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Content Area Reading Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum Richard T. Vacca Kent State University, emeritus Jo Anne L. Vacca Kent State University, emeritus E I G H T H E D I T I O N Boston New York San Francisco Mexico City • Montreal • Toronto • London • Madrid • Munich • Paris Hong Kong Singapore Tokyo Cape Town • Sydney

Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum

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Page 1: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum

Content AreaReading

Literacy and Learning

Across the Curriculum

Richard T. VaccaKent State University, emeritus

Jo Anne L. VaccaKent State University, emeritus

E I G H T H E D I T I O N

Boston • New York • San FranciscoMexico City • Montreal • Toronto • London • Madrid • Munich • Paris

Hong Kong • Singapore • Tokyo • Cape Town • Sydney

Page 2: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum

Series Editor: Aurora Martínez RamosDevelopment Editor: Tom JefferiesSeries Editorial Assistant: Erin BeattySenior Marketing Manager: Elizabeth FogartyProduction Administrator: Michael GrangerEditorial-Production Service: Omegatype Typography, Inc.Composition and Prepress Buyer: Linda CoxManufacturing Buyer: Andrew TursoCover Administrator: Linda KnowlesInterior Design: Carol SombergElectronic Composition: Omegatype Typography, Inc.

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Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1999 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Vacca, Richard T.Content area reading : literacy and learning across the curriculum / Richard T. Vacca,

Jo Anne L. Vacca. —8th ed.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 0-205-41031-6

1. Content area reading. I. Vacca, Jo Anne L. II. Title.

LB1050.455.V33 2005428.4'3—dc22

2004043669

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 09 08 07 06 05 04

Credits appear on page 472, which constitutes an extension of the copyright page.

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We choose friends, not relatives

How blessed we are to have thesespecial persons who are both

Fred and Pat Vacca

Tony and Chris Vacca

Tom and Patty Schmidt

Gary and Courtney Vierstra

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Detailed Contents vii

Preface xvii

PART one: Content Literacy in a Standards-Based Curriculum 1

Chapter 1 Reading Matters 1Chapter 2 Assessing Students and Texts 30

PART two: Learners and Texts 68

Chapter 3 Struggling Readers and Writers 68Chapter 4 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners 104Chapter 5 Learning with Trade Books 154Chapter 6 Learning with Electronic Texts 196

PART three: Instructional Practices and Strategies 226

Chapter 7 Bringing Students and Texts Together 226Chapter 8 Devloping Vocabulary Knowledge and Concepts 264Chapter 9 Activating Prior Knowledge and Interest 294

Chapter 10 Guiding Reader–Text Interactions 318Chapter 11 Writing to Learn 352Chapter 12 Studying Texts 390

Appendix A Affixes with Invariant Meanings 430Appendix B Commonly Used Prefixes with Varying Meanings 434Appendix C Graphic Organizers with Text Frames 436

Bibliography 439

Name Index 456

Subject Index 461

v

Brief Contents

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Preface xvii

PART one: Content Literacy in a Standards-Based Curriculum 1

c h a p t e r 1 Reading Matters 1Organizing Principle 1Chapter Overview 1Frame of Mind 2Being an Artful Teacher 3No Child Left Behind Act 3Learning with Texts 4Beyond Assigning and Telling 5Understanding Literacy 7Literacy Is Situational 7Influences on Content Literacy 9Incorporating Content Standards into Literacy-Based Instruction 9Text Comprehension in Content Areas 11Developing Research-Based Comprehension Strategies 12Prior Knowledge and Comprehension 14Reader Response 20Levels of Comprehension 21Questioning 24Scaffolding Instruction 25Looking Back, Looking Forward 26Minds On 27Hands On 28eResources 29

c h a p t e r 2 Assessing Students and Texts 30Organizing Principle 30Chapter Overview 31Frame of Mind 32High-Stakes Testing and Authentic Approaches to Assessment 32High-Stakes Testing: Some Issues and Concerns 33Standardized Testing: What Teachers Need to Know 37Authentic Assessment: The Teacher’s Role 39

vii

Detailed Contents

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Portfolio Assessment 42Adapting Portfolios to Content Area Classes 43BOX 2.1 / Research-Based Best Practices 45Checklists and Interviews 45Rubrics and Self-Assessments 49Assessing Text Difficulty 50Content Area Reading Inventories 52Readability 55FLIP Strategy 63Looking Back, Looking Forward 65Minds On 66Hands On 66eResources 67

