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Makers of Many Things

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TheProjectGutenbergEBookofMakersofManyThings,byEvaMarchTappan

ThiseBookisfortheuseofanyoneanywhereatnocostandwithalmostnorestrictionswhatsoever.Youmaycopyit,giveitawayorre-useitunderthetermsoftheProjectGutenbergLicenseincludedwiththiseBookoronlineatwww.gutenberg.net

Title:MakersofManyThings

Author:EvaMarchTappan

ReleaseDate:April21,2009[EBook#28569]

Language:English

***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKMAKERSOFMANYTHINGS***

ProducedbyC.St.CharleskindtandtheOnlineDistributedProofreadingTeamathttp://www.pgdp.net

THEINDUSTRIALREADERS

BookIII

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MAKERSOFMANYTHINGS

BY

EVAMARCHTAPPAN,Ph.D.

Authorof "England'sStory," "AmericanHeroStories," "OldWorldHeroStories," "Storyof theGreekPeople,""StoryoftheRomanPeople,"etc.Editorof"TheChildren'sHour."

HOUGHTONMIFFLINCOMPANYBOSTONNEWYORKCHICAGO

COPYRIGHT,1916,BYEVAMARCHTAPPAN

ALLRIGHTSRESERVED

TheRiversidePressCAMBRIDGE.MASSACHUSETTSU.S.A

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PREFACE

Thefourbooksofthisserieshavebeenwrittennotmerelytoprovideagreeablereadingmatterfor children, but to give them information.When a child can look at a steel pen not simply as anarticlefurnishedbythecityforhisuse,butratherastheresultofmanyinterestingprocesses,hehasmadeadistinctgrowthinintelligence.Whenhehasbeguntoapprehendthefruitfulnessoftheearth,bothabovegroundandbelow,andthebestwayinwhichitsproductsmaybeutilizedandcarriedtotheplaceswheretheyareneeded,hehasnotonlyacquiredaknowledgeofmanykindsofindustriallifewhichmayhelp him to choosehis life-workwisely fromamong them, but he has learned thedependence of one person upon other persons, of one part of theworld upon other parts, and thenecessityofpeacefulintercourse.Bestofall,hehaslearnedtosee.Wordsworth'sfamiliarlinessayofamanwhoseeyeshadnotbeenopened,—"Aprimrosebyariver'sbrimAyellowprimrosewastohim,Anditwasnothingmore."

Thesebooksareplanned to show thechildren that there is "somethingmore"; tobroaden theirhorizon;torevealtothemwhatinventionhasaccomplishedandwhatwideroomforinventionstillremains;toteachthemthatrewardcomestothemanwhoimproveshisoutputbeyondthetaskofthemoment;andthatsuccessiswaiting,notforhimwhoworksbecausehemust,butforhimwhoworksbecausehemay.

AcknowledgmentisduetotheDiamondMatchCompany,HoodRubberCompany,S.D.WarrenPaper Company, The Riverside Press, E. Faber, C. Howard Hunt Pen Company, Waltham WatchCompany,MarkCrossCompany,I.Prouty&Company,CheneyBrothers,andothers,whoseadviceandcriticismhavebeenofmostvaluableaidinthepreparationofthisvolume.

EvaMarchTappan.

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CONTENTS

I. TheLittleFrictionMatch 1II. AboutIndiaRubber 6III. "Kid"Gloves 16IV. HowRagsandTreesbecomePaper 25V. HowBooksaremade 36VI. FromGooseQuillstoFountainPensandLeadPencils 46VII. TheDishesonOurTables 56VIII. HowtheWheelsofaWatchgoaround 64IX. TheMakingofShoes 73X. IntheCottonMill 82XI. SilkwormsandtheirWork 92

THEINDUSTRIALREADERS

BOOKIII

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MAKERSOFMANYTHINGS

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I

THELITTLEFRICTIONMATCH

Irememberbeingonceuponatimetenmilesfromastoreandonemilefromaneighbor;thefirehadgoneoutinthenight,andthelastmatchfailedtoblaze.Wehadnoflintandsteel.WewereneitherIndians nor Boy Scouts, andwe did not know how tomake a fire by twirling a stick. There wasnothingtodobuttotrudgeoffthroughthesnowtotheneighboramileawayandbegsomematches.Thenwasthetimewhenweappreciatedthelittlematchandthoughtwithprofoundrespectofthemenwhoinventedandperfectedit.

Itisalongwayfromthesafeandreliablematchofto-daybacktothesplintersthatweresoakedinchemicalsandsold togetherwith littlebottlesof sulphuricacid.Thesplinterwasexpected toblazewhendipped into the acid.Sometimes it didblaze, and sometimes it didnot; but itwas reasonablycertainhow theacidwouldbehave, for itwouldalways sputter anddo itsbest to spoil someone'sclothes.Nevertheless, even suchmatches as thesewere regarded as awonderful convenience, andwere sold at five dollars a hundred.With the next kind ofmatch that appeared, a piece of foldedsandpaperwas sold, and the buyerwas told to pinch it hard and draw thematch through the fold.Thesematcheswereamazinglycheap—eighty-fourof themforonly twenty-fivecents!Therehavebeenallsortsofoddmatches.Onekindactuallyhadatinyglassballattheendfullofsulphuricacid.Tolightthis,youhadtopinchtheballandtheacidthatwasthusletoutactedupontheotherchemicalsonthematchandkindledit—orwasexpectedtokindleit,whichwasnotalwaysthesamething.

Makingmatchesisabigbusiness,evenifonehundredofthemaresoldforacent.Itisestimatedthat on an average each person uses sevenmatches every day.To provide somanywould requiresomesevenhundredmillionmatchesadayinthiscountryalone.Itseemslikeaverysimplemattertocutasplinterofwood,dip it intosomechemicals,andpack it intoaboxforsale;and itwouldbesimpleifitwerealldonebyhand,butthematcheswouldalsobeirregularandextremelyexpensive.Thewaytomakeanythingcheapanduniformistomanufactureitbymachinery.

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THEENDLESSMATCHMACHINE

Thematchsplintsareset in tinyholes likepins inapincushion,andthebeltrevolves,passingtheirheadsthroughvariouschemicals.

Thefirststepinmakingmatchesistoselectsomewhite-pineplankofgoodqualityandcutitintoblocksofthepropersize.Thesearefedintoamachinewhichsendssharpdiesthroughthemandthuscutsthematchsplints.Overthesplintcutteracarrierchainiscontinuouslymoving,andintoholes[3]inthischaintheendsofthematchsplintsareforcedattherateoftenortwelvethousandaminute.

Thesplintsremaininthechainforaboutanhour,andduringthishourallsortsofthingshappento them.First, they are dipped into hot paraffinwax, because thiswill light evenmore easily thanwood.Assoonasthewaxisdry,theindustriouschaincarriesthemoveradipping-rollcoveredwithalayerconsistingpartlyofglueandrosin.Currentsofairnowplayuponthesplint,andinabouttenminutestheglueandrosinononeendofithavehardenedintoahardbulb.Itisnotamatchyetbyanymeans,forscratchingitwouldnotmakeitlight.Thephosphoruswhichistomakeitintoamatchisonanotherdipping-roll.Thisissesqui-sulphideofphosphorus.Thecommonyellowphosphorusispoisonous,andworkmen inmatch factorieswhere itwasusedwere indangerof suffering fromaterriblediseaseofthejawbone.Atlengthitwasdiscoveredthatsesqui-sulphideofphosphoruswouldmakejustasgoodmatchesandwasharmless.Ourlargestmatchcompanyheldthepatentgivingthemtheexclusiveright tocertainprocessesbywhichthesesqui-sulphidewasmade;andthispatent theygenerouslygaveuptothepeopleoftheUnitedStates.

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Afterthesplintshavebeendippedintothepreparationofphosphorus,theyarecarriedaboutonthechainvertically,horizontally,ontheoutsideofsomewheelsandtheinsideofothers,andthroughcurrentsof air.Then they are turnedover to a chaindivided into sectionswhich carries them to apacking-machine.Thismachinepacks them intoboxes,acertainnumber ineachbox,and theyaresliddowntogirlswhomaketheboxesintopackages.Theseareputintowoodencontainersandarereadyforsale.

Asinmostmanufactures,theseprocessesmustbecarriedonwithgreatcareandexactness.Thewoodmustbecarefullyselectedandofstraightgrain,thedipping-rollsmustbekeptcoveredwithafreshsupplyofcomposition,anditsdepthmustbealwaysuniform.Eventhecurrentsofairinwhichthesplintsaredriedmustbejustwarmenoughtodrythemandjustmoistenoughnottodrythemtoorapidly.

Theoldsulphurmatchesmadein"cardandblock"cannolongerbeboughtinthiscountry;thesafetymatchhas takentheirplace.Onekindofsafetymatchhas thephosphorusontheboxandtheother ignitingsubstanceson thematch, so that thematchwillnot lightunless it is scratchedon thebox;butthiskindhasneverbeenafavoriteintheUnitedStates.Thesecondkind,theonegenerallyused,maybestruckanywhere,but thesematchesare safebecauseevensteppingupononewillnotlightit;itmustbescratched.

Amatchisalittlething,butnothingelsecandoitswork.

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II

ABOUTINDIARUBBER

Whenyoupickadandelionoramilkweed,awhitesticky"milk"oozesout;andthislooksjustlikethejuiceofthevarioussortsoftrees,shrubs,andvinesfromwhichIndiarubberismade.The"rubberplant"whichhasbeensuchafavoriteinhousesisoneofthese;inIndiaitbecomesalargetreewhichhasthepeculiarhabitofdroppingdownfromitsbranches"bush-ropes,"astheyarecalled.Thesetakerootandbecomestouttrunks.Thereisliterallya"rubberbelt"aroundtheworld,fornearlyallrubbercomesfromthecountrieslyingbetweentheTropicofCancerandtheTropicofCapricorn.MorethanhalfofallthatisbroughttomarketisproducedinthevalleyoftheAmazonRiver;andsomeofthis"Pararubber,"asitiscalled,fromtheseaportwhenceitisshipped,isthebestintheworld.

CourtesyGeneralRubberCo.

TAPPINGRUBBERTREESINSUMATRA

Theplantationonwhich thisphotographwas takenhas45,000acresofplantedrubber trees,andemploys14,000coolies.

The juice or latex flows best about sunrise, and so the nativeswho collect it have to be early

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risers.Theymakelittlecutsinthebarkofthetree,stickonwithabitofclayatinycupunderneatheachcut,andmoveonthroughtheforesttothenexttree.SometimestheymakenarrowV-shapedcutsinthebark,oneaboveanother,butallcomingintoaperpendicularchannelleadingtothefootofthe[7]tree.Laterinthedaythecollectorsemptythecupsintogreatjugsandcarrythemtothecamp.

