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Toxins 2014, 6, 1559-1574; doi:10.3390/toxins6051559
toxins ISSN 2072-6651
www.mdpi.com/journal/toxins
Article
In Vitro Induction of Erythrocyte Phosphatidylserine Translocation by the Natural Naphthoquinone Shikonin
Adrian Lupescu, Rosi Bissinger, Kashif Jilani and Florian Lang *
Department of Physiology, University of Tuebingen, Gmelinstreet 5, Tuebingen 72076, Germany;
E-Mails: [email protected] (A.L.); [email protected] (R.B.); [email protected] (K.J.)
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected];
Tel.: +49-7071-297-2194; Fax: +49-7071-29-5618.
Received: 4 March 2014; in revised form: 5 May 2014 / Accepted: 5 May 2014 /
Published: 13 May 2014
Abstract: Shikonin, the most important component of Lithospermum erythrorhizon, has
previously been shown to exert antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, antiviral,
antimicrobial and anticancer effects. The anticancer effect has been attributed to the
stimulation of suicidal cell death or apoptosis. Similar to the apoptosis of nucleated cells,
erythrocytes may experience eryptosis, the suicidal erythrocyte death characterized by cell
shrinkage and by phosphatidylserine translocation to the erythrocyte surface. Triggers of
eryptosis include the increase of cytosolic Ca2+-activity ([Ca2+]i) and ceramide formation.
The present study explored whether Shikonin stimulates eryptosis. To this end, Fluo 3
fluorescence was measured to quantify [Ca2+]i, forward scatter to estimate cell volume,
annexin V binding to identify phosphatidylserine-exposing erythrocytes, hemoglobin
release to determine hemolysis and antibodies to quantify ceramide abundance. As a result,
a 48 h exposure of human erythrocytes to Shikonin (1 µM) significantly increased [Ca2+]i,
increased ceramide abundance, decreased forward scatter and increased annexin V binding.
The effect of Shikonin (1 µM) on annexin V binding was significantly blunted, but not
abolished by the removal of extracellular Ca2+. In conclusion, Shikonin stimulates suicidal
erythrocyte death or eryptosis, an effect at least partially due to the stimulation of Ca2+ entry
and ceramide formation.
Keywords: phosphatidylserine; shikonin; calcium; ceramide; cell volume; eryptosis
OPEN ACCESS
Toxins 2014, 6 1560
1. Introduction
Shikonin, a naphthoquinone, is the most important component of Lithospermum erythrorhizon, a
traditional Chinese herbal medicine [1]. Shikonin has antioxidant [1], anti-inflammatory [1–3],
antithrombotic [1,2], antiviral [2,4], antimicrobial [1,2], as well as anticancer [2,5–8] potency and
fosters wound healing [1,2,5]. The anticancer effect of Shikonin has been attributed at least in part to
the stimulation of suicidal cell death or apoptosis [9–17]. Mechanisms involved in Shikonin-induced
apoptosis include reactive oxidant species [18–23], altered gene expression [15], protein
phosphorylation [18] and caspase activation [24].
Similar to the apoptosis of nucleated cells, erythrocytes may undergo eryptosis, a suicidal
erythrocyte death characterized by phosphatidylserine translocation and cell shrinkage [25]. Eryptosis is
stimulated by increase of cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i), e.g., due to stimulation of Ca2+ entry [25].
Increased [Ca2+]i leads to the activation of Ca2+-sensitive K+ channels with subsequent cell shrinkage
due to K+ exit, hyperpolarization, Cl− exit and thus to cellular loss of KCl and osmotically obliged
water [26]. Increased [Ca2+]i is further followed by phospholipid scrambling of the cell membrane with
phosphatidylserine exposure at the erythrocyte surface [25]. Eryptosis may further be triggered by
ceramide formation [25], caspase activation [27–31] and deranged activities of AMP activated kinase
(AMPK) [32], casein kinase 1α [33,34], cGMP-dependent protein kinase [35], Janus-activated kinase
(JAK3) [36], protein kinase C [37], p38 kinase [38], PAK2 kinase [39], and/or sorafenib- [40] and
sunitinib- [41] sensitive kinases.
Eryptosis is triggered by a myriad of xenobiotics [25,41–71], and excessive eryptosis is observed in
a wide variety of clinical conditions, such as diabetes, renal insufficiency, hemolytic uremic syndrome,
sepsis, malaria, sickle cell disease, Wilson’s disease, iron deficiency, malignancy, phosphate depletion
and metabolic syndrome [25].