PART two: Learners and Texts 68

c h a p t e r 3 Struggling Readers and Writers 68Organizing Principle 68Chapter Overview 69Frame of Mind 70The Consequences of Struggling with Text 71BOX 3.1 / WHAT ABOUT English Language Learners? 73Low Achievement 74Learned Helplessness 75Explicit Instruction in the Use of Strategies 76Metacognition and Learning 76Strategy Instruction 78BOX 3.2 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment? 80Strategic Reading 83Using Think-Alouds to Model Comprehension Strategies 83Using Reciprocal Teaching to Model Comprehension Strategies 86Using Question–Answer Relationships (QARs)

to Model Comprehension Strategies 86BOX 3.3 / Research-Based Best Practices 89Strategic Writing 90The Discovery Stage: Generating Ideas, Planning, and Organizing 92BOX 3.4 / Research-Based Best Practices 94Drafting 96Revising 97Looking Back, Looking Forward 101Minds On 102Hands On 102eResources 103

viii CONTENTS

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c h a p t e r 4 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners 104Organizing Principle 104Chapter Overview 105Frame of Mind 106Cultural Differences in Today’s Schools 107BOX 4.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment? 108From Monocultural to Multicultural Classrooms 109Ways of Knowing 112Students’ Funds of Knowledge 113Linguistic Differences in Today’s Schools 114Dialect Use in the Classroom 114English Language Learners 116Vocabulary Strategies 119Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy 121Concept of Definition Word Maps 121Vocabulary-Building Strategies 124Comprehension Strategies 133Questioning the Author (QtA) 134BOX 4.2 / Research-Based Best Practices 135Directed Reading–Thinking Activity (DR–TA) 136BOX 4.3 / Research-Based Best Practices 138Talking and Working Together 142Scaffolding Student Talk 142Purposes and Types of Discussions 147Creating an Environment for Discussion 148Looking Back, Looking Forward 151Minds On 152Hands On 152eResources 153

c h a p t e r 5 Learning with Trade Books 154Contributed by Barbara Moss, San Diego State University

Organizing Principle 154Chapter Overview 155Frame of Mind 156BOX 5.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment? 157Textbook Use in Today’s Classrooms 157Reasons Teachers Use Textbooks 158Problems with Using Textbooks 158Rationale for Using Trade Books 161

CONTENTS ix

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Learning through Literature 163Nonfiction Books 163BOX 5.2 / Research-Based Best Practices 169Picture Books 169Fiction Books 171Multicultural Books 174BOX 5.3 / Research-Based Best Practices 175Books for Struggling Readers 176Using Trade Books in the Classroom 177Creating Classroom Libraries and Text Sets 177Student Self-Selected Reading 178Teacher Read-Alouds 180Literature Study in Content Areas 182BOX 5.4 / Research-Based Best Practices 183Promoting Response to Literature 184Making Connections: Text-to-Self, Text-to-Text, Text-to-World 185Process Drama as a Heuristic Response 188Readers Theatre 190Idea Circles 191Looking Back, Looking Forward 193Minds On 193Hands On 194eResources 195

c h a p t e r 6 Learning with Electronic Texts 196Organizing Principle 196Chapter Overview 197Frame of Mind 198BOX 6.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment? 199Rationale for Electronic Texts 200Interactivity 201Communication and Information Search/Retrieval 201Multimedia Environments 202Socially Mediated Learning 202Electronic Texts in the Classroom 203Learning with Hypertext and Hypermedia 203Learning with Software Programs 205Learning with Electronic Books 207Learning with Word Processors and Authoring Systems 208Learning with the Internet 209Strategies for Online Learning 214Internet Workshops 214Internet Inquiries 217

x CONTENTS

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Internet Projects 219WebQuests 220Looking Back, Looking Forward 224Minds On 224Hands On 225eResources 225

PART three: Instructional Practices and Strategies 226

c h a p t e r 7 Bringing Students and Texts Together 226Organizing Principle 226Chapter Overview 227Frame of Mind 228Sociocultural Context for Reading Comprehension 229The Reader–Text–Activity Dynamic 229Collaborative Interactions 231Engaged Minds 231Designing and Planning Text Lessons 231B–D–A Lesson Structure 232Some Examples of Text Lessons 236BOX 7.1 / Research-Based Best Practices 238BOX 7.2 / Research-Based Best Practices 240Designing and Planning Units of Study 243Components of a Well-Designed Unit 243An Inquiry/Research Emphasis in Units of Study 247BOX 7.3 / Research-Based Best Practices 248A Multiple Text Emphasis in Units of Study 250Designing and Planning Collaborative Interactions 252Cooperative Learning Groups 252Small-Group Processes Underlying Cooperative Learning 255Looking Back, Looking Forward 260Minds On 260Hands On 261eResources 263

c h a p t e r 8 Developing Vocabulary Knowledge and Concepts 264Organizing Principle 264Chapter Overview 265Frame of Mind 266

