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NPRD-2
LEVEL?
NONELECTRONIC PARTS
RELIABILITY DATA
DTICELECTE
DC10 19 1~
ll| D
SUMMER 1981
Reliability Analysis CenterROME AIR DEVELOPMENT CENTER
81 12 10 001"
THE RELIABILITY ANAL YSIS CENTER IS A DOD INFORMATION ANALYSIS CENTER
THE INFORMATION AND DATA CONTAINED HEREIN HAVE BEEN COMPILED FROM GOVERNMENT
AND NONGOVERNMENT TECHNICAL REPORTS AND FROM MATERIAL SUPPLIED BY VARIOUS
MANUFACTURERS AND ARE INTENDED TO BE USED FOR REFERENCE PURPOSES. NEITHER THE
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT NOR lIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE WARRANT THE ACCURACY OF
THIS INFORMATION AND DATA. THE USER IS FURTHER CAUTIONED THAT THE DATA CONTAINEDHEREIN MA Y NOT BE USED IN LIEU OF OTHER CONTRACTUALLY CITED REFERENCES AND
SPECIFICA TIONS.
PUBLICATION OF THIS INFORMATION IS NOT AN EXPRESSION OF THE OPINION OF THE UNITED
STATES GOVERNMENT OR OF lIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE AS TO THE QUALITY OR DURABILITY
OF ANY PRODUCT MENTIONED HEREIN AND ANY USE FOR ADVERTISING OR PROMOTIONALPURPOSES OF THIS INFORMATION IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE NAME OF THE UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT OR lIT RESEARCH INSTITUTE WITHOUT WRITTEN PERMISSION IS EXPRESSLYPROHIBITED.
O Reliability Analysis CenterA DoD Information Analysis Center
NONELECTRONIC PARTS
RELIABILITY DATA
Prepared by:
Robert G. Arno
lIT Research Institute
Under Contract to:
Rome Air Development Center
Griffiss AFB, NY 13441
Ordering No. NPRD-2
DTICSELECTED
Approved for Public Releae, Distribution Unlimited S EC 10 1981
D
~ (Iiiil1~The RELIABILITY hAmYSIS CENER is a DoD information analysisCenter, operated by IIT Research Institute under contract to the Rome Air Devel-opment Center, AFSC.
The Reliability Analysis Center (RAC) is a Department of Defense Infor-mation Analysis Center sponsored by the Defense Logistics Agency, managed by theRome Air Development Center (RADC), and operated at RADC by IIT ResearchInstitute (IITRI). RAC is charged with the collection, analysis and dissemin-ation of reliability information pertaining to parts used in electronic systems.The present scope includes integrated circuits, hybrids, discrete transistorsand diodes, microwave devices, optoelectronics, and selected nonelectronic partsemployed in military, space and commercial applications.
In addition, a System/Equipment Reliability Corporate Memory (RCM) is alsooperating under the auspices of the RAC and serves as the focal point for thecollection and analysis of all reliability-related information and data onoperating and planned military systems and equipment.
Data are collected on a continuous basis from a broad range of sourcesincluding testing laboratories, device and equipment manufacturers, governmentlaboratories, and equipment users, both government and nongovernment. Automaticdistribution lists, voluntary data submittal, and field failure reportingsystems supplement an intensive data solicitation program.
Reliability data documents covering most of the device types mentionedabove are available annually from RAC. Also, RAC provides reliability consultingand technical and bibliographic inquiry services which are fully discussed at theend of this document.
REQUESTS FOR TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ALL OTHER REQUESTS SHOULD BEAND INFORMATION ON AVAILABLE RAC DIRECTED TO:SERVICES AND PUBLICATIONS KAY BEDIRECTED TO:
Charles E. Ehrenfried Rome Air Development CenterReliability Analysis Center RBE/Charles F. BoughRome Air Development Center (RBRAC) Griffiss Air Force Base, NY 1311Griffiss Air Force Base, NY 13441 Telephone: 315/330-4920Telephone: 315/330-4151 Autovon: 587-4920Autovon: 587-4151
(D 1981, IIT Research Institute4.. o •All Rights Reserved
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Dot. Enter.d)_
PAGE READ INSTRUCTIONSREPORT DOCUMENTATION BEFORE COMPLETING FORMI. REPORT NUMBER 2. G VT ACCESSION NO. 3 RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER
NPRD-2 / cj
4. TITLE (inWd Subtitle) S. TYPE OF REPORT & PCRIOD COVERED
Nonelectronic Parts Reliability Data - 2 N/A
S. PERFORMING O1G. REPORT NUMBER
7. AUTHO:i(.) S. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(.)
Robert G. Arno F30602-78-C-0281
9. PERFORMING ORGAk' ATIDN NAME AND ADDRESS I0. PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECT. TASK
Reliability Analysis Center (RBRAC) AREA A WORK UNIT NUMBERS
Rome Air Development CenterGriffiss Air Force Base, New York 13441
I1. CONTROLLING OeFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATt
Rome Air fevelopment Center Summer 1981Griffiss Air Force Base, New York 13441 13. NUMBEROFPAGES
14. MONITORING AGESICY NAME & AODRESS(,/ dif.orr,,nt from Cont-11ina Office) IS SECURITY CLASS. 'of this report)
Unclassi fied
IS. OECLASSIFICATION DOWNGRADINGSCHEDULE
IS. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of this Report)
Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.Available from RAC or NTIS.
i7. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the obstrcit entered in Block 20, II different from Report)
IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
This is the second in a series of publications dealing with the nonelectronicparts reliability and supersedes NPRD-1, dated 1978.
19. "KEY WORDS (Continue on reverie side if nece**&,, end identify by block number)
Nonelectronic Parts Failure Modes and Mechanismsfailure Rates Electromechanical ComponentReliability Information Mechanical Parts
20. ABSTRACT (Corttlans on reverse side It neceoary end Identify by block number)
-_ -This report, organized in four major sections, presents reliabilityinformation based on field operation, dormant state and test data for morethan 250 major nonelectronic part types. The four sections are Generic Data,Detailed Data, Application Data, and Failure Modes and Mechanisms. Eachdevice type contains reliability information in relation to the specificoperational environments.,.,
DD 1473 EDITION Of I NOV 65 I OOSOLETE
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION Of THIS PAGE (When Veto Ent-led)
Ui
UNCLASSIFIED
sgCUPirY CLA*SI CATION OF THIS PAO6(WUa DNAt *aI.V.E)
UNCLASSIFIEDISCURITY CLAGSIPICATION OF ' PAoGrVWhe Data [email protected])
PREFACE
This is the second edition of a series of data publications dealing with
nonelectronic reliability at the part level. NPRD-Z updates NPRD-1 by expanding
the scope and quality of data.
The data presented in these reliability publications are intended to
compliment such documents as MIL-HDBK-217 and MIL-STD-883. The user is
cautioned, however, that the data contained herein may not be used in lieu of
contractually cited references. It should also be noted that the data contained in
this document is failure data, not part replacement data. Only verified failures
were used in the calculations of the failure rates.
h
AOesslon ForNTIS GRnt'DTIC TAB 0~DTICWffmouned 0]
JustificationD I. OELIECTEI
Distribution/ _DEC 10 1981 fAvailability CoGeI 0AvailanG/orlat specialD
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
SECTION 1: NONELECTRONIC GENERIC FAILURE RATES 3
Definitions of Terms 5
Index for Generic Failure Rates 10
Generic Failure Rate Tables 21
SECTION Z: NONELECTRONIC PARTS DETAILED DATA 117
Nonelectronic Parts Detailed Data 119
Index for Detailed Data lz
Detailed Data Tables 125
SECTION 3: NONELECTRONIC PARTS DATA FROM COMMERCIAL 209
EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS
Nonelectronic Parts Data From Commercial 211
Equipment Applications
Index for Commercial Equipment Application Data Z13
Commercial Equipment Application Data Tables 215
SECTION 4: FAILURE MODES AND MECHANISMS Z29
Operational Failure Modes and Mechanisms Z31
Batteries 231
Lead-Acid Z31
Nickel-Cadmium 232
Bearings Z33
Circuit Breakers 234
Connectors 234
Coolant Hose Z35
Electron Tubes 236
Fuses 236
viiF=WEWD AM MLAhE-MOW n1A
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)
Page
SECTION 4: FAILURE MODES AND MECHANISMS (Cont'd)
Gaskets and Seals 237
Gyroscope Z38
IC Sockets 239
Motors 241
Printed Circuit Board Z41
Pumps 243
Hydraulic 243
Pneumatic Z44
Quick Disconnect Couplings Z44
Relays 245
Armature Z45
Reed 247
Solder Connections 248
Switches 249
Valves Z50
Dormant Failure Modes bnd Mechanisms z5zBearings 25Z
Connectors, General Z52
Clutches 252
Gyros 252
Magnetrons 253
DC Motors 253
Relays, Latching 253
Relays, Nonlatching 253
Seals 253
Switches, Sensitive 254
Transformer 254
Part Failure Mode Distribution 255
APPENDIX: ADDITIONAL RAC SERVICES Z59
viii
INTRODUCTION
This nonelectronic reliability data publication provides failure rate and
failure mode information for mechanical, electromechanical, electrical,
pneumatic, hydraulic and rotating parts. The data utilized in the development of
this publication were collected by the RAC and represent equipment level
experience under field conditions in military, industrial and commercial
applications.