The present study explored, whether and, if so, how Shikonin stimulates eryptosis. To this end,
[Ca2+]i, cell volume and phosphatidylserine exposure were determined in the absence and presence
of Shikonin.
2. Results and Discussion
The present study explored whether the naphthoquinone Shikonin triggers eryptosis, the suicidal
erythrocyte death characterized by cell shrinkage and phosphatidylserine translocation. As both
hallmarks of eryptosis are stimulated by the increase of cytosolic Ca2+ activity ([Ca2+]i), the effect of
Shikonin on [Ca2+]i was tested in a first series of experiments. To this end, human erythrocytes were
loaded with Fluo3-AM and the Fluo 3 fluorescence determined by flow cytometry. Prior to the
determination of Fluo 3 fluorescence, the erythrocytes were incubated for 48 h in Ringer solution
without or with Shikonin (0.1–1 µM). As illustrated in Figure 1, the exposure to Shikonin was
followed by an increase of Fluo 3 fluorescence, an effect reaching statistical significance at a 1-µM
Shikonin concentration. Accordingly, Shikonin increased cytosolic Ca2+ concentration.
Toxins 2014, 6 1561
Figure 1. The effect of Shikonin on erythrocyte cytosolic Ca2+ concentration. (A) Original
histogram of the Fluo 3 fluorescence in erythrocytes following exposure for 48 h to Ringer
solution without (grey area) and with (black line) the presence of 1 µM Shikonin;
(B) Arithmetic means ± SEM (n = 8) of the Fluo 3 fluorescence (arbitrary units) in
erythrocytes exposed for 48 h to Ringer solution without (white bar) or with (black bars)
Shikonin (0.1–1 µM). *** (p < 0.001) indicates significant difference from the absence
of Shikonin (ANOVA); (C) Original dot blots of the Fluo 3 fluorescence as a function of
forward scatter following exposure for 48 h to Ringer solution without and with the
presence of 1 µM Shikonin; (D) Arithmetic means ± SEM (n = 4) of the Fluo 3
fluorescence (arbitrary units) in erythrocytes exposed for 1–48 h to Ringer solution without
(white squares) or with 1 µM Shikonin (black squares). * (p < 0.05) indicates significant
difference from the absence of Shikonin (ANOVA).
A
B
Fluo 3 fluorescence (rel.units)
100
10 102
Nu
mb
er
of c
ells
0
150
10 104
Flu
o 3
flu
ore
sce
nce
(a
rb.u
nit
s)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Co 0.1 µM 0.25 µM 0.5 µM 1 µM
Shikonin
***
1 3
100 101 102 103 1040
400
1000
Fluo 3 fluorescence (rel.units)
FS
C(r
el.
un
its)
100 101 102 103 104FL1-Height
0
400
1000
Co 1 µMC
0
15
20
25
30
Flu
o3
flu
ore
scen
ce
(arb
. u
nit
s)
1 h 3 h 6 h 12 h 24 h 48 h
1 µMcontrol
D
*
An increase of [Ca2+]i may trigger cell shrinkage due to the activation of Ca2+-sensitive K+ channels
and the subsequent exit of KCl and osmotically obliged water. Thus, cell volume was estimated from
forward scatter in flow cytometry. As illustrated in Figure 2, a 48 h exposure to Shikonin was followed
by a decrease of forward scatter, an effect reaching statistical significance at 1 µM Shikonin
concentration. Accordingly, Shikonin treatment was followed by erythrocyte shrinkage.
An increased [Ca2+]i may further trigger cell membrane phospholipid scrambling with
phosphatidylserine translocation to the erythrocyte surface. Phosphatidylserine exposing erythrocytes
were identified utilizing annexin V binding as determined in flow cytometry. As illustrated in Figure 3,
a 48 h exposure to Shikonin was followed by an increase of the percentage of annexin V binding
erythrocytes, an effect reaching statistical significance at a 0.5 µM Shikonin concentration.
Accordingly, Shikonin triggered erythrocyte phosphatidylserine translocation with the subsequent
translocation of phosphatidylserine to the cell surface.