CONTENTS xi

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Experiences, Concepts, and Words 267What are Concepts? 267Concept Relationships: An Example 267BOX 8.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment? 268Using Graphic Organizers to Make Connections

among Key Concepts 271BOX 8.2 / Research-Based Best Practices 272A Graphic Organizer Walk-Through 272Showing Students How to Make Their Own Connections 275Activating What Students Know about Words 276Word Exploration 277Brainstorming 277List–Group–Label 278Semantic Word Maps 279Word Sorts 279Reinforcing and Extending Vocabulary Knowledge and Concepts 281Semantic Feature Analysis (SFA) 282Categorization Activities 283Concept Circles 283Context- and Definition-Related Activities 284BOX 8.3 / WHAT ABOUT ELL and Struggling Readers? 286Magic Squares 287Looking Back, Looking Forward 290Minds On 291Hands On 291eResources 293

c h a p t e r 9 Activating Prior Knowledge and Interest 294Organizing Principle 294Chapter Overview 295Frame of Mind 296Self-Efficacy and Motivation 297BOX 9.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment? 298Arousing Curiosity 300Creating Story Impressions 300BOX 9.2 / Research-Based Best Practices 302Establishing Problematic Perspectives 302Guided Imagery 306Making Predictions 307Anticipation Guides 307Adapting Anticipation Guides in Content Areas 308

xii CONTENTS

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Question Generation 311Active Comprehension 311ReQuest 311BOX 9.3 / WHAT ABOUT ELL and Struggling Readers? 312Expectation Outlines 313Your Own Questions 314Looking Back, Looking Forward 314Minds On 315Hands On 316eResources 317

c h a p t e r 10 Guiding Reader–Text Interactions 318Organizing Principle 318Chapter Overview 319Frame of Mind 320BOX 10.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment? 321Instructional Strategies 322The KWL Strategy 322Discussion Webs 328Guided Reading Procedure (GRP) 331Intra-Act 335Reading Guides 339Three-Level Reading Guides 339Selective Reading Guides 345Looking Back, Looking Forward 346Minds On 349Hands On 350eResources 351

c h a p t e r 11 Writing to Learn 352Organizing Principle 352Chapter Overview 353Frame of Mind 354Integrating Reading and Writing 356Reading and Writing as Composing Processes 356Reading and Writing as Exploration and Clarification 357BOX 11.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment? 358Exploratory Writing Activities 361Unsent Letters 361Biopoems 362Dialogues 364

CONTENTS xiii

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Admit Slips and Exit Slips 365Brainstorming and Clustering 366Journal Writing 368Response Journals 371Double-Entry Journals (DEJs) 378Learning Logs 382RAFTing Activities 384Establish a Context for Writing 384Use Discourse Forms in RAFTing Activities 385Looking Back, Looking Forward 385

Minds On 387

Hands On 388

eResources 389

c h a p t e r 12 Studying Texts 390Organizing Principle 390

Chapter Overview 391

Frame of Mind 392

Searching for and Using Text Structure 393External Text Structure 393BOX 12.1 / WHAT ABOUT Content Standards and Assessment? 394Internal Text Structure 396Signal Words in Text Structure 398Graphic Organizers 399

BOX 12.2 / Research-Based Best Practices 401Using Graphic Organizers to Reflect Text Patterns 402Using Questions with Graphic Organizers 407Semantic (Cognitive) Mapping 409Study Guides Based on Text Patterns 411Classroom Examples 412Writing Summaries 414Using GRASP to Write a Summary 416BOX 12.3 / Research-Based Best Practices 417Polishing a Summary 419Making Notes, Taking Notes 420Text Annotations 420A Note-Taking Procedure 424Looking Back, Looking Forward 425

Minds On 427

Hands On 428

eResources 429

xiv CONTENTS

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Appendix A: Affixes with Invariant Meanings 430

Appendix B: Commonly Used Prefixes with Varying Meanings 434

Appendix C: Graphic Organizers withText Frames 436

Bibliography 439Name Index 456Subject Index 461

CONTENTS xv

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When we began writing ContentArea Reading more than twenty-five years ago, we decided to set the tone of thefirst edition in the opening chapter by quoting a line from Simon and Garfunkel’s“Kodachrome.” Although we run the risk of dating ourselves, we are reminded ofthe provocative line because it captures the disconnect that many students havefelt in their school experience, then as well as now. The opening lyrics to “Koda-chrome” are a songwriter’s personal reflection on education—nothing more, noth-ing less. Yet the juxtaposition of having learned “crap” in school with the inabilityto “think” critically represents an ongoing dilemma faced by content area teach-ers who are wedded to an academic discipline.

We have never met a teacher who didn’t believe that the essence of artfulteaching is in showing students how to think deeply and critically about the con-tent underlying an academic discipline. Yet, when content is taught in a vacuumwithout attention to the process by which it is learned, students are apt to makefew connections between the powerful ideas underlying an academic disciplineand the prior knowledge and experience that they bring to classroom learning sit-uations. In this book, we explore the relationships between content and processby critically examining the literacy processes and strategies that students use tothink and learn with texts.

Major Themes in the Eighth Edition

Influenced by the role of language, cognition, culture, and social context inlearning, our goal for this edition is to inspire teachers, whether novice or vet-eran, to examine what it means to connect literacy and learning in a standards-based curriculum. The eighth edition continues the ambitious exploration ofcontent literacy—the ability to use reading, writing, talking, listening, and view-ing processes to learn subject matter across the curriculum. The major themesunderlying content literacy and learning are reflected in the organizing princi-ples described at the beginning of every chapter:

� All teachers play a critical role in helping studens comprehend and respondto information and ideas in the text.