It has been necessary to accept the assumption that the failures of
nonelectronic parts follow the exponential distribution; that is, such parts display a
constant failure rate. This assumption is necessary due to the virtual absence of
data containing individual times or cycles to failure.
Section 1 of this publication provides summarized generic part level failure
rates. Section 2 consists of detailed entries by part type and environmental
application in unsummarized form. In Section 3, failure rates for parts unique to or
frequently used in computer peripherals, point of sale equipment, and test
instruments are tabulated. Section 4 presents the distribution of failure modes for
a number of major nonelectronic part families.
NONELECTRONIC PARTS RELIABILITY DATA
SECTION 1
NONELECTRONIC GENERIC FAILURE RATES
.... .....
Section I
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
This section presents summaries of field reliability experience for
nonelectronic parts. The summaries are presented in alphabetical order by major
family classes and alphabetically by type within each family class.
A careful reading of the description of the presentation format and entry
codes employed will aid the user of this publication. The circled numbers shown in
the tabulation form below are referenced to the explanatory text which follows.
rAtIURF MAI[ /10 HUJRS
' MION l0o "IPFEl Dt cO.I LUF IW v NYT P E OPAI.1GTNVIRSNItN SINLLLE-SIDE I M(ot
Nit. OMIrN F NCFE LOWEP RLFF ppra RFcot'~s FAI IF"
PART CLASS A major family of parts having or
providing the same function.
TYPE: The identification of the part type.
O ENVIRONMENT: The coded entries are as follows:
DOR - Dormant The state wherein a component or
equipment is connected to a sys-
tern in the normal operational con-
figuration and experiences below
normal and/or periodic operational
stresses and environmental stress-
es. The system may be in a dor-
mant state for prolonged periods
(up to five years or more) before
being used in a mission.
5
DEFINITION OF TERMS (Cont'd)
SAT - Satellite Earth orbital, approaches benign
conditions without access for
maintenance. Vehicle neither under
powered flight nor in atmosphere
re-entry.
GRF - Ground Fixed Conditions less than ideal to
include installation in permanent
racks with adequate cooling air,
maintenance by military personnel
and possible installation in
unheated buildings.
GRM - Ground Mobile Conditions more severe than GRF,
mostly for vibration and shock.
Cooling air supply may also be
more limited, and maintenance less
uniform.
A - Airborne The most generalized aircraft
conditions.
Al - Airborne Inhabited General conditions in inhabited
areas without environmental ex-
tremes.
AIT - Airborne Inhabited Transport Conditions in inhabited areas of
subsonic aircraft such as transport,
cargo, heavy bomber, and patrol.
AlF - Airborne Inhabited Fighter The conditions to be found in the
cockpit area of fighters and
interceptors.
6
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS (Cont'd)
AU - Airborne Uninhabited General conditions typical of such
areas as cargo storage areas, wing
and tail installations where ex-
treme pressure, temperature and
vibration cycling exist; also, mey
be aggravated by contamination
from oil, hydraulic fluid and engine
exhaust.
AUT - Airborne Uninhabited Transport Conditions in uninhabited areas of
subsonic aircraft such as transport,
cargo, heavy bomber, and patrol.
AUF - Airborne Uninhabited Fighter Conditions in uninhabited areas of
fighters and interceptors.
HEL - Helicopter Conditions most severe for vibra-
tion, temperature and humidity.
SHS - Ship Sheltered Surface conditions similar to GRF
but subject to occasional high
shock and vibration.
SHU - Ship Unsheltered Normal surface shipboard con-
ditions but with repetitive high
levels of shock and vibration.
SUB - Submarine Conditions normal to operation
aboard a submerged vessel. Tem-
perature and humidity controlled.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS (Cont'd)
MIS - Missile Launch Severe conditions of noise,
vibration and other environments
related to missile launch, and
space vehicle boost into orbit,
vehicle re-entry and landing by
parachute. Conditions may also
apply to installation near main
rocket engines during launch
operations.
(® APPLICATION:
MIL. (Military) Data resulting from a military or
satellite application.
COML. (Commercial) Data resulting from a commercial
or industrial application.
N/A Not applicable. The nature of the
hardware application is unknown.
The maximum likelihood estimator
when the exponential distribution
is assumed.
® 60% UPPER SINGLE-SIDED The 60% upper single-sided con-
CONFIDENCE fidence limit estimate of the
failure rate, computed from the
Chi-square distribution, is provided
for those entries for which zero
failures have been recorded.
8
DEFINITION OF TERMS (Cont'd)
® 60% CONFIDENCE INTERVAL,
LOWER AND UPPER: The lower and upper limits of the
60% confidence interval about
computed from the Chi-square
distribution.
® NUMBER OF RECORDS: The number of records merged to
provide the failure rate infor-
mation. The merged records re-
present only those accepted by a
test statistic based on the F-
distribution at the 5% level.
® NUMBER FAILED: The total number of failures
observed in the merged records.
63 OPERATING HOURS (x10 6 ): The total hours at the part level.
Derived by multiplying the part
population by the equipment hours
of operation observed during the
period covered by each record. An
asterisk (*) in the X column
indicates that, for this entry, the
failure rate information is given in
terms of per 106 cycles and the
total operating hours in the last
column should be read as cycles x
106.
9
INDEX FOR GEN RIC FAILURE RATES
Accelerometer 21
Angular z1
General 21
Linear 21
Pendulum 22
Accumulator z2
General ZZ
Hydraulic Z3
Actuator 23
Explosive Z3
General 24
Hydraulic Z4
Linear Z5
Rotary Z5
Battery Z6
Lead Acid 26
Mercury Z6
Nickel Cadmium Z6
Non-Rechargeable 7
Rechargeable 27
Bearing Z8
Ball 28
Bushing Z8
General 29
Needle Z9
Roller 30
Spherical 30
10
kI
I
INDEX FOR GENERIC FAILURE RATES (Cont'd)
Bellows 31
Diaphragm Burst 31
Explosive 31
General 31
Brake 32
General 32
Magnetic 3Z
Brush 33
Electric 33
Circuit Board 33
Plated Through Holes 33 iiPrinted Circuit Board 34
Single Layer 34
Multilayer 34
Terminal 34
Circuit Protection Device 35
Fuse 35
Fuse Holder 35
General 36
Molded Case Circuit Breaker 36
Power Switch, Circuit Breaker 37
Spark Gap, Surge Protection 37
Undervoltage 37
Compressor 38
Air 38
General 38
11
INDEX FOR GENETIC FAILURE RATES (Cont'd)
Connection 39
Solder Connection, General 39
Solder, Hand Lap 39
Solder, Wave 39
Wirewrap 39
Connector 40
Circular 40
Coaxial 40
General 41
Phone 41
Pin 4Z
Power 42
Printed Circuit Board 43
Radio Frequency 43
Rectangular 44
Test Jack 44
Controls and Instruments 45
Air Pressure Gauge 45
Altimeter 45
Ammeter 46
Compass 46
Indicator 47
Magentic Sensing 47
Rate of Flow Instrument 48
Tachometer 48
12
........