Whentherubberjuicereachesthecamp,it ispouredintoagreatbowl.Themenbuildafireofsticks,andalwaysaddagreatmanypalmnuts,whichareoilyandmakeagooddealofsmoke.Overthefiretheyplaceanearthenjarshapedlikeacone,butwithouttoporbottom.Nowworkbegins.Itisfortunate that it canbedone in theopenair,and that themancansiton thewindwardside, for thesmokerisesthroughthesmallerholethickandblackandsuffocating.Themantakesastickshapedlikeapaddle,dipsitintothebowl,andholdsitinthesmokeandheat,turningitrapidlyoverandovertill thewater isnearlydriedoutof therubberand it isno longermilky,butdark-colored.Thenhedipsthispaddleinagainandagain.Itgrowsheavierateachdipping,buthekeepsontillhehasfiveorsixpoundsofrubber.Withawetknifehecutsthisoff,makingwhatarecalled"biscuits."Aftermanyyearsofthissortofwork,someonefoundthatbyrestingoneendofapoleinacrotchedstickandholdingtheotherinhishand,amancouldmakeamuchlargerbiscuit.

Foralongtimepeoplethoughtthatrubbertreescouldnotbecultivated.Onedifficultyintakingthemawayfromtheiroriginalhometoplantisthattheseedsaresorichinoilastobecomerancidunusuallysoon.Atlength,however,aconsignmentofthemwaspackedinopenworkbasketsbetweenlayersofdriedwildbananaleavesandslungupondeckinopenworkcratessoastohaveplentyofair.BythismeansseventhousandhealthylittleplantsweresoongrowinginEngland,andfromtherewerecarriedtoCeylonandtheEast.

Ontherubberplantationscollectingjuicefromtreesstandingneartogetherandinopengroundisan altogether differentmatter from cutting a narrow path and forcing one's way through a SouthAmericanorAfricanjungle.Thebarkofthetreesiscutinherringbonefashion.Thecollectorsimplyslicesathinpieceoffthebarkandatoncemilkbeginstooozeout.

OnthegreatplantationsoftheEasttherubberiscollectedchieflybyChineseandIndians.Theyarecarefullytaughtjusthowtotapthetrees.Theybeginfourorfivefeetfromtheground,andworkdown,cuttingthethinnestpossiblesliceateachvisit.Whentheyhavealmostreachedtheground,theybeginontheoppositesideofthetrunk;andbythetimetheyhavereachedthegroundonthatsidethebark on the first side has renewed itself. The latex is strained andmixedwith some acid, usuallyacetic,inordertocoagulateorthickenit.Itisthenrunbetweenrollers,hunginadryinghouse,andgenerallyinasmokehouse.

Therubberarrivesat thefactory inbalesorcases.Firstofall itmustbe thoroughlywashed inordertogetridofsandorbitsofleavesandwood.Amachinecalleda"washer"doesthiswork.Itforcestherubberbetweengroovedrollswhichbreakitup;andasthisisdoneunderasprayofwater,therubber ismuchcleanerwhen itcomesout.Anothermachinemakes it stillcleanerand forms itintolongsheetsabouttwofeetwide.

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Havingthoroughlywettherubber,thenextstepistodryitthoroughly.Theoldwaywastohangitup for severalweeks.Thenewway is to cut it into strips, lay it upon steel trays, andplace it in avacuumdryer.Thisiskepthot,andwhatevermoistureisintherubberiseitherevaporatedorsuckedoutbyavacuumpump.Itnowpassesthroughanothermachinemuchlikethewasher,andisformedinto sheets.The square threads fromwhich elasticwebbing ismademaybe cut from these sheets,thoughsometimesthesheetiswoundonanirondrum,vulcanizedbybeingputintohotwater,lightlyvarnishedwith shellac to stiffen it, thenwoundon awooden cylinder, and cut into square threads.Boilingtheseincausticsodaremovestheshellac.Tomakeroundthreads,softenedrubberisforcedthroughadie.Rubberbands aremadeby cementing a sheet of rubber into a tube and then cuttingthemoffatwhateverwidthmaybedesired.Toyballoonsaremadeofsuchrubber.Twopiecesarestamped out and joined by a particularly noisy machine, and then the balloon is blown out bycompressedair.

Early in thenineteenthcentury itwasknownthatrubberwouldkeepoutwater,but itwasstickyandunmanageable.AfterawhileaScotchchemistnamedMcIntoshsucceededindissolvingrubberinnaphthaandspreadingitbetweentwothicknessesofcloth.Thatiswhyhisnameisgiventoraincoatsmade in this way. Overshoes, too, were made of pure rubber poured over clay lasts which werebrokenaftertherubberhaddried.Theseovershoeswerewaterproof,—therewasnodenyingthat;butthey were heavy and clumsy and shapeless.When they were taken off, they did not stand up, butpromptlyfellover.Inhotweathertheybecamesostickythattheyhadtobekeptinthecellar;andinwinter they became stiff and inelastic, but they neverwore out.How to get rid of the undesirablequalitiesandnotlosethedesirableoneswasthequestion.Itwasfoundoutthatifsulphurwasmixedwithrubber,thedisagreeablestickinesswouldvanish;buttherubberscontinuedtomeltandtofreezeby turnsuntil anAmericannamedCharlesGoodyeardiscovered that if rubbermixedwith sulphurwas exposed to about 300°F. of heat for a number of hours, the rubberwould remain elastic, butwouldnotbestickyandwouldnolongerbeaffectedbyheatorcold.ThisiswhyyouoftenseethenameGoodyearonthebottomofrubbers.

Rubber overshoes were improved at once. As they now are made, the rubber is mixed withsulphur,whiting,litharge,andseveralothersubstances.Anhonestfirmwilladdonlythosematerialsthatwill be of service inmaking the rubbermore easy tomould orwill improve it in someway.Unfortunately, substances are often added, not for this purpose, but to increase the weight andapparentvalueof thearticles.That iswhysome rubberovershoes, for instance,wearout somuchfasterthanothers.

Tomakeanovershoe,therubberisrunthroughrollersandformedintothicksheetsforsolesandthinnersheetsforuppers.Anothermachinecoatswithgumtheclothusedforliningandstays.Rubberandrubber-linedclothgotothecutting-room,whereallthedifferentpartsoftheshoesarecutout.Theyarethenputtogetherandvarnished.Whilestillonthelast,theyaredippedintoatankofvarnishandvulcanized—averysimplematternowthatGoodyearhasshownushow,fortheyaremerelyleftin large, thoroughly heated ovens for eight or ten hours. The rubber shoe or boot is now elastic,strong,waterproof,readyforanytemperature,andsofirmlycementedtogetherwithrubbercementthatitispracticallyallinonepiece.

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During the last few years there have been frequent calls fromvarious charities for old rubberovershoes,piecesofrubberhose,etc.Theseareofconsiderablevalueinrubbermanufacturing.Theyare run through amachinewhich tears them to shreds, then through a sort of fanning-millwhichblowsawaythebitsoflining.Tinypiecesofironmaybepresentfromnailsorrivets;buttheseareeasily removedbymagnets.This"reclaimed" rubber ispowderedandmixedwith thenew,and forsome purposes the mixture answers very well. Imitation rubber has been made by heating oil oflinseed,hemp,maize,etc.,withsulphur;butnosubstituteforrubberisasuccessforalluses.Clickheretoseealargerversionofthisphoto.

CourtesyU.S.TireCo.

HOWRUBBERGOESTHROUGHTHEFACTORY

SplittingParabiscuits,mixing the rubber, rolling therubber fabriconcylinders, andbuildingtiresonthetiremachines.

There aremany little conveniencesmade of rubberwhichwe should greatlymiss, such as thelittle tips put into pencil ends for erasing pencil marks. These are made by filling a mould withrubber.Rubbercorksaremadeinmuchthesamemanner.Tipsforthelegsofchairsaremadeinatwo-piecemouldlargeratthebottomthanatthetop,andwithaplungerthatnearlyfitsthesmallend.Oftenonchairtipsandinthecup-shapederaserthatgoesovertheendsofsomepencilsyoucanseethe"fin,"as theglassworkerscall it,where the twopiecesof themoulddidnotexactly fit.Rubbercannot bemelted and cast inmoulds like iron, but it can be gently heated and softened, and thenpressedintoamould.Rubberstampsaremadeinthisway.Themakingofrubberheelsandsolesisnow a large industry; hose for watering and for vacuum and Westinghouse brakes is made inincreasing quantities. The making of rubber tires for automobiles and carriages is an importantindustry.Theenormousandincreasinguseofelectricityrequiresmuchuseofrubberasaninsulator.

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Rubbergloveswillprotectanelectricalworkmanfromshockandasurgeonfrominfection.Rubberbedsandcushionsfilledwithairareagreatcomfortinillness.Rubberhasgreatandimportantuses;butwe should perhapsmiss quite asmuch the little comforts and convenienceswhich it hasmadepossible.

Rubberandgutta-perchaarenotthesamesubstancebyanymeans.Bothofthemaremadeofthemilkyjuiceoftrees,butofentirelydifferenttrees.Thegutta-perchamilkiscollectedinanabsurdlywastefulmanner,namely,bycuttingdownthetreesandscrapingupthejuice.Whenthisjuicereachesthe market, it is in large reddish lumps which look like cork and smell like cheese. It has to becleaned,passedthroughamachinethattearsitintobits,thenbetweenrollersbeforeitisreadytobemanufactured.Itisnotelasticlikerubber;itmaybestretched;butitwillnotsnapbackagainasrubberdoes.Itisaremarkablygoodnonconductorofelectricity,andthereforeithasbeengenerallyusedtoprotectoceancables,thoughrecentlyrubberhasbeentakingitsplace.Itmakesparticularlyexcellentcasts, for when it is warm it is not sticky, but softens so perfectly that it will show the tiniestindentation of amould. It is the best kind of splint for a broken bone. If a boy breaks his arm, asurgeoncanputapieceofgutta-perchaintohotwater,setthebone,bindonthesoftenedgutta-perchaforasplint,andinafewminutesitwillbemouldedtotheexactshapeofthearm,butsostiffastokeeptheboneinplace.Anothergoodservicewhichgutta-percharenderstothephysicianresultsfromitswillingnesstodissolveinchloroform.Iftheskinistornoff,leavingarawsurface,thisdissolvedgutta-perchacanbepouredoverit,andsoonitisprotectedbyanartificialskinwhichkeepstheairfromtherawfleshandgivestherealskinanopportunitytogrowagain.

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III

"KID"GLOVES

Thereisanoldproverbwhichsays,"Foragoodglove,Spainmustdresstheleather,Francemustcutit,andEnglandmustsewit."Manypairsofmostexcellentgloveshaveneverseenanyoneofthesecountries,butthemoraloftheproverbremains,namely,thatittakesconsiderableworkandcaretomakeareallygoodglove.

