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Linking Immigrant Parents’ EducationalExpectations and Aspirations to TheirChildren's School PerformanceShaljan Areepattamannil a & Daphnee H. L. Lee aa National Institute of Education , Nanyang TechnologicalUniversity , SingaporeAccepted author version posted online: 23 Jul 2013.Publishedonline: 31 Jan 2014.

To cite this article: Shaljan Areepattamannil & Daphnee H. L. Lee (2014) Linking ImmigrantParents’ Educational Expectations and Aspirations to Their Children's School Performance, TheJournal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 175:1, 51-57, DOI:10.1080/00221325.2013.799061

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THE JOURNAL OF GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY, 175(1), 51–57, 2014Copyright C© Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 0022-1325 print / 1940-0896 onlineDOI: 10.1080/00221325.2013.799061

BRIEF REPORT

Linking Immigrant Parents’ Educational Expectationsand Aspirations to Their Children’s School Performance

Shaljan Areepattamannil and Daphnee H. L. LeeNational Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

ABSTRACT. The authors examined the relationships of parental expectations and aspirations fortheir children’s educational attainment to children’s academic performance in school among 783immigrant-origin children aged 5–18 years in Canada. The results of hierarchical regression analyses,after accounting for student and family background characteristics, indicated that immigrant parents’expectations and aspirations for their children’s educational attainment were positively linked toimmigrant-origin children’s academic performance in school. Implications of these findings arebriefly discussed.

Keywords Canada, immigrant-origin children, immigrant parents, parental educational aspira-tions, parental educational expectations, school performance, Survey of Approaches to EducationalPlanning

Over the past few decades, immigration has dramatically changed the demographic landscapeof Canada. Between 1986 and 2010, over 5.5 million people from countries across the globeimmigrated to Canada (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2010). Of these, the largest numberof immigrants in the recent decades came mainly from the Asia Pacific region, followed byAfrica and the Middle East (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2010). Moreover, between2001 and 2010, roughly over 1.9 million immigrants in Canada were 15 years of age or older,whereas slightly over half a million immigrants were less than 15 years of age (Citizenship andImmigration Canada, 2010).

Thus, not only the number of adult immigrants in Canada has grown rapidly over the years butalso the number of children of immigrants. As a result, immigrant-origin children are enteringschools across Canada in unprecedented numbers (Statistics Canada, 2008). Given the burgeon-ing population of children with foreign-born parents in Canadian schools, it is crucial to examine

Received February 20, 2013; accepted April 19, 2013.Address correspondence to Shaljan Areepattamannil, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological Uni-

versity, 1 Nanyang Walk, 637616, Singapore; shaljan.a@nie.edu.sg (e-mail).

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the socioeconomic, cultural, environmental, and psychological factors that may be linked toimmigrant-origin children’s academic performance in school. Such factors may include, amongothers, home language (e.g., Chiu, Pong, Mori, & Chow, 2012), family socioeconomic status (e.g.,Sung, Suk-Young, & An, 2009), academic motivation (e.g., Areepattamannil, 2012a; Areepatta-mannil & Freeman, 2008), academic self-concept (e.g., Areepattamannil 2012b; Areepattamannil& Freeman, 2008), academic engagement (e.g., Areepattamannil & Kaur, 2013; Suarez-Orozco,Suarez-Orozco, & Todorova, 2008), psychological distress (e.g., Suarez-Orozco, Bang, & Onaga,2010), parental monitoring (e.g., Scott, Andrew, Sands, & Brian, 2009), school-based positivesupportive relationships (e.g., Suarez-Orozco, Pimentel, & Martin, 2009; Suarez-Orozco, Rhodes,& Milburn, 2009), school socioeconomic status (e.g., Suarez-Orozco, Bang et al., 2010), schoolsegregation rate (e.g., Suarez-Orozco, Gaytan et al., 2010), and student perceptions of schoolclimate (e.g., Suarez-Orozco, Bang et al., 2010).