� Instructional assessment is a process of gathering and using multiple sourcesof relevant information about students for instructional purposes.

xvii

Preface

Page 18: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum

� Teachers respond to the literacy needs of struggling readers and writers byscaffolding instruction so that students become confident and competent inthe use of strategies that support learning.

� Teachers respond to linguistic and cultural differences in their classrooms byscaffolding instruction in the use of vocabulary and comprehension strategiesand by creating classroom environments that encourage talking and workingtogether.

� Instructional practices involving the use of informational and literary tradebooks in content areas help to extend and enrich the curriculum.

� Electronic texts, like trade books, extend and enrich the curriculum.

� Bringing students and texts together involves instructional plans and activi-ties that result in active student engagement and collaboration.

� Teaching words well means giving students multiple opportunities to de-velop vocabulary knowledge and to learn how words are conceptually relatedto one another in the texts that they study.

� Activating prior knowledge and generating interest create an instructionalcontext in which students will approach reading with purpose and antici-pation.

� Teachers guide reader–text interactions through the instructional strategiesand practices that they use and the reading support that they provide.

� Writing facilitates learning by helping students to explore, clarify, and thinkdeeply about the ideas they encounter in reading.

� Looking for and using text structure in everything they read helps studentsto study texts more effectively.

Underlying these themes is our belief that students learn with texts, not nec-essarily from texts. Learning from texts suggests that a text is a body of infor-mation to be mastered by learners rather than a tool by which they constructmeaning and knowledge. Learning with a text, on the other hand, implies that stu-dents have much to contribute to their own learning as they interact with texts tomake meaning and construct knowledge.

Organization of the Eighth Edition

The knowledge base related to content literacy and learning has changed dramat-ically in the past twenty-five years, and so has thinking about what constitutes“best practice.” Nevertheless, in making decisions related to changes in this edi-tion, we ask the same question that guided the writing of the first edition twenty-five years ago: How can teachers make content literacy a visible part of theirinstructional routines without sacrificing high standards for content learning?

xviii PREFACE www.ablongman.com/vacca8e

Page 19: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum

Answers to this guiding question led us to reorganize the eighth edition intothree parts: Part One: Content Literacy in a Standards-Based Curriculum, PartTwo: Learners and Texts, and Part Three: Instructional Strategies and Practices.

Part One situates issues and problems related to content literacy within thecontext of the standards-based movement and accountability systems that arechanging the face of education in today’s U.S. schools. Although the pressure toensure that students meet content standards weighs heavily on instructional de-cisions, a teacher can make a difference in students’ literacy development andknowledge acquisition by showing them how to use literacy processes and strate-gies to meet high standards for learning. Ongoing, authentic assessment in theclassroom—when coupled with high-stakes proficiency assessment—providesthe information that teachers need to inform their day-by-day instructional deci-sions about content literacy and learning.

In Parts Two and Three of this edition, we build an instructional frameworkfor content literacy and learning across the curriculum. In Part Two, Learners andTexts, our emphasis is on the exploration and clarification of issues related tostruggling readers and writers, culturally and linguistically diverse learners, andthe use of trade books and electronic texts to extend and enrich the curriculum.Students who continually struggle with text in reading and writing situations needto build strategic knowledge, skills, and insights related to literacy and learning.Moreover, culturally and linguistically diverse students present a unique chal-lenge to content area teachers, especially in light of the influx of immigrant stu-dents in today’s classrooms. We also examine the limitations of textbooks andexplain how to use trade books and information and communication technologiessuch as the Internet to extend and enrich a standards-based curriculum.

In Part Three, Instructional Strategies and Practices, we flesh out the in-structional framework by explaining how to create active learning environmentsin which all students—alone and in collaboration with one another—know howto use content literacy strategies to learn with texts. To this end, Part Three offersa multitude of instructional strategies and practices that allow teachers to scaf-fold instruction in ways that support the following:

� development of vocabulary knowledge and concepts;

� activation of prior knowledge before, during, and after reading;

� comprehension and critical analysis of text through reader–text interactions;

� use of various writing activities to facilitate learning; and

� development of study strategies based on a search for text structure in every-thing that students read.

These instructional strategies and practices are designed to engage students intheir strategic interactions with text and other learners. Rather than left to “sink orswim” with a text assignment, students will be more likely to know how to searchfor meaning in everything they talk about, listen to, and read, view, and write.

PREFACE xix

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Features in the Eighth Edition

The eighth edition retains all of the features of the previous edition, while im-proving its overall coverage of content literacy topics and instructional strategiesand practices.