ThefirstglovesmadeintheUnitedStateswereofthickbuckskin,fortherewasmuchheavyworktobedoneintheforestandontheland.TheskinwastannedinIndianfashion,byrubbingintothefleshside thebrainsof thedeer—thoughhow the Indiansever thoughtofusing them isamystery.Later,thewhitefolktriedtotanwithpigs'brains;buthowevervaluablethebrainsofapigmaybetohimself,theydonotcontainthepropertiesofsodaashwhichmadethoseofthedeerusefulforthispurpose.

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CUTTINGHIDESINTOGLOVES

Thehidesarekept inracks,andbeforecuttingarestretchedbyhand.Thenthesteeldiecutsouttheshapeoftheglove.Noticethecuriouslyshapedcutforthethumb.

Yearsago,whenamansetouttomanufacturegloves,usuallyonlyafewdozenpairs,hecutoutapatternfromashingleorapieceofpasteboard,laidituponaskin,markedaroundit,andcutitoutwith shears.Pencilswerenotcommon,but theglovemakerwas fullyequal tomakinghisown.Hemeltedsomelead,ranitintoacrackinthekitchenfloor—andcrackswereplentiful—andthenused[17]this"plummet,"asitwascalled,foramarker.Aftercuttingthelargepieceforthefrontandbackoftheglove,hecutoutfromthescrapsremainingthe"fourchettes,"orforks;thatis,thenarrowstripsthatmakethesidesofthefingers.Smallerscrapswereputintowelttheseams;andallthiswentoffingreatbundlestofarmhousestobesewedbythefarmers'wivesanddaughtersfortheearningofpin-money.Iftheglovesweretobethemostgenteelmembersofthebuckskinrace,therewasaddedtothebundle a skein of silk,withwhich a slender vinewas to beworked on the back of the hand. Thesewingwasdonewithaneedlethree-sidedatthepoint,andastoutwaxedthreadwasused.Aneedleofthis sort went in more easily than a round one, but even then it was rather wearisome to push itthrough three thicknesses of stout buckskin.Moreover, if the sewer happened to take hold of theneedletoonearthepoint,thesharpedgeswerelikelytomakelittlecutsinherfingers.

Afterawhilesewingmachineswereinvented,andfactorieswerebuilt,andnowinasinglecountyof the State of New York many thousand people are at work making various kinds of leathercoverings for their own hands and those of other folk. Better methods of tanning have beendiscovered,andmanysortsofleatherarenowused,especiallyfortheheaviergloves.Deerarenotsocommonastheyusedtobe,anda"buckskin"gloveisquitelikelytohavebeenmadeofthehideofacoworahorse."Kid"generallycomesfromthebodyofasheepinsteadofthatofayounggoat.OurbestrealkidskincomesfromacertainpartofFrance,wheretheclimateseemstobejustsuitedtotheyoungkids,thereisplentyofthefoodthattheylike,and,whatisfullyasimportant,theyreceivethebestofcare.Itissaidthattoproducetheveryfinestkidskin,thekidsarefedonnothingbutmilk,aretreatedwiththeutmostgentleness,andarekeptincoopsorpenscarefullymadesothatthereshallbenothingtoscratchtheirtenderskins.

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Glovemakersarealwaysonthelookoutfornewkindsofmaterial,andwhen,notmanyyearsago,therecamefromArabiawithashipmentofMochacoffeetwobalesofanunknownsortofskin,theywereeagertotryit.Ittannedwellandmadeaglovethathasbeenafavoritefromthefirst.Theskinwas found tocome froma sheep living inArabia,Abyssinia, andnear theheadwatersof the riverNile.ItwasnamedMochafromthecoffeewithwhichitcame,andMochaithasbeeneversince.TheSuèdeglovehas a surfacemuch like that of theMocha. Its namecame from"Swede," because theSwedeswerethefirsttousetheskinwiththeoutsidein.

Mostofour thinner "kid"gloves aremadeof lambskin;butdressing the skins isnowdone soskillfullyinthiscountrythat"homemade"glovesareinmanyrespectsfullyasgoodastheimported;indeed,somejudgesdeclarethatinshapeandstitchingcertaingradesarebetter.Whensheepskinsandlambskinscometomarketfromadistance,theyaresalted.Theyhavetobesoakedinwater,allbitsoffleshscrapedoff,andthehairremoved,generallybytheuseoflime.Afteranotherwashing,theyareputintoalumandsaltforafewminutes;andafterwashingthisoff,theyaredried,stretched,andthenarereadyforthesoftening.Nothinghasbeenfoundthatwillsoftentheskinssoperfectlyasamixtureofflour,salt,andtheyolkofeggs—"custard,"astheworkmencallit.Thecustardandtheskinsaretumbled together into a great iron drumwhich revolves till the custard has been absorbed and theskinsaresoftandyielding.Nowtheyarestretchedonewayandanother,andwetsothoroughlythattheyloseallthealumandsaltthatmaybeleftandalsomuchofthecustard.

Nowcomesdyeing.Theskinislaiduponatable,smoothsideup,andbrushedoverseveraltimeswiththecoloringmatter;verylightly,however,forifthecoloringgoesthroughtheleather,thehandsofthecustomersmaybestainedandtheywillbuynomoreglovesofthatmake.Theskinsarenowmoistenedandrolledandleftforseveralweekstoseason.Whentheyareunrolled,thewholeskinissoftandpliable.Itisthick,however,andnoonewhoisnotanexpertcanthinitproperly.Theprocessiscalled"mooning"becausetheknifeusedisshapedlikeacrescentmoon.Itisflat,itscenteriscutout,andtheouteredgeissharpened.Overtheinnercurveisahandle.Theskinishungonapole,andtheexpertworkmandrawsthemooningknifedown[21]ituntilanybitofdriedfleshremaininghasbeenremoved,andtheskinisofthesamethickness,or,rather,thinnessthroughout.

Allthisslow,carefulworkisneededtopreparetheskinforcuttingouttheglove;andnowitgoesto the cutter.There isno longer anycuttingoutofgloveswith shears andpasteboardpatterns,butthere is aquickwayanda slowwaynevertheless.Themanwhocuts in thequickway, the "block-cutter,"asheiscalled,spreadsouttheskinonabigblockmadebyboltingtogetherplanksofwoodwiththegrainrunningupanddown.Heplacesadieintheshapeofthegloveupontheleather,givesoneblowwith aheavymaul, and theglove is cut out.This answersverywell for the cheaper andcoarsergloves,buttocutfineglovesisquiteadifferentmatter.Thisneedsskill,anditissaidthatnomancandogood"table-cutting"whohasnothadat least threeyears'experience;andeven thenhemaynotbeabletodoreallyfirst-classwork.Hedampenstheskin,stretchesitfirstonewayandthentheother,andexamines it closely for flawsor scratchesorweakplaces.Hemustputonhisdie insuchawayas toget twopairsofordinaryglovesoronepairof"elbowgloves"outof theskin ifpossible,andyethemustavoidthepoorplacesifthereareany.Noglovemanufacturercanaffordtoemployanunskilledorcarelesscutter,forhewillwastemuchmorethanhiswagesamountto.There

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usedtobeonediefortherighthandandanotherfortheleft,anditwassometimebeforeitoccurredtoanyonethatthesamediewouldcutbothglovesifonlytheskinwasturnedover.

CLOSINGTHEGLOVE

Whensewingtimecomes,theglovegoesfromhandtohanddowntheworkroom,eachstitcherdoingacertainseamorseams.

WHERETHEGLOVEGETSITSSHAPE

Afterinspectiontheglovegoestoarowofmenwhofititonasteam-heatedbrasshand,givingititsfinalshapeandfinish.

Nowcomes the sewing.Count the pieces in a glove, and thiswill give some idea of theworkneeded to sew them together.Notice that the fourchettes are sewed togetheron thewrong side, theotherseamsontherightside,andthatthetinybitsoffacingandliningarehemmeddownbyhand.Noticethat twoof thefingershaveonlyonefourchette,while theothershavetwofourchetteseach.

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Noticehowneatlytheendsof thefingersarefinished,withneveranendofthreadleftontherightside.Theembroiderymustbeinexactlytherightplace,anditmustbefastenedfirmlyatbothends.Thisembroideryisnotameaninglessfashion,forthelinesmakethehandlookmuchmoreslenderandofabettershape.Sewinginthethumbsneedsspecialcareandskill.Theremustbenopuckering,andtheseammustnotbesotightlydrawnastoleavearedlineonthehandwhenthegloveistakenoff.Noonepersondoes all the sewingon a glove; itmust pass through a number of hands, eachdoingalittle.Evenafterallthecarethatisgivenit,agloveisashapelessthingwhenitcomesfromthesewingmachines.Itisnowcarriedtoaroomwherestandsalongtablewitharatherstartlingrowofbrasshandsofdifferentsizesstretchingupfromit.Theseareheated,theglovesaredrawnuponthem,andinamomenttheyhaveshapeandfinish,andarereadytobeinspectedandsold.

Thegloveissocloselyassociatedwiththehandandwiththepersontowhomthehandbelongsthat inolden times itwas lookeduponasrepresentinghim.When, for instance,a faircouldnotbeopenedwithoutthepresenceofsomenoble,itwasenoughifhesenthisglovetorepresenthim.Tothrowdownone'sglovebeforeamanwastochallengehimtoacombat.AtthecoronationofQueenElizabeth,asofmanyothersovereignsofEngland,the"Queen'schampion,"aknightinfullarmor,rodeintothegreathallandthrewdownhisglove,crying,"IftherebeanymannerofmanthatwillsayandmaintainthatoursovereignLady,QueenElizabeth,isnottherightfulandundoubtedinheritrixtotheimperialcrownofthisrealmofEngland,Isayheliethlikeafalsetraitor,andthereforeIcasthimmygage."

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IV

HOWRAGSANDTREESBECOMEPAPER

Itwasagreatdayforthechildrenonthefarmwhenthetinpeddlercamearound.Hehadahighredwagon,fairlybristlingwithbrooms,mop-handles,washtubs,water-pails,andbrushes.Whenheopenedhismysteriousdrawersandcaverns,thesunshineflashedupontinpans,dippers,dustpans,andbasins.Putawayrathermorechoicelywerewooden-handledknives, two-tined forks,anddishesofglassandchina;andsometimeslittletincupspaintedredorblueandcharminglygilded,orcooky-cutters in the shape of dogs and horses. All these rare and delightful articles he was willing toexchange for rags. Is it anywonder that the thriftyhousewife savedher ragswith theutmost care,keepingonebagforwhiteclippingsandoneforcolored?