However, two other pertinent factors that might also be associated with immigrant children’sacademic performance in school are parental expectations (i.e., parents’ expectations for how fartheir children will go in school; see Fuligni & Fuligni, 2007; Hernandez, Denton, & Macartney,2007) and parental aspirations (i.e., parents’ aspirations for their children to receive good gradesin school and to pursue education beyond high school; see Fuligni & Fuligni, 2007; Hernandezet al., 2007). Despite a large and growing corpus of research on the links between parentaleducational expectations and aspirations and academic performance in school among children ingeneral (e.g., Froiland, Peterson, & Davison, 2013; Kirk, Lewis-Moss, Nilsen, & Colvin, 2011;Spera, Wentzel, & Matto, 2009), no study to date has explored such relationships among immigrantchildren in particular. It is critical to examine such relationships among immigrant children as wellbecause there is growing evidence that immigrant parents hold higher expectations and aspirationsfor their children’s educational attainment than do the native-born parents (see Fuligni, 1997;Fuligni & Fuligni, 2007; Hernandez et al., 2007; Raleigh & Kao, 2010). Furthermore, immigrantparents are more likely than native-born parents to maintain high expectations and aspirations fortheir children’s educational attainment over time (Raleigh & Kao, 2010). In the present study,therefore, we examined how immigrant parents’ educational expectations and aspirations relate totheir children’s overall school performance. Such an investigation is important, given the growinggaps in achievement between first- and second-generation immigrant students and native-bornstudents (see Martin, Liem, Mok, & Xu, 2012; Schleicher, 2006).

METHOD

Data

Data for the study were drawn from the Statistics Canada’s Survey of Approaches to Educa-tional Planning (SAEP) 2002 database. The SAEP 2002 used a probability sample based on astratified multistage design. It surveyed parents of 10,788 children (one child per household)aged 0–18 years old in Canada to find out how parents in Canada are planning and preparingtheir children for postsecondary education. Of these, 1,000 children aged 0–18 years old had thecomplete information regarding their parents’ immigration status (i.e., both parents born outsideCanada). The present study included children aged 5–18 years old and whose parents were bothborn outside of Canada, resulting in a final sample of 783 children (379 girls, 404 boys). The

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SAEP data did not contain any information regarding the country of origin of the immigrants.The expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm (Dempster, Laird, & Rubin, 1977) was used tohandle the missing data.

Measures

Overall school performance

Children’s overall school performance was measured by asking parents: “Based on yourknowledge of your child’s schoolwork and report cards, how did he/she do overall in school?”This item was rated on a 6-point-Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (below 50) to 6 (90 to 100).

Parental educational expectations

Parental educational expectations for their children’s educational attainment were measuredby asking parents: “If you take into account your child’s skills and abilities, how far do you expectthat he/she will go in school?” This item was rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1(less than high school) to 4 (university).

Parental educational aspirations

Parental educational aspirations for their children’s educational attainment were assessed byasking parents: “How important is it that your child gets good grades in school?” and “Howimportant is it that your child gets more education after high school?” These two items were ratedon a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not important at all) to 4 (very important).

Other explanatory variables

Student and family background characteristics, such as gender (female), age (from 1 [5–8 yearsold] to 5 [17–18 years old]), language spoken at home (language of assessment), family struc-ture (single-parent family), parents’ highest level of education (1 [less than high school] to 6[university), total household income (1 [less than $30,000] to 5 [$200,000 or more]), computeravailability at home (yes), Internet access at home (yes), and availability of books or readingmaterials at home (yes), were included as covariates in the study.

RESULTS

Descriptive analyses suggested that immigrant parents, on average, held high expectations (M =3.79, SD = 0.60) and aspirations (M = 3.71, SD = 0.53; M = 3.76, SD = 0.50 for good schoolgrades and schooling beyond high school, respectively) for their children’s educational attainment.