Toxins 2014, 6 1562
Figure 2. The effect of Shikonin on erythrocyte forward scatter. (A) Original histogram of
the forward scatter of erythrocytes following exposure for 48 h to Ringer solution without
(grey area) and with (black line) the presence of 1 µM Shikonin; (B) Arithmetic
means ± SEM (n = 8) of the normalized erythrocyte forward scatter (FSC) following
incubation for 48 h to Ringer solution without (white bar) or with (black bars) Shikonin
(0.1–1 µM). ** (p < 0.01) indicates significant difference from the absence of Shikonin
(ANOVA); (C) Arithmetic means ± SEM (n = 4) of the forward scatter (arbitrary units) in
erythrocytes exposed for 1–48 h to Ringer solution without (white squares) or with 1 µM
Shikonin (black squares). * (p < 0.05) indicates significant difference from the absence
of Shikonin (ANOVA).
B
1000
A
200 400 600 800
150
Nu
mb
er
of
ce
lls
00
Forward scatter (rel. units)
Fo
rwa
rd s
ca
tte
r (a
rb.u
nit
)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Co 0.1 µM 0.25 µM 0.5 µM 1 µM
Shikonin
**
100
400
450
500
1 h 3 h 6 h 12 h 24 h 48 h
Fo
rwa
rd s
ca
tte
r(a
rb.
un
it)
1 µMcontrol
C
*
Further experiments were performed to quantify the effect of Shikonin on hemolysis. The
percentage of hemolyzed erythrocytes was calculated from the hemoglobin concentration in the
supernatant. As illustrated in Figure 3, the percentage of hemolyzed erythrocytes did not significantly
increase following Shikonin exposure.
In order to test whether the Shikonin induced phosphatidylserine translocation required the entry of
extracellular Ca2+, erythrocytes were treated for 48 h with 1 µM Shikonin in either the presence or
nominal absence of extracellular Ca2+. As illustrated in Figure 4, the effect of Shikonin on annexin V
binding was significantly blunted in the nominal absence of Ca2+. However, even in the nominal
absence of Shikonin, the percentage of annexin V binding erythrocytes increased significantly. Thus,
the effect of Shikonin was apparently not fully dependent on Ca2+ entry.
Toxins 2014, 6 1563
Figure 3. The effect of Shikonin on phosphatidylserine exposure. (A) Original histogram
of the annexin V binding of erythrocytes following exposure for 48 h to Ringer solution
without (grey area) and with (black line) the presence of 1 µM Shikonin; (B) Arithmetic
means ± SEM of the erythrocyte annexin V binding (n = 8) following incubation for 48 h
to Ringer solution without (white bar) or with (black bars) the presence of Shikonin
(0.1–1 µM). For comparison, the arithmetic means ± SEM of hemolysis (n = 8) following
incubation for 48 h to Ringer solution without or with the presence of Shikonin (grey bars)
is shown. * (p < 0.05), *** (p < 0.001) indicate significant difference from the absence of
Shikonin (ANOVA); (C) Original dot blots of the annexin V binding as a function of
forward scatter following exposure for 48 h to Ringer solution without and with the
presence of 1 µM Shikonin; (D) Arithmetic means ± SEM (n = 4) of the annexin V binding
erythrocytes (arbitrary units) following exposure for 1–48 h to Ringer solution without
(white squares) or with 1 µM Shikonin (black squares). *** (p < 0.001) indicates
significant difference from the absence of Shikonin (ANOVA).
Nu
mb
er
of
ce
lls
A
Annexin-V-fluorescence (rel.units)10 0
101 102 103 100
150
4
M1
100 101 102 103 104 100 101 102 103 104
1000
400
0
1000
400
0
FS
C (
rel.
un
its)
Annexin-V-fluorescence (rel.units)
Co 1 µMC
B
Ery
thro
cy
tes
(%
)
0
5
10
15
20
25
Co 0.1 µM 0.25 µM 0.5 µM 1 µM
*
***
Shikonin
1 µMcontrol
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1 h 3 h 6 h 12 h 24 h 48 h
PS
-ex
po
sin
g e
ryth
roc
yte
s (
%)
D
***
***
In the search for an additional mechanism, further experiments were performed in order to test
whether Shikonin increased the formation of ceramide. Ceramide abundance at the erythrocyte
surface was determined utilizing an anti-ceramide antibody. As illustrated in Figure 5, the
exposure of erythrocytes to 1 µM Shikonin significantly increased the ceramide abundance at the
erythrocyte surface.
Additional experiments tested the effect of Shikonin on erythrocytic ATP concentration. As
illustrated in Figure 6, a 48 h incubation of erythrocytes with 1 µM Shikonin was followed by a
significant decrease of erythrocytic ATP concentration. For a comparison, the effect of glucose
removal on erythrocytic ATP concentration is shown in Figure 6.