Thesepeddlerswere thegreatdependenceof thepapermills, for thefinestpaper ismadefromlinen and cotton rags.When the rags reach the factory, they are carefully sorted.All day long thesorterssitbeforetableswhosetopsarecoveredwithcoarsewirescreens,andfrommassesofragstheypickoutbuttons,hooksandeyes,pins,bitsofrubber,andanythingelsethatcannotpossiblybemadeintopaper.Atthesametimetheysorttheragscarefullyintodifferentgrades,andwithaknifeshapedlikeasmallsicklefasteneduprighttothetabletheycutthemintosmallpieces.Someof thedustfallsthroughthescreen;buttoremovetherestofit,thecut-upragsaretossedaboutinawiredrum.Sometimestheyaresodustythatwhentheycomeoutofthedrumtheyweighonlyninetenthsasmuchaswhentheygoin.Thedustisoutofthem,butnotthedirt.Toremovethat,theyarenowputintogreatboilersfullofsteam;andheretheycookandturnover,andturnoverandcookforhours.Limeandsometimessodaareputwiththemtocleansethemandremovethecoloringmaterial;butwhentheyarepouredout,theylookanythingbutclean,fortheyareofaparticularlydirtybrown;andthewaterthatisdrainedawayfromthemlooksevenmoreuninteresting.Ofcoursethenextstepistowashthisdirtybrownmass;andforatleastfourhoursitisscrubbedinamachinewhichbeatsitandrollsitandchopsitandtumblesitaboutuntilthewonderisthatanythingisleftofit.Allthiswhile,thewaterhasbeenflowing through it,coming incleanandgoingoutdirty;andat length themassbecomessolightagraythatmakingwhitepaperofitdoesnotseemquitehopeless.Itisnowbleachedwithchlorideoflime,andwashedtillitisofacreamywhitecolorandfreefromthelime,andthenbeatenagain.Ifyoufoldapieceofcheappaperandtearitatthefold,itwillteareasily;butifyoudothesamethingwithpapermadeoflinenandcotton,youwillfinditdecidedlytough.Moreover,ifyoulookcloselyatthetornedgeofthelatter,youwillseethefibersclearly.Itisbecauseofthebeatingthatthefibersaresomattedtogetherandthusmakethepapertough.Whilethepulpisinthebeater,themanufacturerputsinthecoloringmatter,ifhewishesittobetintedblueorroseorlavenderoranyothercolor.Noonewouldguessthatthiswhiteorcreamyorazureliquidhadeverbeenthedirtyrags that came into themill andwere sorted on thewire tables.Besides the coloring, a "filler" isusuallyaddedatthistime,suchaskaolin,thefineclayofwhichchinaismade.Thisfillstheporesandgivesasmoothersurfacetothefinishedpaper—agoodthingiftoomuchisnotputin.Alittlesizingisalsoadded,madeof rosin.Savefor thissizing, inkwouldsink intoeven thefinishedpaperas itdoesintoblottingpaper.Afterthis,morewaterisaddedtothepulpanditisrunintotanks.

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Now the preparation is completed, and the pulp is pumped to large and complicatedmachineswhichundertaketomakeitintopaper.Itfirstflowsthroughscreenswhichareshakenallthewhileasif theywere trembling.Thisshaking lets the liquidand the finer fibers through,butholdsback thelittlelumps,ifanyremainafterallthebeatingandstrainingandcuttingthatithashad.Thepulpflowsuponanendlesswirescreen.Rubberstrapsatthesideskeepitin,buttheextrawaterdropsthroughthemeshes.Thepulpisflowingonward,andsothetinyfiberswouldnaturallystraightenoutandflowwithit,likesticksinariver;butthewirescreeniskeptshakingsideways,andthishelpsthefiberstointerlace,andthepaperbecomesnearlyasstrongonewayastheother.

Ifyouholdasheetofpaperuptothelight,itwillshowplainlywhatisnextdonetoit.Sometimesyoucanseethatitismarkedbylightparallellinesrunningacrossitclosetogether,andcrossedbyother and stouter lines an inch or two apart. Sometimes the name of the paper or that of themanufacturer ismarked in thesamewayby letters lighter than the restof thesheet.Sometimes thepaper isplainwithnomarkingswhatever.Thisdifference ismadebywhat iscalled the"dandy,"acylindercoveredwithwire.Forthefirst,or"laid"paper,thesmallwiresrunthelengthofthecylinderandthestouteronesaroundit.Whereverthewiresare,thepaperisalittlethinner.Insomepapersthisthinnesscanbeseenandfelt.Forthesecondkindofpaperthedesign,or"watermark,"isformedbywiresalittlethickerthantherestofthecovering.Forthethird,or"wove"paper,thedandyiscoveredwithplainwovenwirelikethatofthewirecloth;sotherearenomarkingsatall.Thisworkcanbeeasilydonebecauseatthispointthepaperissomoist.

The paper is now not in sheets, but in a longweb like a web of cloth. It passes between felt-covered rollers to press out all the water possible, then over steam-heated cylinders to be dried,finallygoingbetweencoldironrollerstobemadesmooth,andiswoundonareel,trimmedandcutinto sheets ofwhatever size is desired.The finest note papers are not finished in thisway, but arepartlydried,passedthroughavatofthinglue,anyexcessbeingsqueezedoffbyrollers,thencutintosheets,andhunguptodrythoroughlyattheirleisure.

Papermadeofproperlypreparedlinenandcottonisbyfar thebest,but therearesomanynewusesforpaperthattherearenotragsenoughintheworldtomakenearlywhatisneeded.Therearescoresofnewspapersandmagazineswherethereusedtobeone;andasforpaperbagsandcartonsandboxes, there isno limit to theirnumberandvariety.Asinglemanufacturerofpensandpencilscallsforfourthousanddifferentsortsandsizesofboxes.School-children'suseofpaperinsteadofslates, the fashionofwrappingChristmasgifts inwhite tissue, and the inventionof the low-pricedcameras have increased enormously the amount of paper called for. In the attempt to supply thedemandallsortsofmaterialshavebeenused,suchashemp,oldrope,peat,thestemsofflax,straw,theSpanishandAfricanespartograss,andespeciallywood;butmuchmorepaperismadeofwoodthanof all the rest together.Poplar, gum, and chestnut trees, and especially those treeswhichbearcones, suchas the spruce, fir,balsam,andpineareused.Thereare twomethodsofmanufacturingwoodpulp;themechanical,bygrindingupthewood,andthechemical,bytreatingitchemically.Bythemechanicalmethodthewoodispressedagainstalargegrindstonewhichrevolvesatahighspeed.As fastas thewood isgroundoff, it iswashedawaybyacurrentofwater, and strained throughashaking sieve and a revolving screenwhich drives out part of thewater by centrifugal force. In agreat vat of pulp a drum covered with wire cloth revolves, and on it a thin sheet of pulp settles.Felting, pressed against this sheet, carries it onward through rolls.The sheets are pressedbetween

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coarsesacking.Suchpaperisverypoorstuff.Initsmanufacturethefiberofthewoodissogroundupthatithaslittlestrength.Itisusedforcardboard,cartons,andpacking-papers.Unfortunately,itisalsousedfornewspapers;andwhileitisagoodthingforsomeofthemtodroptopieces,itisagreatlossnottohavetheotherspermanent.Whenwewishtoknowwhatpeoplethoughtaboutanyeventfiftyyearsago,wecanlookbacktothepapersofthattime;butwhenpeoplefiftyyearsfromnowwishtolearnwhatwethought,manyofthenewspaperswillhavefallentopieceslongbeforethattime.

CourtesyS.D.WarrenCo.

WHERERAGSBECOMEPAPER

Thevatwheretheragscookandturnover,andthebigroomwheretheweboffinishedpaperispassedthroughrollersandcutintoaneatpileoftrimmedsheets.

There is, however, a method called the "sulphite process," used principally in treating theconiferouswoods,bywhichamuchbetterpapercanbemade.Inallplantsthereisasubstancecalled

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"cellulose."This iswhat gives strength to their stems.Thewood is chipped and put into digesterslarge enough to hold twenty tons, and is steam-cooked together with bisulphite ofmagnesium orcalciumforsevenoreighthours.Anothermethodusedforcookingsuchwoodsaspoplarandgum,istoboilthewoodincausticsoda,whichdestroyseverythingexceptthecellulose.Woodpaperofonekindoranother [31] isusedforalldailypapersandformostbooks.Whether thebestwoodpaperwilllastaslongasthebestragpaper,timeonlycantell.

TheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatestestspaperinseveralwaysbeforebuyingit.First,asinglesheetisweighed;thenareamisputonthescalestoseeifitweighsfourhundredandeightytimesasmuch. This shows whether the paper runs evenly in weight. Many sheets are folded together andmeasured to see if the thickness is regular.To test its strength, a sheet is clampedover aholeonesquareinchinarea,andliquidispressedagainstitfrombelowtoseehowmuchitwillstandbeforebursting.Stripsof thepaperarepulled inamachine to test itsbreaking strength.Asheet is foldedoverandoveragaintoseewhetherholeswillappearatthecornersofthefolds.Itisexaminedunderthemicroscopetoseeofwhatkindoffibers it ismadeandhowmuchloadinghasbeenusedin itsmanufacture.Totestblottingpaper,stripsarealsoputintowatertoseehowhighthewaterwillriseonthem.

Besideswritingandwrappingpapersandthevariouskindsofboard,therearemanysortswhichareusedforspecialpurposes.Indiapaper,forinstance,islight,smooth,andstrong,soopaquethatprintingwillnotshowthroughit,andsolastingthatifitiscrumpled,itcanbeironedoutandbeasgoodasnew.Thisisusedforbooksthatareexpectedtohavehardwearbutmustbeoflightweight.There are tissue papers, crêpe papers for napkins, and tarred paper tomake roofs and even boatswater-tight.Iftarisbrushedon,itmaymakebubbleswhichwillbreakafterwardsandletwaterin;butiftarismadeapartofthepaperitself,itlasts.Papercaneasilybewaxedorparaffined,andwillthenkeepoutairandmoistureforsometime.Betterstill, itcanbetreatedwithoilandwillthenmakearaincoatthatwillstandayear'swear,oreven,ifputonabambooframe,makeaverygoodhouse,astheJapanesefoundoutlongago.Papercoatedwithpowderedgumandtinisusedforpackingteaandcoffee. Transfer or carbon papers so much used in making several copies of an article on thetypewriteraremadebycoatingpaperwithstarch,flour,gum,andcoloringmatter.Papercanbeusedfor shoes andhats, ties, collars, andeven for "rubbers." It hasbeen successfullyused for sails forlightvessels,andisexcellentmadeintolightgarmentsforhospitalusebecauseitissocheapthatitcanbeburnedafterwearing.Woodpulpcanberunthroughfinetubesintowaterandmadesopliablethatitcanbetwistedintocordorspunandwoveninto"silk."Notonlywaterbutalsofirecanbekeptoutbypaperifitistreatedwiththepropersubstances.Anobjectcanbecoveredwithapasteofwoodpulp,silica,andhemp;andwhenthisisdry,acoatofwater-glasswillaffordconsiderableprotection.Therehasbeensomedegreeofsuccessinmakingtransparentpaperfilmsformovingpictures;andifthesearecoatedwithwater-glass,theywillnotburn.Papercanbesotreatedthatitwilleitherconductelectricityorbecomeanonconductor,asmaybedesired.InGermany,a"sandwichpaper"hasbeenmadebypressingtogetherfourlayers—felt,pulp,cotton,pulp—whichischeapandstrongandusefulformanypurposes.