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54 AREEPATTAMANNIL & LEE

Given the immigrant parents’ high expectations and aspirations for their children’s educationalattainment, t-tests were conducted to examine whether or not immigrant parents’ educationalexpectations and aspirations were significantly higher than the native-born parents (M = 3.40,SD = 0.72; M = 3.57, SD = 0.61; and M = 3.64, SD = 0.61 for educational expectations,educational aspirations: good school grades, and educational aspirations: schooling beyond highschool, respectively, for native-born parents). The results of the t-tests revealed that immigrantparents held statistically significantly higher expectations and aspirations for their children’seducational attainment than did the native-born parents. Correlational analyses indicated thatimmigrant parents’ educational expectations (r = .22, p < .01) and aspirations (r = .26, p < .01;r = .23, p < .01, for good school grades and schooling beyond high school, respectively) weresignificantly positively but weakly correlated with their children’s overall school performance(M = 4.57, SD = 0.89). The weak positive correlation could be due to the use of single-itemmeasures, which are generally considered to be less reliable than the multi-item measures.

To address the purpose of the study, a two-step hierarchical regression analysis was conducted(see Table 1). Overall school performance was regressed on student and family backgroundcharacteristics (Step 1) before parental educational expectations and aspirations (Step 2) wereadded. The initial model was statistically significant, F(9, 773) = 4.91, p < .001, and explained 4%of the variance in overall school performance. Gender was inversely related to immigrant students’overall school performance: female students’ overall school performance was significantly lowerthan their male counterparts. Although the findings of hitherto research on gender differences andsimilarities in academic achievement is a mixed bag (see Hattie, 2009), the results of the presentstudy are congruent with the findings of recent research on gender differences in immigrant student

TABLE 1Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Immigrant-Origin Children’s Overall School Performance

Step 1 Step 2

B SE B β sr2 B SE B β sr2

Constant 4.04∗∗∗ 0.16 — — 1.68∗∗∗ 0.31 — —Gender −0.17∗∗ 0.06 −.09 .01 −0.10 0.06 −.06 .00Age −0.01 0.02 −.01 .00 −0.01 0.02 −.01 .00Language spoken at home −0.06 0.06 −.03 .00 0.00 0.06 .00 .00Total household income 0.00 0.03 .00 .00 −0.02 0.03 −.02 .00Parents’ highest level of education 0.09∗∗∗ 0.02 .17 .03 0.08∗∗∗ 0.02 .15 .02Family structure −0.03 0.09 −.01 .00 −0.07 0.09 −.03 .00Computer availability at home 0.00 0.10 .00 .00 −0.02 0.10 −.01 .00Internet access at home 0.21∗ 0.10 .07 .01 0.16 0.10 .05 .00Availability of books at home 0.04 0.09 .01 .00 0.05 0.09 .02 .00Educational expectations 0.12∗ 0.05 .08 .01Educational aspirations: good school grades 0.33∗∗∗ 0.06 .18 .03Educational aspirations: schooling beyond

high school0.20∗∗ 0.08 .11 .01

Adjusted R2 .04 .12Cohen’s f 2 .09

Note. �R2 = 0.08, p < .001 for Step 2.∗p < .05. ∗∗p < .01. ∗∗∗p < .001.

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achievement (see Martin et al., 2012). Further, children whose parents were more educated andwho had access to the Internet at home performed significantly better at school than did theirpeers whose parents were less educated and who had no access to the Internet at home.

Adding parental educational expectations and aspirations in Step 2 also produced a statisticallysignificant model, F(12, 770) = 10.22, p < .001, with an additional 8% of variance in overallschool performance accounted for by Step 2, �F(3, 770) = 24.78, p < .001. Of the threestatistically significant variables in Step 1, only parents’ highest level of education continued topredict children’s overall school performance in Step 2. More importantly, parents’ educationalexpectations and aspirations were significantly and positively related to their children’s overallschool performance. Children whose parents held higher educational expectations and aspirationsperformed significantly better at school than did their peers whose parents held lower educationalexpectations and aspirations.

