury Act of 1840 (this is not a bank). All federal funds are

withdrawn from banks and deposited into the Treasury. This further

aggravates the financial and economic crises as money is no longer in

circulation.

Lecture Date: April 7, 2008

Panic of 1837:

The economic hardships led to the loss of popularity of Van Buren and the

Democratic Party. The Whig party gained from this experience.

The Log Cabin Campaign, 1840 –

Van Buren runs for presidency again on a platform of issues. But he is

deeply un-popular.

The Whig Party nominates a war-hero William Henry Harrison (his

reputation from the Battle of Tippecanoe) and John Tyler.

Harrison is derided by Democrats as a drunkard who would be content to

sit before his Log Cabin and while away his time. The Whig’s counter that

nothing is more American than a log cabin.

The elections are also significant because a third party – the Liberty Party –

enters the race. Typically, third parties tend to have one political issue

around which they coalesce. The platform for this party is the control of the

expansion of slavery. This is the first time slavery becomes an issue at the

presidential election level. The Liberty Party nominates James Birney (he is

a former slave owner from Alabama who undergoes conversion, renounces

slavery and moves north).

The elections are an overwhelming victory for the Whig Party. The

leadership had nominated Harrison with the hope of being able to control

him (he has a reputation of being cooperative and malleable).

He delivers his inaugural address in cold well and subsequently falls ill. His

illness progressively worsens until he dies shortly thereafter.

Tyler becomes president and assumes the full powers of the office. This is

the first time in US history that a president dies while in office and sets an

important precedence for the future.

The Whig Party leadership did not want Tyler’s presidency (he was

nominated only to draw votes from the South). Tyler however has his own

political ideas. He does not agree with the policies of the Whig Party

leadership. The leadership also refuses to cooperate with him.

This leads to a period of political paralysis where the Whig Party despite

their control of Congress and the Presidency can not achieve anything. The

episode is known as the Whig Fiasco (1841).

The Bank Issue –

Tyler does not like the bank. When the Whigs attempt to establish a third

Bank of the US, Tyler promptly vetoes the first major Whig legislation

(setting the tone for the rest of the political deadlock).

By 1842, the Whigs are convinced that nothing will be accomplished during

Tyler’s presidency.

During this period, the country also begins to look outward.

Presidential Powers under Jackson –

Jackson exercised the powers of the president’s office to its fullest extent

and became one of the most powerful presidents in the US history.

1. He refused to cooperate with Congress on several issues. In fact, he

vetoed more legislation than any of the previous presidents.

2. He fired cabinet members at will or shifted them elsewhere.

3. He refused to comply with the Supreme Court’s decision.

4. He opposed South Carolina strongly (over the Tariff issue).

Another hallmark of Jackson’s presidency was the introduction of modern

political methods:

1. Modern political campaigning (sloganeering) were introduced during

his first campaign.

2. Presidential candidates were chosen by conventions for the first time.

3. Marketing and image became more important than issues.

This raises the question whether Jackson introduced greater democracy into

the American system. Consider two points:

1. Did he increase the franchise? (No, most of the states had already

expanded the right to vote. It was limited in nature but nonetheless it

was becoming more widespread without Jackson’s intervention).

2. Greater response to the will of the public? (Yes; for example, in the

Indian affairs. Furthermore, his brand of populism made politics more

engaging and the voter participation reached its highest levels

during his campaigning).

Economically, during Jackson’s term the government withdrew entirely

from the economic and financial sphere. This is know as Laissez Faire

policy.

Foreign Policy under Tyler –

During Tyler’s administration, the US underwent a major expansion drive.

This was momentous on two counts:

1. It made the country bigger and stronger.

2. The question of slavery once again emerged in the national arena

(because the decision had to be made whether the new states were to

be slave or non-slave states).

Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 1842 –

Resolved major territorial disputes with British Canada:

Border between Maine and Canada was demarcated.

Border between Minnesota and Canada was demarcated.

Joint occupation of Oregon territory was renewed.

Texas –

During the 1830s, Texas was sparsely populated (only 3,000 non-Indian

settlers lived in Texas). Spain could not control the territory but kept it as a

buffer between US and their valuable colonial possessions in Mexico. They

wanted to do this by offering contracts to settlers who would bring in Anglo

settlers into Texas. The Spanish hoped to remain in control of Texas

through controlled migration. The first contract was given to Mosses Austin

and upon his death was transferred to his son Stephen F. Austin.

The new settlers were to be good, “Catholic” citizens of Spain. The settlers

agreed to this term but paid little heed to it.

During this period, Mexico became an independent Federal Republic. The

Mexican government continued with the program of settlement. Massive

numbers of Anglo settlers poured into Texas in search of cheap fertile land.

By 1835 the demographics had shifted drastically: 30,000 Anglo settlers,

5,000 settlers of Spanish descent and about 5,000 slaves that the Anglo

settlers had brought with them.

The changing demographic created consternation in Mexico due to several

reasons:

1. The Anglo settlers had close ties with the US.

2. Mexico was predominantly Catholic whereas the settlers were mostly

protestants.

