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Lectures on English Grammar, 11
BA, 2nd semester
Attitudes to situations
Torben Thrane
Sender Receiver
Channel
Channel
Code
Context
Message
Communications Model
Speaker’s attitudes towards described situations
Sender Receiver
Channel
Channel
Code
Context
Message
Attitude reports and modalities
Two areas of grammar:
• propositional attitudes - speech acts and performativesthe speaker’s attitude towards the described situation
• modality - modal verbs and adverbsthe speaker’s judgement of the described situation
Attitude and modality markers
I think that you should leave
Complement
I think
[Attitude marker]
[subordination marker]
should
[modality marker]
you leave
[proposition]
Attitude reportsI think
I believe
I trust
I know
I regret
I suppose
I understand
I wish
etc.
(that) everybody is bringing something to eat
These verbs are also called‘cognitive’ or ‘mental’ verbs.
Grammatically, they demanda clause as complement
Structural types of AR verbs (incomplete)
John wished (that) the show started at 8 ‘that’-clause
Direct object
John knew what the show was about ‘what’-clause
John wished to wait for the bus infinitive-clause
John wished for Jill to wait for the bus
There is great individual variation from verb to verb withrespect to complementation type.
for-infinitive-clause
Performatives
John promised that he would bring something to eat
John warned us that he would bring something to eat
John threatened that he would bring something to eat
They asked if John would be chef for the evening
They appointed John chef of the evening
They christened their new baby John
etc
Speech acts (1)
Promises
Warnings
Threats
Questions
Appointments
Christenings
etc.
- are ‘things’ that only exist inthe world because someone hassaid something on some occasion
They are the results of particularspeech acts.
The study of speech acts - how theyare performed, what linguistic re-sources are involved, what formalproperties they have, etc. - is acentral concern of pragmatics.
Speech acts (2)
Verbs that designate speech acts are called ‘performative’ or ‘communication’ verbs
Grammatically, they take a clause as comple-ment, sometimes with an extra NP or to+NP as indirect object
S
NP VP
V S´
John
said
Compl
that
S
NP VP
V NP
he
likes you
The structure of AR & SA verbs
Structural types of SA verbs (incomplete)
John said (that) the show started at 8 ‘that’-clause
Direct object
John said what the show was about ‘what’-clause
John said to wait for the bus infinitive-clause
John said for Jill to wait for the bus for-infinitive-clause
Note for Danes: explain
John forklarede os hvad stykket handlede om*John forklarede til os hvad stykket handlede om
*John explained us what the play was aboutJohn explained to us what the play was about
Epistemic modality (again)
Last lecture dealt among other things with thedistinction between fact and possibility
Possibility is a notion which together with its opposite - Necessity - forms the type of modality which is called
EPISTEMIC
There are two other main types of modality:
DEONTIC and PRAGMATIC
Deontic modality
Speaker’s judgement of the described situation:
I think that you should leave
… but there is more to it
The subject ’s judgment of the described situation
John thinks that you should leave
‘Circumstantial propriety’ of the described situation
(It’s 3 o’clock in the morning) you should leave
‘Circumstantial propriety’
There are basically two sources of authority that regulatebehaviour:
• The set of moral codes and norms in societyThou shalt not kill
• The set of legal rules and regulations in societyAll traffic must turn left
Modal meaningsEpistemic
(Logical) necessity
(Logical) possibility
It is necessary that P=
It is not possible that not-P
It is possible that P=
It is not necessary that not-P
Deontic
Obligation
Permission
X is obliged to Y=
X is not permitted not to Y
X is permitted to Y=
X is not obliged not to Y
Pragmatic
Insistence
Ability
X insists on Y=
X is not able not to Y
X is able to Y=
X does not insist on not-Y
Modal verbs
You can go now Permission AbilityYou could go now Possibilit
yAbility
You may go now Possibility
Permission
You might go now PossibilityYou must go now Necessity Obligation
You ought to go now Obligation
You shall go now Obligation Insistence
You should go now Necessity Obligation
You will go now Obligation Ability
You would go now Insistence
Epistemic Deontic Pragmatic
Possibility, permission and ability
You can go now As I do not prevent you, and you are able, you go now
You could go now As you are able to, it is possible that...
You may go now As there is nothing, including me, to prevent you, it is possible that...
You might go now As there is nothing to prevent you, it is possible that...
Necessity, obligation and insistence
You must go now Circumstances/I demand that you go
You ought to go now Circumstances dictate that you go now
You shall go now I demand/insist that you go now
You should go now Circumstances demand that you go now
You will go now Oblige me, since you are able, to go now
Deontic modality (1)
USFact Potential (pragmatic)
Hypothesis (permission)
Necessity (obligation)
Time
Time
Deontic modality (2)
USFactPotential(pragmatic)
Hypothesis (permission)
Necessity (obligation)
Time
Time
cancouldmaymustought toshall
shouldwillwould
Semi-modals
have to
be to
be about to
dare notneed not
be going to
be sure to
had betterhave got to
pragmatic
epistemic
deontic
deontic
deontic
pragmatic
pragmatic
pragmatic
epistemic
Modal adverbs
necessarily
perhaps
certainly
obviously
possibly
actually
probably
surelyundoubtedley
pragmatic
epistemic
epistemic
epistemic
pragmatic
epistemic
epistemic
epistemic
epistemic
etc. etc.
The structure of Modal Aux and AdverbsS
NP VP
Aux VP
Adv VPJohn
may
possibly
you
V NP
help