INDEX FOR GENERIC FAILURE RATES (Cont'd)
Page
Emergency Light 48
General 48
Fan 49
Axial 49
Centrifugal 49
General 50
Filter 50
Fluid 50
Gas 51
General 51
Gasket and Seal 52
Gasket, Shielding, RFI 5z
General 52
O-Ring 53
Packing 53
Generator 54
AC 54
DC 54
Diesel Engine 54
Gas Engine 55
General 55
Hot Gas 55
Motor/Generator 56
Turbine/Generator 56
13
__...... ... .. . .
____ - -- , . . A-. .
INDEX FOR GENERIC FAILURE RATES (Cont'd)Page
Gyroscope 56
Directional 57
General 57
Rate Integrating 58
Heater 58
Electric, General 58
Electric, Space 59
General 59
Heat Exchanger 60
General 60
Hose 60
Fittings, General 60
Hydraulic 61
Lamp 61
Incandescent 61
LED 6Z
Neon 62
Manifold 6Z
General 62
Mechanical Device 63
Clutch 63
Coupling 63
Gear 63
14
INDEX FOR GENERIC FAILURE RATES (Cont'd)
Page
Mechanical Device (Cont'd)
Gear Assembly 64
Gear Shaft 64
Joy Stick Assembly 64
Mechanism, Power Transmittal 65
Speed Drive 65
Spring 66
Miscellaneous 66
Coil, Cooling-Chilled Water 66
Engine 66
RF Cable Assembly 67
Safe & Arm Device 67
Motor 67
Fractional H. P. 67
Full H. P. 68
General, A. C. 68
General, D. C. 69
Induction 69
PM 70
Sensor 70
Solenoid 70
Step 71
Torque 71
Pump 71
Boiler Feed 71
Centrifugal 72
Coolant 72
15
* - *I
INDEX FOR GENERIC FAILURE RATES (Cont'd)
Page
Pump (Cont'd)
.Electric Motor Driven 7Z
Engine Driven 73
Fixed Displacement 73
Fuel 74
Geroter 74
Hydraulic 75
Hydraulic Motor Driven 75
Impeller 76
Oil 76
Turbine Driven 77
Vacuum 77
Variable Displacement 77
Water 78
Regulator 78
Fuel 78
General 78
Oxygen Demand 79
Pressure 79
Tension 79
Thermostat 80
Voltage 80
Relay 81
Armature 81
Coaxial 81
Crystal Can 8z
16
INDEX FOR GENERIC FAILURE RATES (Cont'd)
Relay (Cont'd)
Current Sensitive 82
General 83
High Voltage 83
Latching 84
Motor Driven 84
Power 85
Reed 85
Thermal 86
Time Delay 86
Rotary Joint 87
Microwave 87
Sensor 87
General 87
Shock Absorber 88
General 88
General, Mount 88
Isolator 89
Slip Ring Assembly 89
General 89
Socket 90
Dual-In-Line (Per Pin) 90
High Power Tube 90
Lamp 90
Relay 90
17
INDEX FOR GENERIC FAILURE RATES (Cont'd)
Solenoid 91
General 91
Sprinkler Head 91
General 91
Switch 9z
Centrifugal 9Z
Coaxial 9Z
Dual-In-Line (DIP) 92
Flow 93
General 93
Humidity 93 BInertial 94
Key 94
Liquid Level 94
Pendant-Hoist 95
Pressure 95
Push Button 96
Reed 96
Rotary 97
Sensitive 97
Shaft 98
Snap Slide 98
Stepping 98
Thermal 99
Thermostat 99
Thumb Wheel 100
Toggle 100
Wave Guide 101
18
INDEX FOR GENERIC FAILURE RATES (Cont'd)
Synchro 101
Differential 101
General 102
Receiver, Transmitter 10Z
Resolver 103
Tank 103
Fuel Cell 103
General 104
Oil 104
Pressure Vessel 105
Storage 105
Time-Totalizing Meter 106
Counters 106
Timer, Electro-Mechanical 106
Transducer 106
Fluid Flow 106
General 107
Motional 107
Pressure 108
Tach Generator 108
Temperature 109
Valve 109
Ball 109
Butterfly 109
Check 110
Diaphragm 110
19
INDEX FOR GENERIC FAILURE RATES (Cont'd)
Valve (Cont'd)
Fuel IIl
Gate Ill
General 11z
Globe 112
Hydraulic 113
Needle 113
Oil 114
Plug 114
Pneumatic 114
Relief 115
Servo 115
Solenoid 116
Water 116
20
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NONELECTRONIC PARTS RELIABILITY DATA
SECTION 2
NONELECTRONIC PARTS DETAILED DATA
.oI
Section Z
NONELECTRONIC PARTS DETAILED DATA
The detailed data entries presented in this section are arranged in
alphabetical order by major family class and alphabetically by type within each
family class. The environmental codes described on page 5 are utilized in this
section.
Failure rate estimates are not presented for those entries having zero
failures and less than 0.5 x 106 hours. The user of this document who wishes to
derive the 60% upper single-sided confidence limit estimate for the zero failure
case may do so by dividing the value 0.916 by the operating hours provided for that
entry.
119
INDEX FOR DETAILED DATA
Actuator 125
Linear 125
Rotary 130
Battery 131
Carbon - Zinc 131
Lead Acid 13Z
Mercury 133
Nickel Cadmium 134
Bearing 135
Ball 135
Circuit P!-,tection Device 136
Circuit Breaker 136
Molded Case Circuit Breaker 137
Power Switch Circuit Breaker 138
Undervoltage Circuit Breaker 139
Compressor 140
Air 140
Connector 141
Circular 141
Coaxial 148
Power 149
Printed Circuit Board 150
Rectangular 152
Controls and Instruments 157
Compass 157
Indicator 158
121Pk6CZimm F"~ UMEJ-UOT 121N
INDEX FOR DETAILED DATA (Cont'd)
Page
Emergency Light 161
Stand-By 161
Emergency Power 162
General 162
Fan 163
General 163
Generator 164
General 164
Gyro 166
Rate Integrating 166
Heater 167
Electric 167
Mechanical Device 168
Gear Assembly 168
Power Transmittal 169
Motor 170
Full Horsepower 170
Solenoid 172
Pump 173
Centrifugal 173
122
INDEX FOR DETAILED DATA (Cont'd)
Regulator 174
Pressure 174
Thermostatic 176
Relay 177
Armature 177
Crystal Can 178
General Purpose 179
Latching 18Z
Power 183
Reed 184
Time Delay 185
Socket 186
Pin, DIP 186
Sprinkler Head 187
General 187
Switch 188
Centrifugal 188
Diaphragm 189
Flow 190
Humidity 191
Keyboard 192
Push Button 193
Reed 194
Rotary 195
Sensitive 196
Thermostat 197
Thumbwheel 198
Toggle zoo
123
INDEX FOR DETAILED DATA (Cont'd) Pg
Time-Totalizing Meter 202
Timer, Electro-Mechanical 202
Valve 203
General Z03
124
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20
NONELECTRONIC PART RELIAB1UTY DATA
SECT[ON 3
NONELECTRONIC PARTS DATA FROM COMMERCIAL
EQUIPMENT APPUJC,'TIONS
Section 3
NONELECTRONIC PARTS DATA FROM COMMERCIAL
EQUIPMENT APPLICATIONS
The detailed data presented in this section have been selected and grouped on
the basis of direct applicability to electronic data processing, point of sales and
test equipments. Data from these areas have proven to be limited and have been
grouped in this section in order to improve visibility for the user of the databook.
The environmental codes described on page 5 are utilized in this section.
The user should take care to note the terms in which the failure data are
given, i.e., hours or cycles, since this is a variable in this section. An asterisk (*)
to the right of the data line is provided to alert the user to note that the column
headings are in cycles.
211
INDEX FOR COMMERCIAL EQUIPMENT APPLICATION DATA
Page
Teflon Sleeve Bearing Z15
Bearing (Pair) 215
Belt 215
Ceramic Bushing and Spring 216
Spring Clutch Z16
Memory Disk Z17
LED Display, 7 Segment 217
LED Display, Dot Matrix Z18
Fan ZZ0
Vacuum Fan ZZ0
Gear Z21
Magnetic Tape Head ZZ1
Motor Zz1
Relay ZZ2
General Purpose Relay ZZ2
Keyboard Switch ZZ3
Key Push Button Switch ZZ4
Push Button Switch ZZ5
Rocker Switch Z25
Toggle Switch 226
Switch 227
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NONELECTRONIC PARTS RELIABILITY DATA
SECTION 4
FAILURE MODES AND MECHANISMS
I
OPERATIONAL FAILURE MODES AND MECHANISMS
The following discussions provide information which serves to identify the
major problem areas associated with the failures of certain nonelectronic parts
under operational conditions. To a limited extent, guidelines are provid(d for
limiting the failure modes identified.