Whenwecometopapiermaché,thereisnoendtothekindsofarticlesthataremadeofit.Thepapiermaché,orpaperpulped,ismadebykneadingoldnewspapersorwrappingpaperswithwarmwaterintoapulp.Clayandcoloringareaddedandsomethingofthenatureofglue;anditisthenput

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intoamould.Sometimes tomake it stronger for largemouldings,bitsofcanvasorevenwirearealso used. The best papier maché is made of pure wood cellulose. The beautiful boxes and trayscoveredwithlacquerwhichtheJapaneseandChinesemakeareformedofthis;butithasmanymuchhumblerusesthanthese.Paperscrewsareemployedinornamentalwoodwork,andifaholeisbegunfor such a screw, it will twist its way into soft wood as well as steel would do. Barrels of paperreinforcedwithwirearecommon.Gearwheelsandbeltpulleysaremadeofpapiermaché,andeventhewheelsofrailroadcoaches;atleastthebodyofthewheelsismadeofit,althoughthetire,hub,andaxleareofcast-steel.Circularsawsofpulpareinusewhichcutthinslicesofveneersosmoothlythatthey can be used without planing. Papier maché is used for water pipes, the bodies of carriages,hencoops, and garages. Indeed, it is quite possible to build a house, shingle it, decorate it withelaboratemouldingsandcornices, finish itwithpanels,wainscoting, imitation tiling,and furnish itwithlight,comfortablefurniturecoveredwithimitationleather,silk,orcloth,andspreadonitsfloorssoft,thickcarpetsorrugswoveninbeautifuldesigns—andallmadeofwoodpulp.Eventhewindowpanescouldbemadeofpulp;andif theywerenotperfectlytransparent, theywouldat least let inasoft,agreeablelight,andtheywouldnotbreak.Pails,washtubs,bathtubs,andevendishesofpapercanbeeasilyfound.Therearenotonlythepapercupsprovidedonrailroadtrainsandthecheappicnicplatesandsaucers,butsomethatarereallypretty.Icecreamissometimesservedinpaperdishesandeaten with paper spoons. Milk bottles are successfully made of paper, with a long strip of sometransparent material running up and down the side to show how much—or how little—cream iswithin.Napkinsandtableclothsmadeofpaperthreadwoveninto"cloth"arecheaperthanlinenandcanbewashedaseasily.Papertowelsanddishclothsarealreadycommon;butwhenpapershallfullycometoitsown,itisquitepossiblethattherewillbelittlewashingofdishes.Theycanbeasprettyasanyonecouldwish,butsocheapthataftereachmealtheycanbedroppedintothefire.Indeed,therearefewthingsinahouse,exceptastove,thatcannotbemadeofsomeformofpaper,—andperhapsthattoowillbesomeday.

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V

HOWBOOKSAREMADE

Thefirststepinmakingreadytoprintamanuscriptistofindouthowmanywordsthereareinit,whatkindoftypetouse,howmuch"leading"orspacebetweenthelinesthereshallbe,andwhatshallbe the size of the page. In deciding these questions, considerable thinking has to be done. If themanuscriptisashortstorybyapopularauthor,itmaybeprintedwithwidemarginsandwideleadinginorder tomake a bookof fair size. If it is a lengthymanuscriptwhichwill be likely to sell at amoderatebutnotahighprice,itisbesttouseonlyasmuchleadingasisnecessarytomakethelinestandoutclearly,andtoprintwithamarginnotsowideastoincreasetheexpenseofthebook.Theprinterprintsasampleofthepagedecidedupon,anydesiredchangesaremade,andthenthemakingofthebookbegins.

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CourtesyTheRiversidePress.

WHERETHISBOOKWASSETUP

Themonotypegirlwrotethesewordsonherkeyboard,wheretheymadetinyholesinarollofpaper.Therollwenttothecasting-roomwhereitguidedamachinetomakethetypemuchasaperforatedmusic-rollguidesapianotoplayatune.

The type is kept in a case at which the compositor stands. This case is divided into shallowcompartments,eachcompartmentcontainingagreatmanye'sorm'sasthecasemaybe.The"uppercase"containscapitals;the"lowercase,"smallletters.Thoseletterswhichareusedmostoftenareputwherethecompositorcanreachthemmostreadily.Hestandsbeforehiscasewitha"composing[37]stick"inhishand.This"stick"isalittleironframewithaslideattheside,sothatthelinecanbemadeofanylengthdesired.Theworkmansoonlearnswhereeachletteris,andevenanapprenticecansetthetypeinhisstickreasonablyrapidly.Ononesideofeverypieceoftypethereisagroove,sothathecantellbytouchwhetheritisrightsideupornot.Hemustlookoutespeciallytomakehisright-handmarginsregular.Youwillnoticeinbooksthatthelinesareallofthesamelength,althoughtheydonotcontainthesamenumberofletters.Thecompositorbringsthisaboutbyarranginghiswordsandspacesskillfully.Thespacesmustbeasnearlyaspossibleofthesamelength,andyetthelinemustbeproperlyfilled.Ifalineistoofull,hecansometimesplacethelastsyllableonthefollowingline;ifitisnotfullenough,hecanborrowasyllable,andhecanatleastdividehisspacesoevenlythatthelinewillnotlookasifitwerebrokenintwo.

Notmanyyearsagoalltypewassetinthismanner;butseveralmachineshavenowbeeninventedwhichwilldothiswork.Inoneofthebestofthemtheoperatorsitsbeforeakeyboardmuchlikethatofatypewriter.Whenhepresseskeya,forinstance,amouldormatrixoftheletteraissetfreefromatubeofa's,andslidesdowntoitsplaceinthestick.Attheendoftheline,thematricesformingitarecarriedinfrontofaslotwheremeltedtypemetalfromareservoirmeetsthem.Thusacastismadeofthematrices,andfromthiscasttheprintingisdone.Thismachineiscalledalinotypebecauseitcastsawholelineoftypeatatime.

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Mostbookworkisdoneonthemonotypemachine.Whenamanuscriptgoestothepresstobesetupinthisway,thecopyisgiventothekeyboardoperatorwhosetsituponamachinewhichlooksmuchlikeatypewriter.Insteadofwritingletters,however,themachinepunchestinyholesinastripofpaperwhichiswoundonaroll.Whentherollisfullitgoestothecastingroomwhereitisputonanothermachinecontaininghottypemetalandbronzematricesfromwhichthelettersofthewordsaretobecast.Theholesinthepaperguidethemachinetomakethetypemuchasaperforatedmusicrollguidesapianotoplayatune.Thereasonwhythemachineiscalledamonotypeisthatthelettersaremadeoneatatime,andmonosistheGreekwordforone.

Bythelinotypeandmonotypemachinestypecanbesetina"galley,"anarrowtrayabouttwofeetlong,withledgesonthreesides.Whenaconvenientnumberofthesegalleyshavebeenfilled, longslipsareprintedfromthemcalled"galleyproofs."Thesehavewidemargins,buttheprintisofthewidththatthepageofthebookwillbe.Theyarereadbytheproof-readers,andallsuchmistakesastheslippinginofawrongletter,orabrokentype,therepetitionofaword,ortheomissionofspacebetweenwordsarecorrected.Thentheproofgoestotheauthor,whomakesanychangesinhispartofthe work which seem to him desirable; and it is also read by some member of the editorialdepartment. If there aremany changes to bemade, another proof is usually taken and sent to theauthor.

Thereasonfor thisextremecarefulness is that itcostsmuchless tomakechanges in thegalleyproofthaninthe"pageproof."Thislatterismadebydividingthegalleyintopages,leavingspaceforthebeginningsofchaptersandforpictures,ifanyaretoappearontheprintedpages,andsettingupthenumbersof thepagesandtheir runningtitles.Pageproofalsogoes toproof-readersandto theauthor. Corrections on page proof are more expensive than on galley proof because adding orstrikingoutevenafewwordsmaymakeitnecessarytochangethearrangementoneverypagetotheendofthechapter.

Years ago all books were printed directly from the type; and some are still printed so. Afterprinting,theletterswerereturnedtotheircompartments.Ifasecondeditionwascalledfor,thetypehad to be set again.Now, however, books are generally printed not from type, but from a coppermodelofthetype.Tomakethis,animpressionofthepageoftypeismadeinwaxandcoveredwithgraphite,whichwillconductelectricity.Thesemouldsarehunginabathofcoppersulphate,wheretherearealsolargeplatesofcopper.Acurrentofelectricity ispassedthroughit,andwherever thegraphiteis,ashellofcopperisdeposited,whichisexactlylikethefaceofthetype.Thisshellisverythin,butitismadestrongbyaddingaheavybackofmeltedmetal.Fromtheseplatesthebooksareprinted.A correctionmade in the plate ismore expensive than it would have been ifmade in thegalleyorinthepage,becausesawingoutawordoralineisslow,delicatework;andevenifoneofthe same length is substituted, the types spelling it have to be set up, a small new plate cast, andsolderedin.

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CourtesyTheRiversidePress.

WHERETHISBOOKWASPRINTED

Thegirlsarefeedingbigsheetsofpaperintothepresses,thirty-twopagesbeingprintedatonetime.Thepaperisfedintomanymodernpressesbymeansofamachineattachedtothepress.Thepressmenseethattheprintingisdoneproperly.

Printingonepageatatimewouldbealtogethertooslow;thereforetheplatesarearrangedinsuchawaythatsixteen,thirty-two,orsometimessixty-fourpagescanbeprintedononesideofthepaper,andthesamenumberontheotherside.Everypagemustcomeinitsproperplacewhenthesheetisfoldedforbinding.Trytoarrangeasheetofevensixteenpages,eightoneachside,sothatwhenitisfoldedeverypagewillbeintherightplacewithitsprintingrightsideup,andyouwillfindthatitisnotveryeasyuntilyouhavehadconsiderableexperience.Ifthesheetisfoldedintofourleaves,thebook is called a "quarto," or "4to"; if into eight, it is an "octavo," or "8vo"; if into twelve, a"duodecimo,"or"12mo."Booksaresometimesadvertised in these terms;but theyarenotdefinite,becausethesheetsofthedifferentvarietiesofpapervaryinsize.Oflateyears,publishershaveoftengiventhelengthandwidthoftheirbooksininches.

