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Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

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Page 1: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Lectures on English Grammar, 11

BA, 2nd semester

Attitudes to situations

Torben Thrane

Page 2: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Sender Receiver

Channel

Channel

Code

Context

Message

Communications Model

Page 3: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Speaker’s attitudes towards described situations

Sender Receiver

Channel

Channel

Code

Context

Message

Page 4: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Attitude reports and modalities

Two areas of grammar:

• propositional attitudes - speech acts and performativesthe speaker’s attitude towards the described situation

• modality - modal verbs and adverbsthe speaker’s judgement of the described situation

Page 5: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Attitude and modality markers

I think that you should leave

Complement

I think

[Attitude marker]

[subordination marker]

should

[modality marker]

you leave

[proposition]

Page 6: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Attitude reportsI think

I believe

I trust

I know

I regret

I suppose

I understand

I wish

etc.

(that) everybody is bringing something to eat

These verbs are also called‘cognitive’ or ‘mental’ verbs.

Grammatically, they demanda clause as complement

Page 7: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Structural types of AR verbs (incomplete)

John wished (that) the show started at 8 ‘that’-clause

Direct object

John knew what the show was about ‘what’-clause

John wished to wait for the bus infinitive-clause

John wished for Jill to wait for the bus

There is great individual variation from verb to verb withrespect to complementation type.

for-infinitive-clause

Page 8: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Performatives

John promised that he would bring something to eat

John warned us that he would bring something to eat

John threatened that he would bring something to eat

They asked if John would be chef for the evening

They appointed John chef of the evening

They christened their new baby John

etc

Page 9: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Speech acts (1)

Promises

Warnings

Threats

Questions

Appointments

Christenings

etc.

- are ‘things’ that only exist inthe world because someone hassaid something on some occasion

They are the results of particularspeech acts.

The study of speech acts - how theyare performed, what linguistic re-sources are involved, what formalproperties they have, etc. - is acentral concern of pragmatics.

Page 10: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Speech acts (2)

Verbs that designate speech acts are called ‘performative’ or ‘communication’ verbs

Grammatically, they take a clause as comple-ment, sometimes with an extra NP or to+NP as indirect object

Page 11: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

S

NP VP

V S´

John

said

Compl

that

S

NP VP

V NP

he

likes you

The structure of AR & SA verbs

Page 12: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Structural types of SA verbs (incomplete)

John said (that) the show started at 8 ‘that’-clause

Direct object

John said what the show was about ‘what’-clause

John said to wait for the bus infinitive-clause

John said for Jill to wait for the bus for-infinitive-clause

Note for Danes: explain

John forklarede os hvad stykket handlede om*John forklarede til os hvad stykket handlede om

*John explained us what the play was aboutJohn explained to us what the play was about

Page 13: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Epistemic modality (again)

Last lecture dealt among other things with thedistinction between fact and possibility

Possibility is a notion which together with its opposite - Necessity - forms the type of modality which is called

EPISTEMIC

There are two other main types of modality:

DEONTIC and PRAGMATIC

Page 14: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Deontic modality

Speaker’s judgement of the described situation:

I think that you should leave

… but there is more to it

The subject ’s judgment of the described situation

John thinks that you should leave

‘Circumstantial propriety’ of the described situation

(It’s 3 o’clock in the morning) you should leave

Page 15: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

‘Circumstantial propriety’

There are basically two sources of authority that regulatebehaviour:

• The set of moral codes and norms in societyThou shalt not kill

• The set of legal rules and regulations in societyAll traffic must turn left

Page 16: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Modal meaningsEpistemic

(Logical) necessity

(Logical) possibility

It is necessary that P=

It is not possible that not-P

It is possible that P=

It is not necessary that not-P

Deontic

Obligation

Permission

X is obliged to Y=

X is not permitted not to Y

X is permitted to Y=

X is not obliged not to Y

Pragmatic

Insistence

Ability

X insists on Y=

X is not able not to Y

X is able to Y=

X does not insist on not-Y

Page 17: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Modal verbs

You can go now Permission AbilityYou could go now Possibilit

yAbility

You may go now Possibility

Permission

You might go now PossibilityYou must go now Necessity Obligation

You ought to go now Obligation

You shall go now Obligation Insistence

You should go now Necessity Obligation

You will go now Obligation Ability

You would go now Insistence

Epistemic Deontic Pragmatic

Page 18: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Possibility, permission and ability

You can go now As I do not prevent you, and you are able, you go now

You could go now As you are able to, it is possible that...

You may go now As there is nothing, including me, to prevent you, it is possible that...

You might go now As there is nothing to prevent you, it is possible that...

Page 19: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Necessity, obligation and insistence

You must go now Circumstances/I demand that you go

You ought to go now Circumstances dictate that you go now

You shall go now I demand/insist that you go now

You should go now Circumstances demand that you go now

You will go now Oblige me, since you are able, to go now

Page 20: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Deontic modality (1)

USFact Potential (pragmatic)

Hypothesis (permission)

Necessity (obligation)

Time

Time

Page 21: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Deontic modality (2)

USFactPotential(pragmatic)

Hypothesis (permission)

Necessity (obligation)

Time

Time

cancouldmaymustought toshall

shouldwillwould

Page 22: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Semi-modals

have to

be to

be about to

dare notneed not

be going to

be sure to

had betterhave got to

pragmatic

epistemic

deontic

deontic

deontic

pragmatic

pragmatic

pragmatic

epistemic

Page 23: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

Modal adverbs

necessarily

perhaps

certainly

obviously

possibly

actually

probably

surelyundoubtedley

pragmatic

epistemic

epistemic

epistemic

pragmatic

epistemic

epistemic

epistemic

epistemic

etc. etc.

Page 24: Lectures on English Grammar, 11 BA, 2nd semester Attitudes to situations Torben Thrane

The structure of Modal Aux and AdverbsS

NP VP

Aux VP

Adv VPJohn

may

possibly

you

V NP

help