Batteries
There are two basic types of batteries, primary and secondary. Primary
batteries are nonrechargeable, discarded when the energy runs out. Secondary
batteries are rechargeable batteries and can be used time and time again. This
discussion is limited to specific secondary batteries such as lead-acid and nickel-
cadmium.
Lead-Acid Batteries
Lead-acid systems are not new; they have not been used widely in electronic
systems because of packing problems, their weight and size, and the danger of acid
leakage. The newly developed gelled lead-acid system, however, has overcome
most of the drawbacks of its predecessor (except packaging inadequacies), but it is
new and not yet in great supply and usage.
Lead-acid batteries have one area which greatly affects their useful life, the
recharge cycle. Recharging efficiency is a function of temperature and charge
rate. To properly recharge many secondary batteries the charge rate must be
tapered with time. Not doing so shortens the life of the battery and can lead to
overcharging. In lead-acid batteries, overcharging will cause the generation of
gases (H2 and 0 2) within the cell to dangerously high levels. Though almos, all
lead-acid batteries have venting techniques to allow the gases to escape and
thereby reduce cell pressure, the loss of these gases can greatly reduce the life of
the cell. Several manufacturers of lead-acid batteries utilize a separate compart-
ment to recombine the gases into water via a catalyst. This is done at the expense
of compactness. In the worst case, if the gases are not vented or are vented at too
high a pressure, the cells will explode.
231
Charging, and especially overcharging, also causes the battery cells to
generate heat. It should be noted that many rechargers use this condition to
increase the tapering of the charge rate and so reduce the possibility of
overcharging.
Other reliability considerations lie in the packaging and basic design of lead-
acid cells. Examining packaging first, it is incorrect to assume that any battery is
hermetically sealed. Corrosion can be found on lead-acid cells that have never
been used and have been left in storage. Lead-acid batteries have been known to
leak acid either through the case itself or through the terminal seals.
The basic design of the lead-acid battery is also responsible for several
problems. The nature of the lead-acid system does not lend itself well to being
packaged in a cylindical package. This tends to lower the energy density per cell
and also to cause the package failures mentioned previously.
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
The charging information stated for lead-acid can be applied to the nickel-
cadmium. There is also specific information which only applies to the nickel-
cadmium.
Memory effect is a reversible failure mode that causes a nickel-cadmium
battery to fall below its rated performance because of certain modes of operation.
It is caused by repetitive discharge to a shallow depth. A nickel-cadmium battery
repeatedly discharged only 25% (75% of charge unused) and then fully recharged
will, after 50 or more of such cycles, deliver 25% of its rated capacity when a deep
discharge is then attempted. A nickel-cadmium battery exhibiting memory effects
can be restored to normal capacity simply by deep discharging it and then fully
recharging it. Memory effect is not a problem when the battery is subjected to
random depths of discharge or is overcharged for random periods of time. It occurs
only when a precise, repetitive pattern of shallow discharge and full recharges is
followed. This is not a prevalent problem in all NiCd battery systems but is the
product of several design techniques.
232
Cell polarity reversal is another hazard of the NiCd battery. If a battery
(consisting of several cells in series) is discharged to too low a level and one or
more of the composing cells is completely depleted of charge, there is the chance
that the depleted cell's polarity may reverse. In this instance, the reversal cell
would accept a charge from the remaining charged cells, generate internal heat
and pressure, and destroy the battery.
Chemical breakdown of the nylon separator is the most frequent failure of
nickel-cadmium batteries. Oxygen produced continuously while the cell is in an
overcharge mode reacts with the nylon; as a result, a NiCd cell at 500C has a
useful life about half that at 400C. NiCds for emergency power are almost always
run in such a continuous low-rate overcharge mode.
Conclusions
Part level failure problems associated with batteries can be lumped under
four basic categories: catastrophic short; catastrophic open circuit; deviations in
electrical performance; and mechanical anomalies. The most predominant failure
mode is a mechanical anomaly, leakage from a cell seal.
System level failures in charge control or thermal design, while not caused by
the battery, may be falsely interpreted as a defect in the battery.
Bearings
The predominate failure modes of bearings are related to their lubrication.
Much emphasis has been placed on the study of bearing fatigue life and reliability
and the types of lubrication systems used to enhance long life, since bearings are
acknowledged as the life-limiting elements of most motors. To reach the longest
motor life possible, bearing wear must be reduced to a minimum, usually by the
application of lubricants. The selection of lubricants is almost always a
compromise, since there are so many significant characteristics to consider. Some
of the important application considerations include: operating temperature range,
233
oxidation and thermal stability properties, type of environment, evaporation rate,
and viscosity. Depending on the specific application certain tradeoffs are
inevitable, as in the case of silicon, which has an excellent viscosity index rating
but poor boundary condition lubrication.
The failure mechanisms of bearings usually result in the reduction of
lubrication. These mechanisms include: excessive bearing load, excessive
temperature, bearing misalignment, brinnelling (plastic deformation of raceways),
fretting corrosion, contamination of raceways (gear wear debris, brush wear debris,
corrosion products), evaporation or migration of lubricant, high viscosity (operating
temperature lower than anticipated) and spalling or galling.
Circuit Breakers
The function of a circuit breaker is to protect electrical circuitry by acting
as a manual switch that can open itself under overload conditions. The major
circuit breaker problem is mechanical failure due to the complexity of some
activation mechanisms. Contamination caused by the formation of oxides or loose
metal particles is also a problem and could result in an open or short condition.
Contact corrosion due to external impurities (such as solder resin, body oils,
sulfides, or wire lubricants) can also create the same condition. Poor process
control can cause deformed, loose, or broken contacts, and termination separation.
Connectors
A device consisting of a plug and a receptacle that provides a disconnect
capability between the various components in an electrical circuit is classified
under the general heading of connector. The plug or receptacle is the termination
of the internal circuit leads. The connection made between the connector and the
conductor itself is made by several different methods: crimping, soldering,
welding, and the clamping action of mechanical closures. The type of connector
depends on the style of the coupling system. Some of the common connector types
are radio frequency, cylindrical multipin, rectangular, and printed wiring.
234
Connector failure problems may be lumped into three basic categories:
mechanical parameter deviation, electrical parameter deviation, and mechanical
damage. It should be noted that catastrophic opens and shorts are worst-case
conditions of certain electrical parameter deviations. These failures may be the
result of several different failure mechanisms. The prevelant failure mode for all
connectors is an electrical parameter deviation (open condition) generally caused
by contamination interfering with normal operation. Corrosion is another failure
mechanism resulting in an open circuit: the oxides formed may tend to act as an
insulator. Even gold plated contacts have corrosion problems: the base metal may
diffuse through the gold and form an oxide on the surface. Mechanical damage is
often the result of improper installation techniques. Wear factor is also a major
problem. With hard gold you can expect mating and demating cycles of ZOO or
more. With tin plating or solder coating, the cycles may drop to 50 or more. This
can be a problem when using high density connectors. Other common failure
modes are creep or relaxation of the materials in the connection and overheating
of the termination by the flow of current.
Coolant Hose
A coolant hose failure often results in the shutdown of a whole system which,
in many cases, could have been avoided by routine inspection and replacement.
Most equipment owners have established maintenance schedules that include the
cooling system. By recognizing the signs of coolant hose failures and eliminating
their causes, equipment downtime can be reduced.
Coolant hose failures may be attributed to five major failure mechanisms.
Excessive heat, one of the more prevalent failure mechanisms, causes hardening or
cracking of the hose cover. Hose "overcure" due to excessive internal or external
heat will result in the hose becoming stiff and failing. Weathering and cracking
can result from pollution in the environment around the hose; ozone especially has
an adverse effect. Large irregular cracks in the hose cover without hardening are
caused by vibration. To correct vibration problems, use a flex or humped hose or
235
dampen the vibration source. Coolant deterioration will cause the interior of the
hose to crack and flake off and enter the coolant. These particles can clog the
cooling system and cause a failure. The final failure mechanism is contamination
of the hose. This occurs primarily when oil or grease soaks the hose, causing it to
become soft or spongy. An oil-softened hose can collapse under sudden application
of vacuum as in sudden acceleration. To correct this problem, eliminate the' source
of the oil (may be external or internal) and replace the hose.