After the sheets come from the press, they are folded to page size. Sometimes this is done byhand,butmoreoftenbya foldingmachine throughwhich thesheetofpaper travels,meetingbluntkniveswhichcreaseitandfoldit.Ifyoulookatthetopofabookyouwillseethattheleavesareputtogether in groups or "signatures." These signatures usually contain eight, sixteen, or thirty-twopages. If the paper is very thick, notmore than eight leaveswill be in a signature; if of ordinarythickness,sixteenaregenerallyused.Thesignaturesarepiledupinorder,anda"gatherer"collectsonefromeachpileforeverybook.

The book is now gathered and "smashed," or pressed enough to make it solid and firm forbinding.Nextthesignaturesaresewedandthebookistrimmedsotheedgeswillbeeven.Iftheedgesare tobegilded, thebook isput inagildingpressandaskillfulworkmancovers theedgeswitha

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sizingmadeofthewhiteofeggs.Goldleafisthenlaiduponthemandtheyareburnishedwithtoolsheadedwithagateandbloodstoneorinstrumentsofvarioussortsuntiltheyarebright.Sometimestheedgesare"marbled,"andthisisaninterestingprocesstowatch.Onthesurfaceofavatofthinsizingthemarblerdropsalittleofmanycolorsofpaint.Thenhedrawsacomblightlyacrossthesurface,makingall sortsofodd figures,no twoalike.Thebook isheld tight and theedgesareallowed totouchthesizing.Alltheseoddfiguresarenowtransferredtotheedgesoftheleavesandwillstandavastamountofhardusebeforetheywillwearoff.

Thusfarthebookisflatattheedgesoftheleavesandattheback.Booksaresometimesboundinthisway,butthebacksareusuallyroundedintoanoutwardcurve,andthefrontsintoaninwardcurve.Thisisdonebyamachine.Ateachendoftheoutwardcurveadeepgrooveispressedtoreceivethecover.Tomakethecoversofacloth-boundbook,twopiecesofpasteboardoftherightsizearecutandlaiduponapieceofclothcoatedwithglue.Theedgesoftheclothareturnedoverandpresseddown,asyoucanoftenseeifthepaperliningofthecoverisnottooheavy.Thecoverneedsnowonlyits decorations to be complete. A die is made for these, and the lettering and ornamentation arestampedonincolors.Ifmorethanonecolorisused,aseparatediehastobemadeforeach.Ifthiswork is to be done in gold, the design is stamped on lightly and sizingmade ofwhite of eggs isbrushedonwhereverthegoldistocome.Goldleafislaiduponthissizing,andthecoverisstampedagain.Thesamedieisused,butthistimeitishotenoughtomakethegoldandeggstickfirmlytothecover.Toputthecoveron,apieceofmuslincalleda"super"isgluedtothebackofthebookwithitsendsprojectingoverthesides,andastripofcartridgepaperisgluedoverthesuper.Thenthebookispastedintothecover.Itisnowkeptunderheavypressureforanumberofhoursuntilitisthoroughlydryandreadytobesentawayforsale.

So it is that a well-made cloth-bound book is manufactured. Leather-bound books are moreexpensive,notonlybecausetheirmaterialscostmore,butalsobecausethegreaterpartoftheworkofbindinganddecoratinghastobedonebyhand.Ifabookistobeillustrated,thismustalsobeattendedto,thenumberandstyleofthepicturesdecidedupon,andtheartistengagedbeforethebookisputinpress,inorderthattheremaybenodelayincompletingit.

Many publishers do not print at all, but have their work done at some printing establishment.Where all themakingof abook, however, frommanuscript to cover, is in thehandsofone firm,thereisacertainfellow-feelingamongthedifferentdepartments,andawholesomeprideinmakingeachoneof"ourbooks"asexcellentaspossibleineverydetail.Asoneofthewomenworkersinsuchanestablishmentsaidtome,"Ioftenthinkthatwebecomealmostasinterestedinabookastheauthoris."

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VI

FROMGOOSEQUILLSTOFOUNTAINPENSANDLEADPENCILS

Whenevertherewasaconvenientgoosepondonthewaytoschool,thechildrenoflessthanonehundredyearsagousedtostoptheretohuntforgoosequills.Theycarriedthesetotheteacher,andwithhispenknife—whichtookitsnamefromtheworkitdid—hecutthemintotheshapeofpens.Thepointssoonworeout,and"Teacher,willyoupleasemendmypen?"wasafrequentrequest.

Whenpeoplebegantomakepensofsteel, theymadethemasnearlylikequillpensaspossible,withpenandholderallinone.Thesewerecalled"barrelpens."Theywerestiff,hard,andexpensive,especially as the whole thing was useless as soon as the penwas worn out, but theywere highlyesteemedbecausetheylastedlongerthanquillsanddidnothavetobemended.Afterawhileseparatepens were manufactured that could be slipped into a holder; and one improvement after anotherfolloweduntillittlebylittlethecheap,convenientwritingtoolthatwehaveto-daywasproduced.

Apenisasmallthing,buteachoneisworkeduponbytwentytotwenty-fourpersonsbeforeitisallowedtobesold.Thematerialisthebeststeel.Itcomesinsheetsfivefeetlongandnineteenincheswide,andaboutonefortiethofaninchthick,thatis,threetimesasthickasthefinishedpen.Thefirstmachinecutsthesheetcrosswiseintostripsfromtwotothreeincheswide,varyingaccordingtothesizeofthepentobemade.Thesestripsareputintoironboxesandkeptataredheatforanumberofhourstoannealorsoftenthem.Thentheypassbetweenheavyrollers,aprocesswhichnotonlyhelpstotoughenthem,butalsostretchesthesteelsothatitisnowfiftyincheslonginsteadofnineteen.

Atleastsixorsevenpeoplehavehandledthematerialalready,andevennowthereisnothingthatlookslikepens;but thenextmachinecuts themout,bydies,ofcourse.Thepoints interlap;andthecuttingleavesodd-shapedopenworkstripsofsteelforthescrap-heap.Thispartoftheworkisveryquick,forthemachinewillcutthousandsofpensinanhour.Nowiswhenthelittleholeabovetheslitispunchedandthesideslitscut.Tomakethesteelsoftandpliable,itmustbeannealedagain,keptredhotforseveralhours,andthencooled.Thusfarithaslookedlikeatinyfencepaling,butatlengthitbegins to resemble a pen, for it is now stampedwithwhatever letters or designsmay be desired,usually the name of the maker and the name and number of the variety of pen, and it is pressedbetweenapairofdies to form it intoacurve.The last annealing left themetal soft so that all thiscould be done, but too soft toworkwell as a pen; and it has to be heated red hot again, and thendroppedintocoldoiltohardenit.Centrifugalforce,whichhelpsinsomanymanufactures,drivestheoilaway,andthepensaredriedinsawdust.Theyarenowsufficientlyhard,buttoobrittle.Theymustbetempered.Todothis,theyareplacedinanironcylinderoverafire,andthecylinderrevolvedtillthepenisaselasticasaspring.

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Thepen is of the correct shape, is tough and elastic; and now it is put into "tumbling barrels"whichrevolvetillitisbrightandreadyforthefinishingtouches.Ifyoulookcloselyattheoutsideofasteelpenjustabovethenib,youwillseethatacrossitruntinylines.Theyhaveause,fortheyholdtheinkbacksothatitwillnotrolldownindrops,andtheyhelptomakethepointmorespringyandeasiertowritewith.

Thepenmustbeslitupfromthepoint.Thisisdonebyamachine,andamostaccurateone,forthecut must go exactly through the center of the point and not reach beyond the little hole that waspunched.Onlyonethingislackingnowtomakethepenausefulmemberofsociety,readytodoitswork in theworld; and that is to grindoff thepoints and round them inorder to keep them fromstickingintothepaper.

Aftersomuchcarefulwork,itdoesseemasifnotonepenoutofathousandcouldbefaulty;buteveryonehas to be carefully examined tomake sure that the cutting, piercing,marking, forming,tempering,grinding,andslitting,are justwhat theyshouldbe.Thesepenscarry themaker'sname,andafewpooronesgettingintothemarketmightspoilthesaleofthousandsofboxes;thereforetheexaminer sits before a desk coveredwith black glass and looks at every pen. The faulty ones areheatedsothattheycannotbeused,andtheygotothescrap-heap.

Now thepens are ready so far as usefulness goes, but people havepreferences in color.Somepreferbronze,somegray,andsomeblack;sooffthepensgotothetempering-room,theirlasttrip,and there are heated in a revolving cylinder till the right color appears; then they are chilled andlacquered, put into boxes, labeled, packed, and sold for such low prices that the good folk of acentury ago,who paid from twenty-five to fifty cents for a pen,would have opened their eyes inamazement.Whenthetypewriterwasinvented,somepeoplesaid,"Thatwillbethedeathofthesteelpen";butasamatteroffact,ithasgreatlyincreaseditssale.Thetypewritermakeswritingsoeasyandsoquickthatmanymorelettersarewrittenthanformerly.Alltheselettershavetobeanswered,andfewpeople comparedwith thewholenumberown typewriters, and therefore thepen still holds itsplace.

Thelacqueronasteelpenprotectsituntilithasbeenusedforawhile.Afterthat,itwillrust,ifitisnotwiped,anditwillwearoutwhetheritiswipedornot.Allthatthegoldpenasksisnottobebentorbroken,and itwill last almost forever. Ithas the flexibilityof thequill,butdoesnothave tobe"mended."Goldpensaremadeinmuchthesamewayasaresteelpens;butjustatthepointatinyshelfissqueezed.Uponthisshelfabitofthealloyoftwoexceedinglyhardmetals,iridiumandosmium,issecuredbymeltingthegoldaroundit;andit is thisbitwhichstandsall thewearofrubbingonthepaper.Whengoldpenswerefirstmade,tinybitsofdiamondsorrubiesweresolderedonforpoints;buttheywereexpensive,andtheyhadadisagreeablefashionoffallingoff.

Acenturyago,writerswouldhavethoughtittheheightofluxurytohaveagoldpen;butnowtheyarenotsatisfiedunlesstheycanbesavedthetroubleofdippingitintoaninkstand,andtheylookuponthefountainpenastheirspecialfriend.Thefountainpencarriesitssupplieswithit.Thepenitselfislikeanyothergoldpen,butthebarrelisfullofink.Alittletubecarriestheinktothepoint,andthe

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slightbendingbackofthepenasonewritesletsitrunoutuponthepaper.Attheendoftheslit,atthebackofthepen,isaholetoletairintothebarrelastheinkrunsout.Aperfectfountainpenoughttobepreparedtowrite—withoutshaking—wheneverthecapistakenoff,andnottorefusetoworksolongasadropofinkremainsinthebarrel.Itshouldneverdropinkatthepointand,whetherthepointisupordown,itshouldneverleakthereoranywhereelse.