Toxins 2014, 6 1564
Figure 4. The effect of Ca2+ withdrawal on Shikonin-induced annexin V binding.
(A) Original histogram of the annexin V binding of erythrocytes following exposure for 48
h to Ringer solution with (grey area) and without (black line) calcium in the presence of
1 µM Shikonin; (B) Arithmetic means ± SEM (n = 4) of the percentage of annexin V
binding of erythrocytes after a 48 h treatment with Ringer solution without (white bar) or
with (black bars) 1 µM Shikonin in the presence (left bars, plus calcium) and absence
(right bars, minus calcium) of calcium. * (p < 0.05), ** (p < 0.01) indicate significant
difference from the respective values in the absence of Shikonin; # (p < 0.05) indicates
significant difference from the respective value in the presence of Ca2+ (ANOVA).
PS
-ex
po
sin
g e
ryth
rocy
tes
(%)
Plus Calcium Minus Calcium
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Co 1 µM Co 1 µM
Shikonin
**
*#
Nu
mb
er o
f cel
ls
Annexin-V-fluorescence (rel.units)
10 010
110
210
310
0
150
4
M1
A B
Figure 5. The effect of Shikonin on ceramide formation. (A) Original histogram of the
ceramide surface abundance of erythrocytes following exposure for 48 h to Ringer solution
without (grey shadow) and with (black line) the presence of 1 µM Shikonin.
(B) Arithmetic means ± SEM (n = 4) of the ceramide abundance after a 48 h incubation in
Ringer solution without (white bars) or with 1 µM Shikonin (black bars). * (p < 0.05)
indicates significant difference from the absence of Shikonin (t-test).
A
100
101
102
Nu
mb
er o
f ce
lls
0
150
103 104
anti-Ceramide FITC-fluorescence (rel.units)
B
Cer
amid
e-d
ep
en
den
t flu
ore
sc
en
ce
(a
rb.u
nit
s)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Co 1 µM
Shikonin
*
Toxins 2014, 6 1565
Figure 6. The effect of Shikonin on erythrocyte cytosolic ATP content. Arithmetic
means ± SEM (n = 4) of the ATP concentration after a 48 h incubation in Ringer solution
without (white bar) or with 1 µM Shikonin (black bar) or in glucose-depleted Ringer
solution (grey bar, minus glucose) * (p < 0.05) and *** (p < 0.001) indicate significant
difference from the control (absence of Shikonin and presence of glucose) (ANOVA).
The present study reveals that Shikonin stimulates eryptosis, the suicidal death of erythrocytes [25].
The hallmark of eryptosis is phosphatidylserine translocation to the erythrocyte surface [25]. Eryptosis
is further characterized by cell shrinkage [25]. Shikonin exposure of human erythrocytes leads to
phosphatidylserine translocation and to cell shrinkage.
The Shikonin-induced cell shrinkage is presumably due to the increase of [Ca2+]i, which activates
Ca2+-sensitive K+ channels [25], leading to K+ exit, cell membrane hyperpolarization, Cl− exit and,
thus, cellular loss of KCl with osmotically obliged water [26]. The cellular loss of KCl counteracts
erythrocyte swelling, which may jeopardize the integrity of the erythrocyte membrane. Excessive
erythrocyte swelling leads to hemolysis with the subsequent release of hemoglobin, which
subsequently undergoes glomerular filtration and precipitation in the acidic tubular lumina [72].
Stimulation of phosphatidylserine translocation following Shikonin treatment is similarly a result of
Ca2+ entry. Accordingly, the effect of Shikonin was significantly blunted in the nominal absence of
Ca2+. Removal of Ca2+ decreased phosphatidylserine translocation even in the absence of Shikonin,
indicating that spontaneous eryptosis following the exposure of erythrocytes to Ringer without
Shikonin was similarly, in part, caused by cytosolic Ca2+. However, significant phosphatidylserine
exposure was observed in the presence of Shikonin even in the nominal absence of Ca2+, indicating
that Shikonin was effective by an additional mechanism. As a matter of fact, Shikonin triggered the
formation of ceramide, which, in turn, fosters phosphatidylserine translocation [25]. Ceramide is
formed by a sphingomyelinase, which is, in turn, activated by a platelet activating factor [25].
Ceramide fosters suicidal death similarly in nucleated cells [73]. It is effective by potentiating
proapoptotic signaling [73]. Shikonin further decreases erythrocytic ATP concentration, another known
trigger of eryptosis [25].
Toxins 2014, 6 1566
The molecular mechanism underlying phosphatidylserine translocation has not yet been identified [25].