New and Expanded ChaptersThe text continues to emphasize a contemporary, functional approach to contentliteracy instruction. In a functional approach, content area teachers learn how tointegrate literacy-related strategies into instructional routines without sacrificingthe teaching of content. Our intent is not to “morph” a content teacher into a read-ing specialist or writing instructor. As a result, we expanded our discussions oftopics in the previous edition by creating separate, new chapters for the following:

� Chapter 1: Reading Matters (with an emphasis on the impact of teaching tocontent standards);

� Chapter 3: Struggling Readers and Writers (with a renewed emphasis on writ-ing strategies for students who struggle with the writing process);

� Chapter 4: Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners (with emphasis onstudents whose first language is other than English);

� Chapter 5: Learning with Trade Books (written by Professor Barbara Mossfrom San Diego State University, a leading expert in the field of informationalliterature for children and adolescents); and

� Chapter 6: Learning with Electronic Texts (with emphasis on learning withthe Internet).

Aids to UnderstandingA new design makes the text visu-ally appealing and easy to use.Through this new, attractive design,the main features are easily identi-fied, making the text user-friendly.

Each chapter opens with a quota-tion to help readers reflect on the un-derlying theme of each chapter. TheOrganizing Principle gives readers a“heads-up” by introducing the ratio-nale for each chapter and highlightingits underlying theme. A Chapter Over-view depicts the relationships that exist

xx PREFACE www.ablongman.com/vacca8e

Nowhere is the reality of a mar-ginal school experience more pro-nounced than in the academic lives

of English language learners. Their school ex-perience is often characterized by failure, dis-connection, and resistance to reading andwriting in academic contexts. The increasingnumber of learners whose first language is oneother than English demands literacy-relatedinstruction that is strategic and culturally re-sponsive, with high learning expectations forall students. St. Paul’s quote wears well in anera of unprecedented classroom diversity. To-day’s teacher is a teacher of all kinds of learn-ers, with different linguistic and culturalbackgrounds and academic needs. And noneof their voices is without significance in theclassroom.

How can teachers be responsive tolinguistic and cultural diversity in theirclassrooms while maintaining high stan-dards for content literacy and learning?Understanding the cultural and linguisticdifferences between mainstream andnonmainstream learners is an impor-tant first step, as the organizing princi-ple of this chapter suggests: Teachersrespond to linguistic and cultural dif-ferences in their classrooms by scaf-folding instruction in the use ofvocabulary and comprehensionstrategies and by creating classroom

environments that encourage talkingand working together.

Ch

ap

ter

Ove

rvi

ew

CULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE LEARNERSCULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE LEARNERS

LINGUISTIC DIFFERENCESDialect Use

Sheltered Instruction

Bilingual and ESL Programs What Makes ContentLiteracy Difficult?

English Language Learners

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

Ways of Knowing

Students'Funds of

Knowledge

From Monoculturalto Multicultural Classrooms

VOCABULARYSTRATEGIES

Vocabulary Building

Vocabulary Self-CollectionStrategy (VSS)CD Word Maps

COMPREHENSIONSTRATEGIES

Directed Reading–Thinking Activities (DR–TA)

Questioning the Author (QtA)

TALKING AND WORKINGTOGHETHER

Creating an Environment for Discussion

Scaffolding Student TalkPurposes and Types of Discussion

Teaching with texts is all the more chal-

lenging in today’s classroom, where the

range of linguistic and cultural diversity

has been increasing steadily since the

1960s. The growing diversity in the stu-

dent population is often reflected in the

way learners think about themselves as

readers and writers. More often than

not, students of diverse backgrounds

struggle with reading and writing in

academic contexts. Much like the

struggling readers and writers we de-

scribed in Chapter 3, culturally and

linguistically diverse learners often are

caught in a cycle of school failure that

contributes to marginal achievement and

high dropout rates. Typically, they are

placed in low-ability groups where in-

struction is based on a limited, watered-down

version of the curriculum. As a result, the

strengths that diverse learners bring to instruc-

tional situations usually go untapped.

c h a p t e r4Culturally and

Linguistically

Diverse Learners

Teachers respond to linguistic and

cultural differences in their

classrooms by scaffolding

instruction in the use of vocabulary

and comprehension strategies

and by creating classroom

environments that encourage

talking and working together.

There are so many kinds of voices

in the world, and none of them

is without significance.

—ST. PAUL

Or

ga

niz

ing

Pr

inci

ple

Page 21: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum

among the important ideas presented in each chapter. A set ofquestions at the start of the chapter helps readers approach thetext in a critical Frame of Mind as they analyze and interpret in-formation presented in each chapter.

End-of-chapter features include Minds On and Hands On ac-tivities. Minds On activities engage students individually and col-laboratively in thinking more deeply about some of the importantideas that they have studied. Hands On activities engage studentsindividually and collaboratively in applying some of the importantideas that they have studied.

New FeaturesNew features to this edition include marginal notations and “boxed”text segments that highlight issues related to content standards andassessment, procedures for research-based best practices, and con-nections between chapter content and diverse learners.

� What about Content Standards and Assessment? Boxes po-sitioned throughout most of the chapters. These boxes aredesigned to emphasize relationships between chapter con-tent and issues/implications related to academic standardsand high-stakes state proficiency assessments as well asauthentic assessments in the classroom.

� Research-Based Best Practices. Boxes posi-tioned throughout most of thechapters relating to instructionalstrategies and practices. Theseboxes highlight the steps and appli-cations involved in using high-visi-bility strategies that are supported bytheoretically sound rationales and/orevidence-based research.