Thestylographicpenisquiteadifferentarticle.Thereisnopentoit;thewritingisdonewiththeendofaneedlewhichprojectsthroughaholeat thepoint.Thebarrelandpointarefullofink;butevenifthepenisheldpointdown,itwillnotleakbecausetheneedlefillsupthehole.Whenyoupressthepointonpapertowrite,theneedlefallsbackjustenoughtoletoutwhatinkisneeded.Theflowstopstheinstantthepenceasestotouchthepaper.Thespecialadvantageofthestylographicisthatthemereweight of the pen is sufficient pressure, and thereforemanyhours ofwritingdonot tire themusclesof thehand.Theadvantageof thefountainpenis that ithas thefamiliaractionof thegoldpen,andthatitwilladaptitselftoanystyleofhandwriting.

Apenofalmostanykindisavaluablearticle,butforrough-and-readyuseweshouldfindithardtogetonwithoutitshumblefriend,theleadpencil.Aleadpencil,bytheway,hasnotaparticleofleadin it.The"lead" isallgraphite,orplumbago.Yearsagosticksof leadwereusedformarking,andmadeapale-grayline.Whengraphitewasintroduced,itsmarkwassoblackthatpeoplecalleditblacklead, and the namehas stuck.Noonewhohas ever tried to use a pencil of real lead could fail toappreciategraphite,andwhenagraphiteminewasdiscoveredinEngland,itwasguardedbyarmedmenaswatchfullyasifithadbeenamineofdiamonds.Thatminewasexhaustedlongago,butmanyothershavebeenfound.ThebestgraphiteintheworldcomesfromCeylonandMexico.

Whengraphitewasfirstusedforpencils,itwascutintoslabsandtheseslabsintosmallstrips.Thebrokenandpowderedgraphitewasnotuseduntilitwasdiscoveredthatitcouldbemixedwithclayandsomadeintosticks.Inaleadpencilthereareonlythreesubstances,graphite,clay,andwood,butareallygoodonemustbemanufacturedwithasmuchcareasifitweremadeupoftwenty.Firstofall,thegraphiteisgroundandgroundandground,until,ifyoutakeapinchofitbetweenyourthumbandfinger,youcanhardlyfeelthatanythingisthere.Itisnowsiftedthroughfinesilkandmixedwithwaterand finelypowderedclay, andbecomesawet, inkymass.Thisclaycomes fromAustriaandBohemiaandisparticularlysmoothandfine.Theamountputiniscarefullyweighed.Ifyouhaveahardpencil,itwasmadebyusingconsiderableclay;ifyourpencilissoft,byusingverylittle;andifitisverysoftandblack,itispossiblethatalittlelampblackwasadded.

This inkymass isground togetherbetweenmillstones for severalweeks.Then itgoesbetweenrollers,andatlengthissqueezedthroughadieandcomesoutinsoft,doughyblackstrings.Thesearethe"leads"of thepencils.Theyhavebeen thoroughlywet, andnow theymustbemade thoroughlydry.Theyarelaidonboards,thentakenoff,cutintopiecesthelengthofapencil,andputintoovensandbakedforhoursinaheattwentytimesasgreatasthatofahotsummerday.Theycertainlyoughttobewelldriedandreadyforthewood.TheredcedarofFlorida,Tennessee,Georgia,andAlabamaisthebestwoodforpencilsbecauseitissoftandhasafine,straightgrain.Itiscutintoslabsaboutaslong as onepencil, aswide as six, and a little thicker [53] thanhalf a pencil.Every piecemust beexaminedtomakesurethatitisperfect,anditmustbethoroughlyseasonedandkiln-driedtofreeit

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fromoil.Thenitgoesthroughagrooving-machinewhichcutsoutagroovehalfasdeepasthelead.Theleadislaidintoonepiece,anotherisgluedontopofit;andthereisapencilreadyforwork.

CourtesyJosephDixonCrucibleCo.

HOWTHELEADGETSINTOAPENCIL

(1)Thecedarslab. (2)Planedandgrooved. (3)The leads inplace. (4)Coveredwiththeotherhalfoftheslab.(5)Theroundpencilscutout.(6)Thepencilseparatedandsmoothed.(7)Thepencilvarnishedandstamped.

Suchapencilwouldbeuseful,buttosellwellitmustalsobepretty;andthereforeitgoesthroughmachinery which makes it round or oval or six-sided, as the case may be, rubs it smooth, andvarnishesit,andthen,withgoldleaforsilverleaforaluminumorink,stampsuponitthenameofthemaker,andalsoanumberorlettertoshowhowhardtheleadis.

The pencil is now ready for sale, butmany people like to have an eraser in the end, and thisrequiresstillmorework.Theseerasersareroundorflatorsix-sidedorwedge-shaped.Theyareletintothepencilitself,orintoanickeltip,ordrawnovertheendlikeacap,sothatanyone'sspecialwhimmaybegratified.Indeed,howeverhardtopleaseanyonemaybe,heoughttobeabletofindapenciltosuithistaste,forasinglefactoryintheUnitedStatesmakesmorethansixhundredkindsofpencils,andmakessomanyof themthat if theywere laidend toend theywould reach three timesacrossthecontinent.

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There aremany exceedingly cheappencils, but they are expensive in the end, because they arepoorlymade. Thewoodwill often split in sharpening, and the lead is of poormaterials so badlymixedthatitmaywriteblackerinoneplacethananother,andisalmostsuretobreak.Goodpencilsbearingthenameofareliablefirmarecheapest.

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VII

THEDISHESONOURTABLES

Ifanyoneshouldgiveyoualumpofclayandaskyoutomakeabowl,howshouldyousetaboutit?Thefirstthingwouldbe,ofcourse,toputitonatablesoyoucouldworkonitwithbothhands.Youwouldmakeadepressionatthetopandpushoutthesidesandsmooththemasbestyoucould.Itwould result in a rough, uneven sort of bowl, and before itwas done, youwould havemade onediscovery,namely,thatifthetableonlyturnedaroundinfrontofyou,youcouldseeallsidesofthebowlfromthesameposition,anditwouldbeeasiertomakeitregular.Thisisjustwhatthepotter'swheeldoes.Itisreallytwohorizontalwheels.Theupperoneisadiskafootortwoindiameter.Thisisconnectedbyashaftwith the lowerone,whichismuchlarger.Whenthepotterwasatworkatawheelof this sort,he stoodonone footand turned the lowerwheelwith theother, thus setting theupperwheelinmotion.Thiswascalleda"kick-wheel."Aswheelsaremadenow,thepottersitsathisworkandturnsthewheelbymeansofatreadle.

Almostanykindofclaywillmakeadish,butnoonekindwillmakeitsowellthattheadditionofsomeotherkindwouldnotimproveit.Whateverclaysarechosen,theymustbepreparedwithgreatcare to make sure that not one grain in them is coarser than any other. Sometimes one will slipthrough,andyoucanseeonthefinisheddishwhatabad-lookingplaceitmakes.Evenforthecoarsestearthenware,suchasflower-pots,themoistclayisforceddownacylinderandthroughawiresieve;andforstonewareandporcelainithastogothroughseveralprocesses.Whenflintandfeldsparareused, they are ground fine at the quarry.On reaching the factory, they aremixedwith the properquantitiesofotherclays—butinjustwhatproportionsisoneofthesecretsofthetrade.Thentheygointo"plungers"or"blungers,"greatroundtankswitharmsextendingfromashaftinthecenter.Theshaftrevolvesandthearmsbeattheclaytillallthesandandpebbleshavesettledonthebottom,andthefineclaygrainsarefloatinginthewaterabovethem.Thesepassintocanvasbags.Thewaterisforcedoutthroughthecanvas,andoneverybagthereisleftathinsheetofmoistclay.Ifthisistobeusedforthefinestwork,itisgroundandpoundedandwashedstillmore,untilitisawonderthatanyofitsurvives;thenitissiftedthroughascreensofinethatitsmeshesareonlyoneonehundredandfiftiethofaninchacross.Nowitbecomes"slip,"andafteralittlemorebeatingandtumblingabout,itisreadytogotothemanatthewheel.

Thismaniscalledthe"thrower,"becausehelifts thelumpofclayabovehisheadandthrowsitdown heavily upon the center of the wheel. The things that happen to that lump of clay when hetouches itand thewheel revolvesseemlike theworkofmagic.Hepresseshis thumbs into it fromaboveanddrawsthewallsupbetweenhis thumbsandfingers.Heclaspshishandsaroundit,anditgrowstallandslender.Helayshisfingeronthetopof thelittlecolumnofclay,anditflattensinamoment.Hepointshisfingeratit,barelytouchingit,andalittlegrooveappears,runningaroundthewhole mass. He seems to be wasting considerable time in playing with it, but all the while he ismakingsure that theclay isperfectlyuniformand that therearenobubblesofair in it.Heholdsapiece of leather against the outside surface and a wet sponge against the inside, to make them

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perfectlysmooth;andinamomenthehasmadeabowl.Heholdshisbentfingeragainstthetopofthebowl,anditbecomesavase.Withanothertouchofhismagicalfingerthetopofthevaserollsoverintoa lip. Ifhemakesacuporamug,hemodelsahandle inclayandfastens it inplacewithslip.Whenitisdone,hedrawsawiredeftlybetweenthearticleandthetable,andputsitonaboardtodry.

Whenyouwatchapotteratwork,italllookssosimpleandeasythatyoufeelsureyoucoulddoit;butseehowskillfullyheuseshishands,howstrongtheyare,andyethowlitheanddelicateintheirmovements.See intowhatoddpositionshe sometimesstretches them;andyet theseareplainly theonlypositionsinwhichtheycoulddotheirwork.Seehoweveryfingerdoesjustwhathewishesittodo.Noticeallthesethings,andyouwillnotbesocertainthatmakingpotteryistheeasiestthingintheworld.