Electron Tubes
Electron tubes are devices sealed in a gas-tight envelope or "tube" using the
motion of electrons through a gas or vacuum for the desired effect. The first class
of electron tubes is the vacuum tube, where a vacuum or a near-vacuum is
employed. The second class is gas tubes, where the electrons impact atoms of the
gas, which then ionize. Many electron tubes have had extensive military use, and
failure rates are available in MIL-HDBK-Zl7C.
Four primary modes are associated with electron tubes: deterioration or
destruction of the seal, wearout of electron emission surfaces, evolution of gas,
and contaminated or damaged emission surfaces resulting in increased electron
emission. The failure mechanism most likely to be directly or indirectly
responsible for all four failure modes is excessive heat. Both heat from the
environment around the tube and heat generated within the tube create this
adverse effect. Internal heat rise is due to one of two sources: the current flow
from one element of the tube to another element, and power used to raise the
electron-emitting cathode to operating temperature.
Fuses
The basic function of a fuse is to protect electrical circuits. When the
current flow through the circuit exceeds the rated capacity of the fuse, the circuit
is opened by the fuze element. Fuses provide safety against overload conditions
which could result in either damage to the electrical system or a fire.
236
Fuses have two principal failure modes: open, and failure to open. Any
premature interruption of the current flow such as a mechanical breaking of the
fuse element would be classified as an open. A failure to open is when current flow
levels exceed the fuse rating and the fuse element does not open the circuit.
Failure to open is most commonly caused by electrically conductive material
shorting the fuse terminals together. The principle failure mechanism is
contamination including corrosive products. The source of the contaminants is
dependent on the type: conductive and nonconductive. The conductive
contaminant can come from solder balls or metal flashings and is usually
detectable by x-ray screening. However, the nonconductive material, which can
cause failure to open as well as open, is difficult to detect. The source of
nonconductive contaminants is sometimes the fuse case or body.
Slow blow fuses are treated a little differently. Slow blow fuses are used
when a high in-rush of current is desired to initially start a system and after initial
start-up, to maintain the system at a lower current level. If the fuse blows too
fast the system will not start or energize. If the fuse blows too slow, damage may
occur to the system. Therefore, the most prevalent failure mode of slow blow
fuses is the delay time.
Gaskets and Seals
Fluid seals are devices used to effect separation of gaseous or liquid
environments at points of structural transition and at movable component
interfaces. Seals used in applications where the involved surfaces do have relative
motion are commonly called gaskets. An example of structural transition seal is
the gasket used in the internal combustion engine between three distinctly separate
environments, ambient air, cooling fluid, and combustible gases. An example of a
seal for a movable component interface is the gland seal around the shaft of a
rotary pump, separating the fluid being pumped from the ambient surroundings.
This type of seal is commonly known as a dynamic seal and is used to effectively
separate the various environments at movable interfaces where there may be
reciprocating longitudinal movement as well as rotary motion.
237
The most common failure mode for fluid sealing devices is leakage, classified
into three basic types: (1) permeation, (Z) molecular, and (3) viscous flow.
Permeation, as the name implies, is a capillary flow directly through the material.
This is primarily because of the degree of porosity of the batch material from
which the seal was fabricated. Molecular flow is a similar phenomenon, but it
occurs at the interface surfaces and is caused by a finite unoccupied space between
the two surfaces of the interface. Molecular flow is proportional to the pressure
differential between the separated environments. Viscous flow also occurs on the
interface surfaces and is encountered when the minimum cross-sectional area of
the leakage path becomes large in comparison to the mean free path requirement
for gas flow. Viscous flow leakage rate is proportional to the difference between
the square of the internal pressure and the square of the external pressure.
In addition to leakage (limited loss of contained fluid), fluid sealing devices
fail by rupture because of inadequate back-up rings or excessive pressures and the
introduction of corrosion products or other contaminants. Rupture may be caused
either by excessive pressure differentials applied to the sealing device or by
shearing mechanical forces applied in an unforeseen rotational mode or as an
excessive transverse force. Corrosion products and other contaminants may be
caused by normally anticipated environmental considerations, or they may be the
result of galvanic corrosion and/or contaminants in inadequately filtered fluid.
Gyroscope
A gyroscope is a device developed to detect angular motion with respect to
inertial or Newtonian space. Each design is somewhat unique; however, the usual
construction is a spinning wheel with one or two degrees of freedom. A gyroscope
normally consists of six functional components: wheel, spin bearings, spin motor,
gimbel, pickoff and torquer. The primary source of failures are the spin bearings.
The normal life of each gyroscope is dependent on the environment it is used in and
the conditions it operates under. The prevalent failure mode of gyros using ball
bearings is deterioration of the lubricant or running surface due to contamination.
238
Gas bearings are excellent for continuous operation because of no wear under run
conditions. The major failure mechanism occurs during starting and stopping.
Grease bearings offer a greater tolerance to contamination and potentially much
longer life. Drift instability is also a problem since a very small amount of creep
in the gyro float material can cause a drift equivalent to a nautical mile. Material
creep is caused by instability due to time and temperature cycling effects.
IC Sockets
There are two basic types of contacts in IC sockets: screw machined, closed-
entry sleeves with screw machined or stamped-and-rolled four-leaf contact inserts;
or one-piece stamped and formed contacts with single or dual-leaf contacts.
Either socket type is available with solder tail on wire-wrapable terminations.
Sockets with stamped contacts come in two configurations. In one, the
contacts mate with the broad sides of the leads. In the others, the contact mates
with the side and are called side-wipe or face-grip. The merits of these two
approaches have been debated at great length.
Zero insertion force connectors have a sliding mechanism that provides
effortless insertion and withdrawal of ICs when the sockets are in the open position
but locks them securely in place when the mechanism is closed. Zero insertion
force sockets are expensive but not compared to a 40 pin IC with a broken lead.
Therefore, these sockets are mainly used in "high pin" ICs.
For contact materials, beryllium copper when used for high reliability
application is an excellent choice. It retains good spring qualities, although it
requires plating because of a tendency to form surface oxides. Phosphor bronze
provides excellent spring qualities, adequate conductivity, and generally gives tht,
best combination of economy and reliability. It also usually requires plating with
solder lead contacts in order to aid solderability.
239
Socket bodies are commonly made of thermoplastic materials like glass
nylon, glass polyesters and polycarbonates. Thermosets like DAP and phenolics are
also used. They provide excellent dimensional stability and heat resistance but are
generally more expensive.
One of the major failure modes for sockets is high resistive connections. If
the application is in a high contamination area there is the risk of oxidation
forming on the contacts or of the accumulation of dust or dirt particles. This
condition creates a high resistive connection which may result in a false indication
when using sensitive circuitry.
Intermittents are even a larger problem due to problems of location of the
intermittents. This is especially difficult in digital systems where there are either
high or low logic levels.
The contact must maintain its spring qualities after several removal and
insertion cycles. The amount of pressure exerted on the IC lead must be adequate
to break through any oxidation which may have formed.
Sufficient caution must be taken during soldering to insure that solder does
not enter the barrel of the IC socket, preventing proper installation of the IC.
The following is a listing of failure modes for IC sockets:
1) Increase in contact resistance with repeated insertion because of
fatigue and deformation of spring material in contact fingers
Z) Damage to contact and pin plating with repeated insertion and exposure
of base metal to corrosive atmosphere
3) Corrosion of contact and pin surfaces because of porous plating, plating
that is too thin, diffusion of base metal into plating, scratched plating,
etc.
240
4) Insulation resistance failure of plastic socket housing because of water
absorption or change of mechanical properties of housing at high
temperatures
5) Electrochemical reaction between socket contact and IC pin
6) Poor contact resistance caused by surface films on socket contacts and
IC pins
Motors
Motors can be classified into two basic types, ac motors and dc motors. In
direct-current motors, speed adjustment is inexpensive and easily obtained;
therefore, a wide variety of industrial applications use DC motors. Alternating-
current type motors are frequently used in aerospace applications. Overheating
causing premature motor failure can be the result of the selection of too small a
motor for the given application or of a unit unsatisfactory for the given
environment. Therefore, it is important to implement a proper selection and
application program for reliable motor operation.
The principal failure modes associated with motors are related to the
lubrication of the bearings or the commutatioft of the brushes. Bearing failure can
be caused by various failure mechanisms, of which the most common are:
inadequate lubrication due to migration or evaporation or severe operating
conditions, brinnelling (plastic deformation of the raceways), fretting corrosion,
raceway contamination, and spalling of raceways. Bearings have proven to be the
life-limiting items in motors. Most dc motors have the additional failure modes
associated with brushes (i.e., fracture, rapid brush wear due to high altitudes, and
bearing failures due to contamination from brush wear) and in general are more
prone to failure than ac motors.