� What About Struggling Readers andEnglish Language Learners? Boxes po-sitioned occasionally in several of thechapters to augment the content pre-sented in separate chapters on strugglingreaders and linguistically diverse learners.

� Response Journal. The Response Journal marginal iconsignals readers to use a journal while reading to makepersonal and professional connections as they react toideas presented in each chapter.

PREFACE xxi

We began our teaching careers in the1960s in a suburban high school just outside of Albany,New York, during the height of the civil rights move-ment and the Vietnam War. The times were tumultuousin the wake of great social change. Practically everyfacet of American society was open to critical exami-nation, if not reform, including the nation’s schools. Thelandmark 1954 U.S. Supreme Court case Brown v.Board of Education of Topeka ruled that “separate butequal” schools were unconstitutional and laid thegroundwork for educational reform in the 1960s. Thecivil rights movement fueled the legislative agenda ofPresident Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society. The CivilRights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in publicinstitutions on the basis of race, color, religion, or na-tional origin. Also in 1964, the Economic OpportunityAct resulted in educational programs, such as HeadStart and Upward Bound, that are still in existence to-day. In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary EducationAct (ESEA) established compensatory educational pro-grams (Title 1) to provide educational opportunities forlow-income students from minority backgrounds. Inaddition, the Bilingual Education Act of 1967 made itpossible for schools to receive federal funding for mi-nority groups who were non-English speaking.

Despite the social and educational reforms takingplace in the 1960s, it was business as usual at the highschool where we taught. The school seemed imperviousto change. In a student body of more than 1,000 stu-dents, no more than 1 or 2 percent of the students werepeople of color or immigrants whose first languagewas one other than English.One of our students duringour first year of teaching,Johnny, was the oldest sonof Hungarian immigrants.He worked after school athis uncle’s garage where hepumped gas and did minorrepairs on cars. He used towork on our beat-up, oldChevy Impala whenever itbroke down and needed repair. Anyone who took thetime to get to know him could tell that Johnny was abright young man, but in school he was mostly a quiet

Frame of Mind

1. Why are today’s classroomsmore diverse than they wereseveral decades ago?

2. What are some of the culturaland linguistic differences thatstudents from various racial andethnic backgrounds bring toclassroom learning situations?

3. Why do English languagelearners struggle with contentliteracy tasks, and how doessheltered instruction makecontent more accessible tothem while providing additionallanguage support?

4. How can teachers scaffoldinstruction to developvocabulary-building strategiesfor diverse learners?

5. How are the questioning theauthor (QtA) strategy and thedirected reading–thinkingactivity (DR-TA) similar? Howare they different?

6. Why is classroom talk especiallyimportant to English languagelearners, and how can teacherscreate an environment fordiscussion in their classrooms?

If you currently areteaching, how would youdescribe the cultural andlinguistic differences of

your students? If you arestudying to be a teacher,describe the cultural and

linguistic differencesthat existed in yourschool experiences.

Response Journal

CHAPTER 12: STUDYING TEXTS 401

R E S E A R C H - B A S E D B E S T P R A C T I C E S

To introduce students to various kinds of

graphic organizers that may be applicable to

texts in your content area, Jones, Pierce,

and Hunter (1988–1989) suggest some of the

following steps:

1. Present an example of a graphic or-

ganizer that corresponds to the type of out-

line you plan to teach. For example, suppose

that a text that students will read is orga-

nized around a cause and effect text pat-

tern. First, preview the text with the

students. Help them discover features of the

text that may signal the pattern. Make stu-

dents aware that the title, subheads, and

signal words provide them with clues to the

structure of the text. Then ask questions

that are pertinent to the pattern—for exam-

ple, “What happens in this reading? What

causes it to happen? What are the important

factors that cause these effects?”

2. Demonstrate how to construct a

graphic outline. Suppose that math students

have completed a reading about the differ-

ences between isosceles triangles and isosce-

les trapezoids. Show them how to construct

a Venn diagram to map how they are alike

and different. Next, refer to the comparison

and contrast questions you raised in the pre-

view. Guide students through the procedures

that lead to the development of the Venn dia-

gram: First, on an overhead transparency,

present an example of a partially completed

Venn graphic. Second, have students review

the text and offer suggestions to help com-

plete the graphic. The accompanying graphic

display shows a class-constructed rendering

of the Venn diagram. Third, develop proce-

dural knowledge by discussing when to use

the Venn graphic and why.

3. Coach students in the use of the

graphic outline and give them opportunities

to practice. If other texts represent a par-

ticular text pattern that you have already

demonstrated with the class, encourage

students individually or in teams to con-

struct their own graphic outlines and to use

their constructions as the basis for class

discussion.

Graphic Organizers

Isosceles Triangle

Isosceles Trapezoid

Three-sided figure.

Interior angles sum

to 180 degrees.

Base

angles

are equal.

Two sides

are equal

in length.

Four-sided figure.

Interior angles sum

to 360 degrees.