Recently, Anoctamin 6 (Ano6; TMEM16F gene) has been suggested to mediate cell membrane
scrambling [74]. The molecule may function as a Cl− channel, a Ca2+-regulated nonselective Ca2+
permeable cation channel, a scramblase mediating phosphatidylserine translocation upon the increase
of cytosolic Ca2+ and a regulator of cell membrane blebbing and microparticle shedding [74].
However, Ano6 is inhibited by tannic acid [75], which itself triggers phosphatidylserine translocation
in erythrocytes [60]. Thus, the role of Ano6 in the regulation of phosphatidylserine translocation in the
erythrocyte membrane remains elusive.
Stimulation of eryptosis may be favorable, as it allows the elimination of defective erythrocytes
prior to hemolysis [25]. The phosphatidylserine exposure at the cell surface may be particularly
important during the course of malaria, as infected phosphatidylserine exposing cells may be
recognized and, thus, rapidly removed from circulating blood. [76]. Infected erythrocytes undergo
eryptosis, as the intraerythrocytic parasite activates several ion channels, including the Ca2+-permeable
erythrocyte cation channels [77,78]. Activation of the channels in the host cell membrane is required
for the intraerythrocytic survival of the pathogen [77,78], as the channels provide the pathogen with
nutrients, Na+ and Ca2+, and they mediate the disposal of intracellular waste products [78]. By the
same token, the Ca2+ entry through the Ca2+-permeable cation channels triggers eryptosis [76], which
is, in turn, followed by the rapid clearance of the infected erythrocytes from circulating blood [25].
Ca2+ entry and Ca2+-induced eryptosis thus lead to elimination, not only of the infected erythrocyte, but
also of the pathogen [76].
Accordingly, genetic disorders predisposing to accelerated eryptosis, such as the sickle-cell trait,
the beta-thalassemia trait, homozygous Hb-C and G6PD deficiency [25], lead to a relatively mild clinical
course of malaria following infection with Plasmodia [79–81]. Moreover, several clinical conditions,
such as iron deficiency [82], and eryptosis stimulating drugs, such as lead [83], chlorpromazine [84] or
NO synthase inhibitors [85], have been shown to favorably influence the clinical course of malaria. It
may be worth considering whether Shikonin similarly decreases parasitemia in malaria. At least in
theory, Shikonin and further proeryptotic substances could be employed for the treatment of malaria.
However, the applicability of Shikonin in the treatment of malaria has not been tested, and its clinical use
may depend on further properties and side effects not studied here.
Excessive stimulation of eryptosis may lead to anemia. Phosphatidylserine at the surface of
eryptotic cells triggers the phagocytosis of the cells and, thus, leads to the rapid removal of the suicidal
erythrocytes from circulating blood [25]. Anemia develops, if the accelerated clearance of erythrocytes
during stimulated eryptosis outcasts the formation of new erythrocytes [25]. Phosphatidylserine
exposing erythrocytes may further interfere with microcirculation [86–91]. The phosphatidylserine
exposing cells adhere to endothelial CXCL16/SR-PSO [87] and may stimulate blood clotting
and thrombosis [86,92,93].
Anemia and compromised microcirculation may, at least in theory, limit the use of Shikonin. The
substance has been proposed to counteract oxidative stress [1], inflammation [1–3], thrombosis [1,2],
infections [1,2] and cancer [2,5–8]. Moreover, Shikonin has been used to support wound healing [1,2,5].
However, the toxicity of Shikonin is still ill-defined [1]. The present observations point to a novel
potentially toxic effect of Shikonin. The local application of the substance, such as in creams and
ointments [1], is not expected to trigger eryptosis. Systemic application of the substance may,
Toxins 2014, 6 1567
however, jeopardize erythrocyte survival and microcirculation, thus potentially limiting the use of the
substance. This may particularly be true in patients suffering from diseases with enhanced eryptosis [25]
or receiving other eryptosis-inducing xenobiotics [25,41–71]. After oral and intramuscular
administration, Shikonin is rapidly absorbed and has a half-life in plasma of 8.8 h and a distribution
volume of 8.91 L/kg [1]. Several approaches have improved the stability and water solubility of
Shikonin, thus providing the basis for the systemic application of the substance [1]. Future studies will
be required to define the impact of Shikonin on erythrocyte survival and microcirculation following
systemic application of Shikonin.