Printed Circuit Boards
There exists a variety of printed circuit boards commercially available. The
choice of interconnection board depends on many different factors. Required
packaging density, desired delivery time, cost limitations, usage environment and
241
size of production run are all factors which can be used to determine the optimal
type of interconnection board for a particular application. Circuit board reliability
is also an important consideration, and this section includes failure modes and
mechanisms for double sided, multilayer, multiwire and wirewrap interconnection
boards.
The plated through hole is used in double sided, multilayer and multiwire
printed circuit boards to connect component leads to board circuitry. The plated
through hole is the largest contributor to circuit board failures for these types of
boards. Problems arise because of the differences in thermal expansion of the
epoxy glass base material and the copper plating. The epoxy glass and the copper
expand and contract at different rates during thermal cycling. This results in axial
strains on the plated through hole barrel wall, weakening the mechanical properties
of the copper plating and eventually leading to open circuits. In the case where the
ductility of the copper plating is already poor, this process is accelerated.
Additionally, poor drilling or excessive acid etching during the plated through hole
cleaning process can lead to imperfections in the barrel wall. These imperfections
will amplify the level of axial strain in the plated through hole and contribute to
possible open circuits.
Multilayer boards, as compared to double-sided boards have additional layers
of circuitry separated by epoxy glass laminations. This allows for higher packaging
density but also creates additional plated through hole problems. Electrical
connections to the plated through hole can be made at a number of different layers
in the circuit board. This adds to the number of areas which are affected by
strains related to thermal cycling. At each layer where a copper run must connect
to the plated through hole, a shearing force is applied to the copper run - plated
through hole interface, resulting in possible open circuits.
The multiwire type of interconnection board is unique because insulated wire
is laid down on the epoxy glass as an alternate to the copper runs used in double-
sided and multilayer printed circuit boards. This results in high packaging density
because the insulated wires can be crossed on a single level of circuitry. There are
several advantages in this type of system but there are also different failure modes
242
which must be considered. Problem areas are the points of wire crossover and the
wire to plated through hole connection. Under extreme environmental conditions,
the wire insulation and the wire deform at a point of wire crossover and potentially
cause short circuit. The wire to plated through hole can be the source of an open
circuit if exposed to vibration and thermal cycling.
One advantage of wirewrap interconnection boards is the absence of plated
through holes and the associated problems. However, several failure modes do
exist. Insufficient tension in the wire can result in a poor connection between the
wire and the wirewrap post. This occurs particularly when applied to a high
vibration environment. Additionally, caution must be observed concerning wire
insulation cold flow; adjacent wires or contact with a part can result in short
circuits due to cold flow. Some materials which exhibit cold flow are teflon,
polyvinyl chloride, etc.
Pumps
Hydraulic Pump
Nearly all hydraulic pumps work in rotaiy fashion. As a pump is rotated, it
develops a partial vacuum on the inlet (suction) side, permitting fluid under
atmospheric pressure in the reservoir to flow into the pump inlet. Then the pump
ejects this fluid, usually at a higher atmospheric pressure. It is worth noting that a
pump does not create pressure; it merely moves fluid, causing the flow. Pressure
is created by the load on the fluid; if no load exsits, the fluid will have very little
pressure. As the load is placed on the fluid, the pressure at the outlet side of the
pump increases to a value that is normally indicated as the pump maximum.
Failure modes for hydraulic pumps include:
1) Bearing or bushing failure
Z) Incorrect fluid used, causing excessive wear
3) Seal deterioration
4) Cavitation causing pump internal part failures
243
Pneumatic Pumps (Compressors)
An air compressor delivering air to a pneumatic system performs the same
job as a hydraulic pump. The main substantive difference between pump and
compressor is that the fluid delivered by the compressor-air is compressed and
under pressure at the time it is delivered, even if there is no load on the system.
The only other substantive difference between the two is that most hydraulic
systems are powered by a single pump that is actually part of the system, Xvhereas
the hose of the pneumatic systems is often powered by a single compressor, which
is almost a "utility" in the plant, like water or electric service.
Failure modes for pneumatic pumps (compressors) include:
1) Bearing or bushing failure
Z) Seal deterioration and leakage
3) Foreign material entering pump, causing damage or excessive wear to
internal parts
4) Check valve leakage (when valves are integral with the pump)
Quick Disconnect Couplings
The malfunction modes of quick disconnect couplings are:
1) Failure to open or remain open
Z) Failure to close or remain closed, including leakage, while uncoupled
3) External leakage while coupled
The possible causes for mode 1 include deformation or failure of the
actuation plunger of connectors and binding of the movable engaging clamp ring.
The possible causes for mode 2 include binding or cocking of the moving assembly
of the connectors and failure or permanent deformation of the plunger return
spring. Possible causes for mode 3 include leakage of the sleeve O-ring and
leakage at the lip seal.
244
Relays
A relay is basically a remotely controlled, electrically operated switch which
contains two or more contacts arranged so as to control external circuits. This
broad de.finition applies to all relays regardless of type and internal construction.
Most relay types, with the exception of simple thermal time delay and reed types,
are complex electromechanical devices. Experience with these devices hai
indicated that, because of imperfections in materials and workmanship, a relay
cannot be satisfactorily specified by contact rating alone. Physical considerations
force us to recognize such compromising characteristics built into a relay as
operate and release time, temperature effects on pickup and dropout voltages,
dielectric breakdown, contact resistance, and insulation resistance. These
characteristics are not simply design controlled but are directly affected by the
materials employed and the care with which the relay is assembled. The factors of
design, materials, and workmanship are the ones usually associated with relay
failure.
Part level failure problems associated with relays may be lumped under four
basic categories:
I) Failure of contacts to rz-ikv cr break
2) Short
3) Electrical parameter deviation
4) Mechanical anomaly
These categories are used for both latching and nonlatching type relays. For this
discussion, relays have been grouped into two categories according to their basic
internal construction-armature and reed types.
Armature Relays
The relay style most often used in high reliability application (and considered
here) is the balanced armature type because of its demonstrated ability to with-
stand mechanical shock and vibration. In these relays the armature is pivoted at
245
its center of mass so as to place it in equilibrium with the static and dynamic
forces which act upon it during operation. The moving contacts are either mounted
on the armature or activated by movement of the armature.
Almost all armature type relays use copper magnet wire in the coil windings.
In such copper windings the coil resistance is directly proportional to the
temperature of the windings. The ampere-turns required for the coil to actuate
the armature is, therefore, proportional to temperature since the coil resistance
varies with coil temperature. To maintain the required ampere-turns, the pickup
and dropout voltages will vary over the application temperature range.
One of the most crucial and troublesome areas in armature relay reliability is
that associated with the contacts. Many of the problem areas result from the
users' lack of understanding of the parameters which affect contact performance.
As a consequence, contacts are operated under a wide spectrum of load conditions
and a multiplicity of performance criteria which, when reviewed singularly or in
combination, are inconsistent with the design parameters of the contacts.
There is a wealth of information available on contact theory and the various
materials used in obtaining specific contact characteristics. The user of relays in
high reliability applications should be thoroughly familiar with the information
since reliability is frequently achieved through carefully limiting certain service
applications.
Contamination is also a major concern in high reliability relays because it is a
prime contributor to relay failures. Contamination is predominantely introduced
during the assembly of the relay. The contamination level can be reduced by
careful selection of materials which are used for fabrication of the end product.
The user should pay particular attention to the materials used for spacers, washers,
insulators, and coil insulation, as well as plating requirements, before specifying a
particular manufacturer's relay for his applications. These areas are considered
critical to the reduction and control of contamination.
246
The above discussion has served to define a few of the characteristics
associated with armature relays. These and other limitations can be described as
specification limits for manufacturers and designers. Deviations from the
limitations can lead to equipment failure.
Reed Relays
Reed relays are made from one or more reed capsule switches inside a
common actuating coil. In those cases where the reed capsule switch is used in
conjunction with a coil, it is generally classified as a relay; and in those cases
where the reed capsule switch is used in conjunction with permanent magnet
actuation, it is classified as a m.gnetic switch.