The nonparallel

sides of a trapezoid

are equal in length.

Differences

Likenesses

e.Resources

Find more examples of graphic organizers by going to

Web Destinations on the Companion Website and click-

ing on Professional Resources. Search for Graphic Or-

ganizer Index.

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X 12.2

In Chapter 4, we explored the role of context clues in helping English lan-

guage learners and struggling readers to figure out the meanings of unknown

words that they encounter in text. In addition to context clues, struggling readers

and English language learners will find context-related activities, such as those

described in Box 8.3, particularly helpful.

286 PART THREE: INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES AND STRATEGIESwww.ablongman.com/vacca8e

Students who struggle with text or havelimited English proficiency may benefitfrom context-related activities. Two such ac-tivities, modified cloze passages and OPIN,help students make meaning around key-words in a text.

MODIFIED CLOZE PASSAGESCloze passages (discussed in Chapter 2) canbe created to reinforce technical vocabulary.However, the teacher usually modifies theprocedure for teaching purposes. Every nthword, for example, needn’t be deleted. Themodified cloze passage will vary in length.Typically, a 200- to 500-word text segmentyields sufficient technical vocabulary tomake the activity worthwhile.Should you consider developing a mod-

ified cloze passage on a segment of textfrom a reading assignment, make sure thatthe text passage is one of the most impor-tant parts of the assignment. Depending onyour objectives, students can supply themissing words either before or after readingthe entire assignment. If they work on thecloze activity before reading, use the subse-quent discussion to build meaning for keyterms and to raise expectations for the as-signment as a whole. If you assign the clozepassage after reading, it will reinforce con-cepts attained through reading.

On completing a brief prereading dis-cussion on the causes of the Civil War, anAmerican history teacher assigned a clozepassage before students read the entire in-troduction for homework. See how well youfare on the first part of the exercise.What caused the Civil War? Was it in-

evitable? To what extent and in whatways was slavery to blame? To what ex-tent was each region of the nation atfault? Which were more decisive—theintellectual or the emotional issues?Any consideration of the (1) of thewar must include the problem of (2).

In his second inaugural address,Abraham Lincoln said that slaverywas “somehow the cause of the war.”The critical word is “(3).” Some (4)maintain that the moral issue had tobe solved, the nation had to face the(5), and the slaves had to be (6). An-other group of historians asserts thatthe war was not fought over (7). Intheir view, slavery served as an (8)

focal point for more fundamental (9)involving two different (10) of theConstitution. All of these views have

merit, but no single view has wonunanimous support.(Answers can be found at the end of thischapter on page 292.)

Modified Cloze Passages and OPIN

BO

X 8.3

What about . . .ELL and Struggling Readers?

CHAPTER 6: LEARNING WITH ELECTRONIC TEXTS 199

retrieve information, construct their own texts, and interact with others.

Reinking (1995) argues that computers are changing the way we communi-

cate and disseminate information, how we approach reading and writing,

and how we think about people becoming literate. Although electronic

texts often enhance learning, Reinking (1998) contends that posttypo-

graphic reading and writing with computers have the power to transform

the way we teach and learn.

Knowing how to use information and com-munication technologies (ICT), such as theInternet, is integral to the strategic knowl-edge and skills that every student in everycontent area will need to develop to be con-tent literate in the twenty-first century.Practically all of the national education associations in the various academic disci-plines have developed content standards orstatements of principle that implicitly or ex-plicitly acknowledge the proficient use oftechnologies for information and communi-cation. Implicit in two of the seven contentstandards of the American Association forHealth Education (AAHE), for example, isthe use of ICT to develop health literacy:� Students will demonstrate the ability

to access valid health information and health promotion products andservices.� Students will demonstrate the ability to

use interpersonal communication skillsto enhance health.

The International Reading Association (IRA)and the National Council of Teachers ofEnglish (NCTE) are explicit in their stan-dard for using ICT:

� Students use a variety of technologicaland information resources . . . together

and synthesize information to create andcommunicate knowledge.

State content standards, likewise, un-derscore the ability to put technologies touse for learning, but for the most part, statescontinue to rely on paper-and-pencil tests,rather than the literacies required by ICT, to assess students’ abilities to meet contentstandards. Donald Leu (2002), one of theleading scholars associated with the new lit-eracies, argues that proficiency assessmentswill need to be redefined in the ever chang-ing world of ICT: “The challenge will be todevelop assessment systems that keep upwith the continually changing nature of lit-eracy so that assessment data provide usefulinformation for planning” (p. 326). He pointsout a major flaw in statewide proficiency assessments related to reading and writing:“not a single reading assessment in theUnited States currently evaluates reading onthe Internet and not a single state writing as-sessment permits the use of anything otherthan paper and pencil technologies” (p. 326).

Study the state proficiency assessmentsin your content area. To what extent do theseassessments, where they exist, reflect the lit-eracies that students need to communicateeffectively as well as search for and interpretinformation on ICT such as the Internet?

What about . . .Content Standards and Assessment?