DISCUSSION

The present study aimed to examine the relationships of immigrant parents’ educational expecta-tions and aspirations to their children’s school performance. The results of the study indicated thatimmigrant parents held high expectations and aspirations for children’s educational attainment,and their educational expectations and aspirations were significantly related to children’s schoolperformance.

Indeed, the migration journey is often accompanied by many insurmountable challenges andstruggles (Hernandez et al., 2007; Suarez-Orozco et al., 2008). Such challenges and strugglesinclude, among others, cultural, linguistic, and psychological challenges in the form of economic,social, and environmental stressors, including acculturative stress (Katsiaficas, Suarez-Orozco,Sirin, & Gupta, 2013; Lansford, Deater-Deckard, & Bornstein, 2007; Suarez-Orozco et al., 2008).Notwithstanding the myriad challenges and adversities that immigrant families confront with intheir new land, the findings of the present study suggest that immigrant parents, on average,tend to hold high expectations and aspirations for their children’s educational attainment. Thisfinding is consistent with previous research that has uncovered the educational expectations andaspirations of immigrant parents (e.g., Fuligni, 1997; Raleigh & Kao, 2010).

The present study also indicated that immigrant parents’ expectations and aspirations for theirchildren’s educational attainment were positively linked to immigrant-origin children’s overallschool performance. Insofar as immigrant parents possess deep-seated beliefs in education andare optimistic about the future of their children, they tend to be deeply concerned about theirchildren’s education and support them as best they can (Suarez-Orozco, Pimentel et al., 2009;Suarez-Orozco et al., 2008). As Fuligni and Fuligni (2007) posited, “regardless of their countriesof origin, foreign-born parents believe in the importance of doing well in school and attempt toinstill such an attitude in their children” (p. 236). Because the immigrant voyage is an arduousone (Suarez-Orozco, 2007), immigrant parents may believe that the best way for their childrento succeed in the new country is to thrive academically in their new schools, graduate fromhigh school, and pursue postsecondary education (Fuligni & Fuligni, 2007; Suarez-Orozco et al.,2008). Previous research has demonstrated that children of foreign-born parents tend to internalizeand endorse the strong value that parents place on education more quickly than do children ofnative-born parents (see Fuligni, 1997). Such internalization and endorsement may help children

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from immigrant families to be more positively oriented toward school, which, in turn, improvestheir overall school performance.

However, the findings of the study should be treated with caution for the following two rea-sons. First, the present study is based on self-reported data. The research literature suggests thatself-reported data may contain several potential sources of bias (for a review, see Kuncel, Crede,& Thomas, 2005). Second, the SAEP 2002 database does not contain information on immigrantparents’ as well as their children’s length of residence in Canada. Previous research documentsthat length of residence is associated with a variety of developmental and academic outcomes (seeSuarez-Orozco et al., 2009). Despite these limitations, the findings of the present study under-score the importance of high parental educational expectations and aspirations in the academiclives of children from immigrant families. Because the socioeconomic and cultural profiles ofcontemporary immigrant families are extraordinarily diverse (Fuligni & Fuligni, 2007), parentalexpectations and aspirations for immigrant-origin children’s educational attainment may be highlyvariable. Future researchers are warranted to examine ethnic–racial variations in parental educa-tional expectations and aspirations, and how well such variations relate to the academic trajectoriesof children of immigrants from diverse ethnic/racial backgrounds. The findings of such researchmay help to gauge whether parental interventions are needed to elevate positive parental educa-tional expectations and aspirations among ethnically and racially diverse immigrant families.

AUTHOR NOTES

Shaljan Areepattamannil is a research scientist at the Centre for International ComparativeStudies, Office of Education Research, National Institute of Education, Nanyang TechnologicalUniversity, Singapore. His research interests primarily revolve around psychosocial correlatesand antecedents of student achievement and engagement across cultures. Daphnee H. L. Lee is aresearch scientist at the Office of Education Research, National Institute of Education, NanyangTechnological University, Singapore. Her research interests lie primarily in the areas of sociologyof education and organizational sociology.

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