A basic magnetic reed switch consists of a pair of low reluctance ferro-
magnetic, slender flattened reeds, hermetically sealed into a glass tube with a
controlled atmosphere, arranged in cantilever fashion so that the ends align and
overlap with a small air gap in between. The overlapping ends assure opposite
polarity when brought into the influence of a magnetic field. When the magnetic
flux density is sufficient, the attraction forces of the opposing magnetic poles
overcome the reed stiffness, causing them to flex toward each other and make
contact. The restoring force provided by the elasticity of the reeds returns the
reeds to their original position when the magnetic field is removed. Reed capsule
switches, when used within their rated limits, generally have contact life ratings in
the one to one hundred million cycle range, depending on contact voltage and
current loads used.
The reed switch is inherently a low current, low voltage device. Its contact
areas are small and contact pressures are low because the reeds become
magnetically saturated; therefore, .2ditional contact force cannot be developed by
increasing the applied magnetic flux. These factors limit the continuous current
rating of the switch. The interruption rating of the switch is limited by the gap
between fully open contacts and by the restoring force provided by the elasticity of
247
the reeds. Low contact pressures and small contact gap between fully open
contacts limit the reed capsule switch use in severe vibration and shock
environments.
The unpredictable random occurrence of contact sticking inherent in these
switches is caused by tiny magnetic wear fragments accumulated at, and
sometimes binding, the contact gap. Arcing caused by dc loads between the
contacts causes metal transfer, resulting in spike and crater formation which
sometimes results in contact sticking due to friction between the spike and crater
surfaces. For these reasons, application should be limited to those uses where an
occasional contact miss is not considered a catastrophic event and those uses
where voltage and current loading of the switch contacts minimizes spike and
crater formation. Careful handling of the switch is a mandatory requirement. The
switch contact members extend beyond each end of the glass capsule and are used
as switch terminals. Bending, cutting, or applying excessive heat to the switch
leads during soldering and installation changes the switch operating sensitivity.
Operating one reed switch adjacent to another or in a stray rnagnetic field can also
change its sensitivity. Magnetic shielding around reed relays is relatively
ineffective in reducing the effects of uniform stray magnetic fields. Reed relays
are inherently more sensitive to stray magnetic fields by one or two orders of
magnitude than any other type of sealed relay in common use today. Stray
magnetic fields in the order of 5 to 10 gauss have been known to cause reed relays
to malfunction.
In those special applications where usage of reed switch capsules occurs, the
above factors should be carefully reviewed and considered with respect to each
application prior to usage.
Solder Connections
One of the most prevalent modes of failure for solder connections is the
cracking of the connection due to thermal fatigue. In many instances, it is very
difficult to distinguish between solder cracking as a result of thermal fatigue and
248
solder cracking because of poor workmanship (cold solder joints). But there are
differences and they become apparent upon very close investigation. Thermal
fatigue cracks will predictably occur on sequentially manufactured items and will
also propagate with storage time. Solder cracks due to poor workmanship will
appear randomly on sequentially produced items. These failures can be reduced by
applying and controlling appropriate design criteria. The following list of criteria
is provided as a guide to minimize solder connection problems:
1) Use only silicone or polyurethane based conformal coatings; the
coatings should be of minimum thickness.
2) Avoid gold-plated boards; use solder-plated or solder-coated boards.
3) Do not use rigid encapsulating systems to secure and/or protect
connected parts on printed wiring boards.
4) Resilient spacers, when used, should be of minimum thickness between
the solder connected part and printed wiring board.
5) Do not hard mount parts to printed boards with mechanical fasteners
unless leads are parallel to the board and of sufficient length as to
provide strain relief. Also, do not hard mount parts by using minimum
lead length inserted through feed-through holes.
6) Use terminals only when necessary and then only use terminals designed
to be used on printed wiring boards.
Switches
The most consistently documented failure modes for switches are opens and
shorts. The mechanism most often responsible is contamination both of the
particulate and oxide nature. Particulate material in the form of solder balls or
loose metal flashings can produce varied conductive paths or shorts and switch
lockup due to wedging or jamming. Nonconductive particulate contamination could
result in contact interference or opens as well as switch lockup. Corrosion of the
contact surface due to the introduction of external sources such as polluted or
heavy industrial environment, moisture and salt, body oils, solder resin, and wire
lubricants also can cause high contact resistance and opens. Successful deterrents
to this corrosion include: using corrosive resistive metals (gold, platinum, and
palladium) and their alloys, using hermetically sealed switches, stringent control of
the cleanliness of the package.
249
Switch screening inspections and tests are recommended to discover failures
before actual part implementation. MIL-STD-ZOZ has many effective tests ranging
from temperature cycling to hermeticity and radiographic inspection.
Valves
Valves are used to control the flow of fluids, either liquids or gases, with
respect to amount and direction. Industry employs many varieties of valves, such
as gate, glove, poppet, plug, and needle valves, plus specialized varieties like
check, metering, and relief valves. A common feature of all these valves is that
they contain a solid movable member (gate, disk, poppet face, needle, or plug) that
impinges on, or into, an orifice in such a manner as to create a fluid-tight
separation between the entry and outflow sections of the valve. The contacting
surface of this orifice, i.e., valve seat, is normally of an elastomeric material.
Where this is not true, the contacting surface of the movable member is
deformable or elastomeric in nature or the seat is of a deformable material and the
movable member is hard.
The most prolific problem or failure mode detected and described for the
valves is leakage. Deterioration of the contacting surfaces, whether due to wear,
damage during installation, chemical attack, misalignment, etc., will result in
imperfect sealing resulting in internal leakage. All valves, with the exception of
relief and check valves, are actuated by an external mechanical force that is
transferred to the movable member by a stem or riser. This actuating mechanism
is subject to failure by seizure as the result of corrosion, contamination or failure.
The required opening into the valve body for entry of the operating stem is an
additional source of leakage, due to inadequate design and/or packing. As the
valve body is generally formed from a casting, valves are subject to all of the
hydrostatic problems associated with castings such as porosity and fracture from
mechanical damage or pressure stress fracture due to inadequate section thickness.
Supports for valves and their associated piping are fabricated from flatbar,
channel, or angle configurations. These supports should be installed in such a
manner that they do not impose undue stresses on the valve piping. Valve
actuating media, such as a handwheel, crank or bar should be unhindered by support
250
ij
installation, permitting a complete clearance radius. When a system is subjected
to stress imposed by high temperature and pressure, the supports and hangers
should be designed to "walk" with the system, imposing minimal loading and
maintaining support integrity.
Primary consideration in the selection of valves includes knowledge of the
physical property of materials from which the valve is manufactured in order to
assure compatibility with: (1) applicable fluids, (Z) operating temperatures, and (3)
pressure limits. The function the valve must perform and its dimensional
limitations are also important considerations. Life and wear factors must be taken
into account as well as maintainability. The valve should be designed to facilitate
replacement of gaskets, seals and seat. The applicable limits that are the result of
design considerations should be delineated at the design review that is conducted at
time of first approval and should be confirmed by proof testing. Furthermore,
these limits should be reflected in resulting specification and design handbooks as
application notes in order that the system design does not inadvertently contribute
to premature failure of the finished system.
251
DORMANT FAiLURE MODES AND MECRANLSMS
Bearihs
The primary dormant failure mechanism is inadequate lubrication. Some of
the common causes of this problem are: evaporation loss, migration loss, and
contamination of the lubricant. To eliminate or minimize these failure mbdes use
an oil or grease with a lower evaporation rate or a sealed motor. Periodic rotation
every six months will reduce the problem of migration.
Connectors, General
Improper cleaning of connector sockets or pins prior to plating results in
plating flaking on subsequent mating/demating. This results in circuit resistance
increases or possible short circuits.
Clutches
Drying out of the clutch fibers lowers the required frictional coefficient and
results in slippage. Conversely, if clutch faces are left in compression, the clutch
materials tend to equalize out any surface roughness, but this causes interlocking
of the fibers from each face and sticking. This problem can be overcome by
exercising the clutch at least once each year so that the plate fibers are realigned.
Gyros
Gyro drift is the primary aging concern and is usually caused by molecular
metallic interchange of the spin bearing detail parts. This phenomenon is similar
to cold welding and results in excessive bearing friction that produces drift. The
molecular interchange at points of metallic contact is minimized by maintaining a
constant temperature on the gyros. Periodic operation at 6 to 1Z month intervals
is essential in preventing migration of the lubricant away from the wear path and
subsequently prevents metal to metal contact.