BO

X 6. 1

In what ways, and forwhat purposes, do youuse computers?

Response Journal

Page 22: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum

� eResources. The eResources marginal icon directs readers to the CompanionWebsite to search for Web links, Web activities, or suggested readings to en-gage in further learning about the topics presented in each chapter. There arealso additional eResources at the end of each chapter directing students to theCompanion Website for more activities and suggested readings, as well as ar-ticles from the New York Times.

Supplements for Instructors and Students

Allyn and Bacon is committed to preparing the best quality supplements for its text-books, and the supplements for the eighth edition of Content Area Reading reflectthis commitment. For more information about the instructor and student supple-ments that accompany and support the text, ask your local Allyn & Bacon represen-tative, or contact the Allyn & Bacon Sales Support Department (1-800-852-8024).

� Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank with teaching suggestions andtest items for each chapter.

� PowerPoint™ Presentation. Ideal for lecture presentations or student hand-outs, the PowerPoint™ presentation created for this text provides dozens ofready-to-use graphic and text images (available for download from Supple-ment Central at www.suppscentral.ablongman.com).

� Companion Website (www.ablongman.com/vacca8e) that provides onlinepractice tests, activities, and additional Web resources to deepen and expandunderstanding of the text.

� VideoWorkshop, a new way to bring video into your course for maximizedlearning! This total teaching and learning system includes quality video footageon an easy-to-use CD-ROM plus a Student Learning Guide and an Instructor’sTeaching Guide. The result? A program that brings textbook concepts to lifewith ease and that helps your students understand, analyze, and apply the ob-jectives of the course. VideoWorkshop is available for your students as a value-pack option with this textbook. (Special package ISBN required from yourrepresentative.) VW will eventually become part of an exciting new package on-line called “My Lab School” currently under construction. Watch for details.

� My Lab School. Discover where the classroom comes to life! From video clipsof teachers and students interacting to sample lessons, portfolio templates,and standards integration, Allyn and Bacon brings your students the toolsthey’ll need to succeed in the classroom—with content easily integrated intoyour existing course. Delivered within Course Compass, Allyn and Bacon’scourse management system, this program gives your students powerful in-sights into how real classrooms work and a rich array of tools that will sup-port them on their journey from their first class to their first classroom.

� Allyn and Bacon Digital Media Archive for Literacy. This CD-ROM offersstill images, video clips, audio clips, Web links, and assorted lecture resourcesthat can be incorporated into multimedia presentations in the classroom.

xxii PREFACE www.ablongman.com/vacca8e

Page 23: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum

� Professionals in Action: Literacy Video. This 90-minute video consists of 10-to 20-minute segments on Phonemic Awareness, Teaching Phonics, HelpingStudents Become Strategic Readers, Organizing for Teaching with Literature,and discussions of literacy and brain research with experts. The first four seg-ments provide narrative along with actual classroom teaching footage. The fi-nal segments present, in a question-and-answer format, discussions byleading experts in the field of literacy.

� Allyn and Bacon Literacy Video Library. Featuring renowned reading schol-ars Richard Allington, Dorothy Strickland, and Evelyn English, this three-video library addresses core topics covered in the literacy classroom: readingstrategies, developing literacy in multiple intelligences classrooms, develop-ing phonemic awareness, and much more.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the many individuals who made this edition possible. First, wewould like to thank several of our former doctoral students who came to the res-cue of tired and beleaguered mentors by helping us to meet deadline commit-ments: Dr. Barbara Moss, San Diego State University, for revising Chapter 5,Learning with Trade Books; Dr. Christine McKeon, Walsh University, for servingin the role of Webmaster as she updated and redesigned the Companion Websitefor this edition; and Dr. Maryann Mraz, University of North Carolina, for revisingand updating the Instructor’s Resource Manual.

We also wish to acknowledge the thoughtful and thought-provoking profes-sional suggestions of those who responded to questionnaires and reviewed thetext for this edition: Vi Alexander, Stephen F. Austin State University; MickeyBogart, Kansas State University; Dr. Deb Carr, King’s College and Hazleton AreaSchool District; Ann Harvey, Columbia College; Stephenie Hewett, The Citadel;Lois E. Huffman, North Carolina State University; Luther Kirk, Longwood Uni-versity; and Joyce Stallworth, The University of Alabama.

This book is only as good as the editors behind it. We owe a debt of gratitudeto our Acquisitions Editor, Aurora Martínez, whose graceful guidance and inci-sive leadership on this project made us work harder than we wanted to. And spe-cial kudos to Tom Jefferies, the finest and steadiest developmental editor withwhom we have had the pleasure to work thus far.

A special thanks to students, colleagues, and teachers in schools through-out the United States and Canada, too numerous to list, who have contributedimmeasurably to our growth as teachers and scholars. This book has been amarriage-of-sorts for us and it’s time to celebrate our silver anniversary withthis edition’s time cycle! Never in our dreams did we think it possible, and wethank a Power greater than ourselves for making it a reality.

R. T. V.J. L. V.

PREFACE xxiii