3. Administratively, Texas was included in the Coahuila y Texas

province. This was because Texas had had so little settlers. Under the

original provincial set up, the majority of the provincial

representatives were drawn from Coahuila. The Anglo settlers wanted

more representation for themselves and Texas.

4. Mexico had anti-slavery laws but decided to look the other way as

settlers began to bring in slaves. The issue was a constant source of

tension.

Lecture Date: April 9, 2008

Annexation of Texas -

Prior to their arrival in Texas, settlers forced their slaves to sign an

indentured servitude contract for the duration of 100 years. This was to

provide the legal cover for their transportation into Texas.

Mexican government was unstable at the time with simmering conflict

between Federalists and anti-Federalists. Most of the settlers are

Federalists and want to be Mexican citizens.

1830s Mexico attempted to assert control over the Anglo-Texans. The

settlers called for a convention and send Austin to Mexico City with the

demands for a separate state and more representation. Santa Ana became

president and rejected Austin’s demand for statehood. Austin is jailed while

on his way to Texas.

Santa Ana abolished the provincial system (he wanted to model the Mexican

govt. on the French model).

A rebellion developed in Texas and all the Mexican soldiers were forced out

of Texas territory. The Texans demanded the restoration of the 1824

constitution.

Santa Ana marched to Texas at the head of a big army to crush the

Rebellion.

The Texans appointed Sam Houston as their leader. Santa Ana sacked

Alamo and moved to crush Houston and his 1,200 militia

Houston launched a counter-attack on the smaller attachment of Mexican

forces at San Jacinto. The Mexican army was annihilated and Santa Ana was

taken prisoner.

Santa Ana while in captivity agreed to grant Texas the status of an

independent Republic. However, Ana was not in Mexico City and under

Mexican law he could not be a president while outside Mexico City.

Texas at the time carried a massive debt (payment for the Revolution- 1835-

36) and could not raise revenues. At the same time, Texas had no security

with Indian pressure on the West and Mexican armies in the south (Mexican

army had marched into Texas on several instances).

As a solution to these problems, Texas wanted annexation with the US.

Prior to annexation by the US, the Texans attempted an alliance with the

British (who were interested in Texas cotton). But this was against US

interest and made many in the US Congress amenable to the annexation of

Texas.

Texas’s standing as a slave state made the annexation problematic. Tyler

attempted to broker a deal. Daniel Webster, Tyler’s Secretary of State,

resigned in protest (he was from Massachusetts and a strong anti-Slavery

advocate). Tyler replaced him with Upshur who died in an accident. The

position went to Calhoun who was a strong advocate of Texas annexation.

Calhoun worked on the annexation of Texas and completed it by 1844.

However, he needed a 2/3 majority in the Senate to ratify the treaty, but the

Senate opposed his decision.

1844 Presidential Election –

Henry Clay and Van Buren as prospective presidential candidates agreed

that both will oppose annexation by Congress. However, James Polk wins

the democratic nomination (instead of Van Buren). He favored the

annexation of Texas and also Oregon.

Polk was a strong believer in Manifest Destiny (i.e. the American duty to

expand Westward and spread the American way of life).

The Liberty Party also ran in the election and they opposed the annexation

of Texas.

The 1844 election was a close one. 5,000 votes in NY decided the election in

favor of Polk. The vote was split by the Liberty Party (for Clay).

Polk’s election is seen by many as a validation for US expansionism.

Tyler however attempted the annexation of Texas prior to Polk’s

inauguration. He called a joint session of Congress and Senate and passed a

joint resolution and broke the Senate’s opposition to the annexation of

Texas.

Finally, Texas entered the Union as a slave state in 1845.

Annexation of Oregon –

Polk wanted to annex Oregon but reached a compromise with Britain. The

1846 Compromise extended the existing boundary (under the 1818 Treaty)

along the 49th parallel to the Pacific Ocean.

War with Mexico, 1846-48:

Causes for the War with Mexico:

1. The US wanted a port on the Pacific Coast as the terminal point for

the trans-continental railway. The only viable port was San Francisco,

which was governed by Mexico.

2. Mexico did not relinquish its claims to Texas. Furthermore, the border

was undecided in the South and West.

Polk attempted to resolve the issue diplomatically and purchase California

territory and settle the Texas border issue. He offered 25 million $s for the

territory.

Simultaneously, Tyler sent an army under Zachery Taylor to sit on the Oasis

River. Mexico rebuffed the diplomatic effort because of government

instability.

Taylor moved his army from the Oasis to the Rio Grande River and war was

declared.

The War with Mexico was very popular in the South. However, Northerners

see it as a war to support slavery. The call is issued for an American army;

and 50,000 men volunteer from Tennessee.

Lincoln opposed the Mexican war and proposed the “Spot Resolution”

(demanded to see the spot where the was fought on American soil).

Taylor advanced deep into Mexico with his forces. Polk promptly replaced

him with Winfield Scott. By September 1847, the US army reached Mexico

City.

The war provided the training for many future players in the American Civil

War.

Mexico negotiated the “Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo” in 1848. The US

made huge territorial gains in exchange of 15 million $s.

Emerson called the annexation of Mexican territory as “Dose of Arsenic”

because of the slavery issue.