252
Magnetrons
The filaments tend to become gaseous unless the unit is operated
periodically. The outgassing is a result of time-oriented liberation of gas
molecules that have been absorbed on the walls of the magnetron. When enough gas
molecules have been generated, activation of the magnetron imparts high
velocities to these molecules; they strike the filament and possibly cause shorting.
DC Motors
Brush-type motors are prone to cold welding of the brushes to the armature.
The cold welding is caused by brush pressure and the galvanic coupling of the two
materials in contact. Periodic operation of this type of motor is recommended.
Relays, Latching
The use of anodic materials such as tin, copper or silver as contact materials
have resulted in cold welding or highly resistive contacts after sustained periods of
dormancy/storage. The use of more cathodic materials, such as gold as the contact
material, overcomes these problems.
Relys, Noulatching
The same comments that were used for Relays, Latching also apply here. In
addition, if the nonlatching relay is a miniature relay, e.g., TO-5 can package, an
additional failure mechanism is possible. Cold welding of the relay armature to the
backstop has occurred and was caused by plating incompatibility. If the activating
coil voltage is in the low range, this age-oriented cold weld is more readily
exposed, e.g., no transfer.
Seals
Inherent porosity tends to let seals dry out and become semi-brittle unless
kept wetted. The resultant embrittlement creates leakage paths as a function of
253
osmosis. Ozone (caused by electric motors or electric welding) concentrations also
tend to accelerate seal aging by breaking down the seal fibers. All system
containing seals should be activated at least once a year to assure rewetting of
seals.
Switches, Sensitive
The same comments that apply to Relays, Latching also apply here except
that the consequences may be more severe for switches. The wiping action of the
contacts is about 50% less than for relays. Thus, resistive oxides or contaminants
are less likely to be scrubbed from the contacts.
Transformer
Coil shorting can be caused by improper removal of cleaning agents that
erode the dielectric off the wire windings or by cold flow of the insulation material
covering the wire windings.
254
.1 -
PART FAILURE MODE DJSTRIBUTION
The failure mode information presented in this section is limited to those
modes considered to have a significant frequency of occurrence. Failure modes
resulting from workmanship, inadequate inspection, screening and misapplication
have not been included.
* 255
PART FAILURE MODE DISTRIBUTION
FREQUENCY OFPART TYPE FAILURE MODE OCCURRENCE IN PERCENT
ACCELEROMETERSBINDING 33DRIFT 27OPEN Z3UNSTABLE 17
BATTERIESLithium-Sulfer Dioxide
INTERNAL SHORT z1INTERNAL OPEN 7LARGE STARTUP DELAY 50LOW ENERGY CAPACITY 2HERMETICITY z0
BEARINGSWEAR 73BINDING z0
SCORED 7
CIRCUIT BREAKERSSHORT 38OPEN 38UNSTABLE 19ARCING 5
CONNECTORSOPEN 36MECHANICAL DAMAGE Z4INTERMITTENT 22CONTACT RESISTANCE 9SHORT 9
CYLINDERS, ACTIVATINGLEAKING 52WEAR 18STRUCTURAL 13MECHANICAL DAMAGE 11DRIFT 6
FUSESSLOW OPEN 75EXCEEDS AMP RATING 15PREMATURE OPEN 10
256
PART FAILURE MODE DISTRIBUTION (Cont'd)
FREQUENCY OFPART TYPE FAILURE MODE OCCURRENCE IN PERCENT
GEAR BOXESLEAKING 40MATERIAL FAILURE 35BINDING Z5
GENERATORSWEAR 44CONTAMINATION 17DRIFT 16BEARING 13ELECTRICAL 10
GYROSDRIFT/UNSTABLE 64BINDING 16OUT OF TOLERANCE 8UNBALANCED 6BEARING 4RATE ERROR 2
MOTORSBRUSH BREAKAGE 3Z
OR WEARCONTAMINATION/LOSS 31
OF LUBRICANTOPEN/SHORT STATOR 14COMMUTATOR FAILURE 12OPEN/SHORT ROTOR 11
PUMPSLEAKING 53INTERNAL PART FAILURE 20IMPROPER OPERATION 13WEAR 8BEARING FAILURE 6
RELAYSCONTACT RESISTANCE Z5OPEN 24DRIFT 16NO TRANSFER 16CONTACTS BURNED 7MECHANICAL 5INTERMITTENT 4SHORT 3257
PART FAIL- I MODE DISTRIBUTION (Cont'd)
FREQUENCY OFPART TYPE FAILURE MODE OCCURRENCE IN PERCENT
SEALSPHYSICAL DAMAGE 54LEAKING 39DETERIORATION 7
SOLENOIDSSHORT 52BINDING Z9WEAK SPRING 19
SPRINGSFATIGUE 45WEAK Z8WEAR 23DISTORTED 4
SWITCHESMECHANICAL 51INTERMITTENT 13FAILED TO OPERATE 9OPEN 9SHORT 9DRIFT/UNSTABLE 8CONTAMINATION 1
SYNCHROSDRIFT 28
MECHANICAL 22OUTPUT ERROR 22INTERMITTENT 17OPEN 11
258
NONELECTRONIC PART RELIABILITY DATA
APPENDIX
ADDITONAL RAC SERVICES
ADDITIONAL RAC SERVICES
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Retrospective Searches are conducted at a flat fee of $125 per search. If no refer-ences are identified, a $50 service charge will be made in lieu of the above. Forbest results, please call or write for assistance in formulating your search question.An extra charge, based on engineering time and costs, will be made for evaluating,extracting or summarizing information from the cited references.
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Consulting Service fees are determined by the costs incurred in the conduct of thedesigned work, including staff time and overhead, materials and other expenses.Work will be initiated upon receipt of a signed purchase order. We will be pleasedto prepare firm cost proposals.
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Two plans are offered to both government and industry
Participating Member (PM) ...................... $1,600Participating Associate (PA) .................... 400
Services provided to a Participant in either plan are:
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o Availability of additional copies of each of the above databooks at 20%off list price.
o Discount on registration fees for RAC sponsored training courses,seminars, workshops, etc.
In addition, the Participating Member may access RAC resources as neededwithout issuing purchase orders. Up to 50 man-hours of professional consultationare authorized.
Blanket Purchase Order
The Blanket Purchase Order option enables you to write a single Purchase Orderfor a stipulated maximum dollar amount (depending on your needs) and active timeduration (a one-year period is suggested), but you pay only for services rendered ordocuments purchased.
Military Ageneiess Blanket Purchase Agreement, DD Form 1155, may be useful forordering RAC reports and/or services. Please stipulate maximum dollar amountauthorized and cutoff date on your order. Also specify services (e.g., publications,search services, etc.) to be provided. Identify vendor as IT Research Institute(Reliability Analysis Center).
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261
SERVICE PER SCHEDULE AND OR.DERING INFORMATION
JU NE 1981Price Per Copy
Componaet Rellabilty Detabooks ksue Date Dometlc Foreign
MDR-13 Memory/LSI Data Nov. 1979 $60.00 $70.000MDR-14 Hybrid Circuit Data Mar. 1980 60.00 70.000MDR-15 Digital Evaluation and Generic Failure Aug. 1980 60.00 70.00*
Analysis Data - Vols. I and 11) MDR-16 Linear/Interface Data Complete Set: $310 Feb. 1981 60.00 70.00"*MDR-17 Digital Failure Rate Data ($360 non U.S.) Aug. 1981 60.00 70.0000DSR-3 Transistor/Diode Data Jan. 1980 60.00 70.0000
NPRD-2 Nonelectronic Parts Reliability Data Aug. 1981 60.00 70.000
Equipment Databocks
I ) EERD-I Electronic Equipment Reliability Data Oct. 1980 60.00 70.00*0I EEMD-1 Electronic Equipment Maintainability Data Oct. 1980 60.00 70.000
RAC Deign andboo
RDH-376 Reliability Design Handbook Mar. 1976 36.00 46.0000
Technical Reliablity Studies
() TRS- Microcircuit Screening Effectiveness 36.00 46.00*TRS-2 Search and Retrieval Index to IRPS Proceedings-1968 to 1978 24.00 34.00"TRS-3 EOS/ESD Technology Abstracts 36.00 46.00'
Sympoium ftoeeuzi
() EOS-1 Electrical Overstress/Electrostatic Discharge 24.00 34.00'1979 Symposium Proceedings
( EOS-2 Electrical Overstress/Electrostatic Discharge 24.00 34.0001980 Symposium Proceedings
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Quantity Puche Discounts - Discounts on multiple copies of a single title ordered at one time) are:
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262