3. Experimental Section
3.1. Erythrocytes, Solutions and Chemicals
Leukocyte-depleted erythrocytes were kindly provided by the blood bank of the University of
Tübingen. The study is approved by the ethics committee of the University of Tübingen (184/2003V).
Erythrocytes were incubated in vitro at a hematocrit of 0.4% in Ringer solution containing (in mM)
125 NaCl, 5 KCl, 1 MgSO4, 32 N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N-2-ethanesulfonic acid (HEPES),
5 glucose, 1 CaCl2; pH 7.4 at 37°C for 48 h. Where indicated, erythrocytes were exposed to Shikonin
(Enzo, Lörrach, Germany) at the indicated concentrations. In Ca2+-free Ringer solution, 1-mM CaCl2
was substituted by 1-mM glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid (EGTA).
3.2. Analysis of Annexin V Binding and Forward Scatter
After incubation under the respective experimental condition, a 50 µL cell suspension was washed
in Ringer solution containing 5-mM CaCl2 and then stained with annexin V FITC (1:200 dilution;
ImmunoTools, Friesoythe, Germany) in this solution at 37 °C for 20 min under protection from light.
In the following, the forward scatter (FSC) of the cells was determined, and the annexin V
fluorescence intensity was measured with an excitation wavelength of 488 nm and an emission
wavelength of 530 nm on a FACS Calibur (BD, Heidelberg, Germany).
3.3. Measurement of Intracellular Ca2+
After incubation, erythrocytes were washed in Ringer solution and then loaded with Fluo-3/AM
(Biotium, Hayward, USA) in Ringer solution containing 5-mM CaCl2 and 5-µM Fluo-3/AM. The cells
were incubated at 37 °C for 30 min and washed twice in Ringer solution containing 5-mM CaCl2. The
Fluo-3/AM-loaded erythrocytes were resuspended in 200 µL of Ringer. Then, Ca2+-dependent
fluorescence intensity was measured with an excitation wavelength of 488 nm and an emission
wavelength of 530 nm on a FACS Calibur.
3.4. Determination of Ceramide Formation
For the determination of ceramide, a monoclonal antibody-based assay was used. After incubation,
cells were stained for 1 hour at 37 °C with 1 µg/mL of anti-ceramide antibody (clone MID 15B4,
Alexis, Grünberg, Germany) in PBS containing 0.1% bovine serum albumin (BSA) at a dilution of 1:5.
Toxins 2014, 6 1568
The samples were washed twice with PBS-BSA. Subsequently, the cells were stained for 30 minutes
with polyclonal fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG and IgM-specific
antibody (Pharmingen, Hamburg, Germany) diluted 1:50 in PBS-BSA. Unbound secondary antibody
was removed by repeated washing with PBS-BSA. The samples were then analyzed by flow
cytometric analysis with an excitation wavelength of 488 nm and an emission wavelength of 530 nm.
3.5. ATP Content
For the determination of the intracellular ATP concentration, erythrocytes were lysed in distilled
water and proteins were precipitated by HClO4 (5%). After centrifugation, an aliquot of the
supernatant (400 µL) was adjusted to pH 7.7 by the addition of saturated KHCO3 solution. All
manipulations were performed at 4 °C to avoid ATP degradation. After dilution of the supernatant, the
ATP concentration of the aliquots was determined utilizing the luciferin-luciferase assay kit (Roche
Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany) and a luminometer (Berthold Biolumat LB9500, Bad Wildbad,
Germany) according to the manufacturer´s protocol.
3.6. Statistics
Data are expressed as arithmetic means ± SEM. As indicated in the figure legends, statistical
analysis was made using ANOVA with Tukey’s test as the post-test and the t-test as appropriate. n
denotes the number of different erythrocyte specimens studied. Since different erythrocyte specimens
used in distinct experiments are differently susceptible to the triggers of eryptosis, the same
erythrocyte specimens have been used for control and experimental conditions.
4. Conclusions
Shikonin stimulates Ca2+ entry and triggers ceramide formation, which, in turn, leads to shrinkage
and phosphatidylserine translocation of erythrocytes. Accordingly, Shikonin triggers eryptosis, the
suicidal erythrocyte death.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the meticulous preparation of the manuscript by Tanja Loch. The study
was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Open Access Publishing Fund of
Tuebingen University.
Authors Contributions
Adrian Lupescu organized and supervised the study. He executed the statistical analysis and
prepared the figures. Rosi Bissinger and Kashif Jilani performed the experiments. Florian Lang
designed the study and drafted the manuscript. All authors carefully read and approved the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Toxins 2014, 6 1569
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