Notwopiecesofhandworkareexactlythesame;andskillfulasthepotteris,hispiecesarenotprecisely alike. Many of them therefore are passed over to the turner for finishing. He uses anordinary lathe, andwith this he thins anyplace thatmaybe a little too thick, rounds the edge, andsmooths it.Thearticle ispartlydriedwhenhe takes it, andso itswallscanbecut thinner.When itleaveshislathe,allsignsofhandworkhavevanished,butthedishisexactlyliketheothersoftheset,andthisiswhatthegreaternumberofpeoplewant.Insomepotteriesthereishardlyathrowingwheelinuse,andarticlesareformedinplasterofParismoulds.Therearetwowaysofusingthesemoulds.Byonemethod,themouldisputupona"jigger,"apowermachinewhichkeepsitrevolving,andclayispressedagainst itswalls fromwithin.Above themould isapieceof ironcut in theshapeof theinsidecurveofthebowlorwhateverisbeingmade.Thisskimsoffalltheextraclayfromtheinsideofthewalls.Platesandsaucersaremadeonajigger.Themouldusedforthisworkisamodelofthetop of the plate. Theworkmanmakes a sort of pancake of clay and throws it upon themould. Asecondmould,shapedlikehalfofthebottomoftheplate,isbroughtdowncloseandrevolves,cuttingoffalltheextraclayandshapingthebottomoftheplate.

Whentheveryfinestwareistobemade,themouldisusedinquiteanotherfashion.Ifapitcher,forinstance,istobecast,themouldismadeintwosectionsandtiedtightlytogether.Thentheslipispouredintoitandleftforawhile.TheplasterofParisabsorbsthewaterandalayerofclayisformedallaboutthewalls.Whenthisisthickenough,theliquidispouredout,andafterthepitcherhasdriedawhile,themouldiscarefullyopenedandthepitcherisverygentlytakenout.Thehandleismadeinalittlemouldofitsownandfastenedonwithslip."Eggshell"porcelainismadeinthisway.Theclayshellbecomessmalleras itdries,sothere isnotroubleaboutremovingitfromthemould—ifoneknowshow.Ifalargearticleistobecast,themouldismadeinsections.Ofcoursethisfinewaremustallbemadebyhand,especiallyasmachinesdonotworkwellwiththefinestclays;butcheapdishesareallmadebymachinery.

Afteranyclayarticleisthrown,ormoulded,orcast,itispassedthroughalittledoorwayandsetupona shelf in agreat revolving cage.The air in this cage is kept at about85°F.; but thisheat isnothing towhat is to follow;andafter the articles are thoroughlydry, theyareplaced inboxesofcoarsefire-clay,whicharecalled"saggers,"piledupinakiln,thedoorsareclosed,andthefiresarelighted.Foradayandnight,sometimesfortwodaysandtwonights,thefiresburn.Theheatgoesupto2000°or2500°F.Everyfewhourstestpieces,whichwereputinforthispurpose,aretakenout.

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Whentheyarefoundtobesufficientlybaked,thefire-holesarebrickedupandthefurnaceisleftfortwodayslongertocool.Thewareisthencalled"biscuit."

Biscuit is dull and porous. It is soon to be glazed, but firstwhatever underglaze decorating isdesiredmaybedone.Sometimesthedecorationsarepaintedbyhand,andsometimestheyareprintedonthinpaper,laidupontheware,andrubbedsoftlytilltheystickfast.Afterawhilethepaperispulledoff,butthecolorsremain.Goldmustbeappliedovertheglaze,andthearticlefiredasecondtime.

Afterthisdecorating,thewareisgenerallypassedtoamanwhostandsbeforeatubofglaze,anddipsineacharticle,thoughsometimeshestandsbeforethepiecesofwareandspraysthemwithanairbrush.Manydifferentkindsofglazeareused,madeofgroundflint,feldspar,whiteclay,andothersubstances.Commonseasaltworksexceedinglywell,notinliquidform,butthrowndirectlyintothefire.Thechiefthingtolookoutforinmakingaglazeistoseethatthematerialsinitaresonearlylikethoseinthewarethattheywillnotcontractunevenlyandmakelittlecracks.Thisglazeisdriedinahotroom,thenlookedoverby"trimmers,"whoscrapeitofffromsuchpartsasthefeetofcupsandplates,sothattheywillnotsticktothesaggersinfiring.Besidesthis,littlepropsofburnedclayareused to hold the dishes up and keep them from touching one another. These props have fancifulnames,suchas"spurs,""stilts,""cockspurs,"etc.Oftenyoucanseeonthebottomofaplatethemarksmadebythesesupports.

INTHEPOTTERY

Piecesofcoarsepotterybeingdeliveredtothekilnforfiring.

Thearticlesnowaresent toakiln tobefired.When theycomeout there isanotherchancefordecorating, for colors may be put on, and another firing will make them look like underglazepaintingIfthedecoratorwishesthewaretohavetheappearanceofbeingornamentedwithmassesofgold,hecantracehisdesigninyellowpaste,fireit,coveritwithgold,andfireitagain.Tomakethe"gilt-bandchina"sobelovedbythegoodhousewivesofthelastcentury,thedecoratorputstheplate

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upon a horizontal wheel, holds his brush full of gold against it, and turns the wheel slowly.Sometimestheoutlinesofadesignareprintedandthecoloringputinbyhand.Whenbroadbandsofcolor aredesired tobeput aroundaplateorother article, thedecorator sometimesbrushesonanadhesiveoilwherethecoloristogo,andpaintstherestoftheplatewithsomewater-colorandsugar;thenwhentheoilispartlydry,hedustsonthecolorintheformofpowder.Aplungeintowaterwillwash away thewater-color and leave theoilwith thepowder sticking to it. Shadedgroundwork ismadewithanatomizer.Indeed,therearealmostasmanymethodsofdecoratingwaresofclayastherearepersonswhoworkatit.Theresultsarewhatmightbeexpectedfromtheprices;somearticlesaresocheapandgaudythatanyonewillsoontireofthem.Othersarereallyartisticandwillbea"joyforever"—untiltheybreak.

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VIII

HOWTHEWHEELSOFAWATCHGOAROUND

Ifanelectricautomobilecouldbechargedinfifteensecondsandthenwouldrunforfortyhourswithoutrecharging,itwouldbelookeduponasagreatwonder;buttowindawatchinfifteensecondsandhaveitrunforfortyhoursissocommonthatweforgetwhatawonderitis.Whenyouwindyourwatch,youputsomeofthestrengthofyourownrighthandintoit,andthatiswhatmakesitgo.Everyturnof thekeyor thestemwindsup tighterand tighteraspring fromone to twofeet long,but soslenderthatitwouldtakethousandstoweighapound.Thisisthemainspring.Itiscoiledupinacup-shapedpieceofmetalcalleda"barrel";andsoyourownenergyisliterallybarreledupinyourwatch.Theouterendofthisspringisheldfastbyahookontheinsideofthebarrel;theinnerendishookedtothehubofawheelwhichiscalledthe"mainwheel,"andaroundthishubthespringiscoiled.

Thisspringhasthreethingstodo.Itmustsendthe"shorthand,"orhourhand,aroundthedialorfaceofthewatch,onceintwelvehours;itmustsendthe"longhand,"orminutehand,aroundonceanhour;anditmustalsosendthelittle"secondhand"arounditsowntinycircleonceaminute.Todothisworkrequiresfourwheels.Thefirstormainwheelisconnectedwiththewindingarrangements,and sets inmotion the second, or centerwheel, so called because it is usually in the center of thewatch.Thiscenterwheelrevolvesonceanhourandturnstheminutehand.Byaskillfularrangementofcogsitalsomovesthehourhandaroundthedialonceintwelvehours.Thecenterwheelmovesthethirdwheel.Thechiefbusinessofthethirdwheelistomakethefourthturninthesamedirectionasthecenterwheel.Thefourthwheelrevolvesonceaminute,andwithitturnsthetinysecondhand.

Suppose that awatch has beenmadewith only themain spring, the fourwheels, and the threehands,whatwouldhappenwhenitwaswound?Youcantellveryeasilybywindingupamechanicalmouseoratrainofcarsoranyothertoythatgoesbyaspring.Itwillgofastatfirst,thenmoreandmoreslowly,thenitwillstop.Thissortofmotionmightdoforamouse,butitwouldnotanswerforawatch.Awatchmustmovewithsteadinessandregularity.Tobringthisabout,thereisafifthwheel.Itsfifteenteethareshapedlikehooks,andithassevenaccompaniments, thebalancewheel, thehairspring,andfiveothers.Thiswheel,togetherwithitsaccompaniments,isabletostopthemotionofthewatchfivetimesasecondandstartitagainsoquicklythatwedonotrealizeitshavingbeenstoppedatall. A tiny arm holds the wheel firmly, and then lets it escape. Therefore, the fifth wheel and itsaccompanimentsarecalledthe"escapement."Thiscatchingandlettinggoiswhatmakestheticking.

Awatchmade in thiswaywould run verywell until a hot day or a cold day came; then therewouldbetrouble.Heatmakesmetalsexpandandmakesspringslesselastic.Thereforeinahotdaythewatchwouldgomoreslowlyandso lose time;while inacolddayitwouldgo toofastandwouldgaintime.Thisfault iscorrectedbythebalance,awheelwhoserimisnotonecircle,buttwohalf-circles,andsocunninglymadethatthehotterthisrimgrows,thesmalleritsdiameterbecomes.Intherimofthewheelaretinyholesintowhichscrewsmaybescrewed.Byaddingscrewsortakingsomeaway,orchangingthepositionofsomeofthem,themovementofthewatchcanbemadetogofaster

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orslower.

Allthiswouldbedifficultenoughtomanageifawatchwasaslargeasacartwheel,withwheelsafootindiameter;butitdoesseemamarvelhowsomanykindsofwheelsandscrewsandsprings,onehundredandfiftyinall,canbeputintoacasesometimesnotmorethananinchindiameter,andcanfindroomtowork;anditisquiteasmuchofamarvelhowtheycanbemanufacturedandhandled.

Rememberinghowaccurateeverypiecemustbe, it isnowonder that inSwitzerland,whereallthisworkusedtobedonebyhand,aboyhadtogotoa"watchschool"forfourteenyearsbeforehewasconsideredabletomakeareallyfinewatch.Hebeganatthebeginningandwastaughttomake,first,woodenhandles forhis tools, then the tools themselves, such as files, screwdrivers, etc.Hisnextworkwas tomakewoodenwatchcases as large as dinner-plates.After this, hewas given theframetowhichthevariouswheelsofawatcharefastenedandwastaughthowandwheretodrilltheholes forwheelsandscrews.After lessons inmaking the finer tools tobeused,hewasallowed tomakeawatchframe.Allthistookseveralyears,forhehadtodothesameworkoverandoveruntilhis teacherswere satisfiedwith it. Then hewas promoted to the second room.Here he learned toadjustthestem-windingparts,todofinecuttingandfiling,andtomakewatchesthatwouldstrikethehourandeventheminute.Roomthreewascalledthe"trainroom,"becausethewheelsofawatcharespokenofas"thetrain."Themodelwatchinthisroomwasaslargeasasaucer.Theyoungmanhadtostudyeverydetailofthis,andalsotolearntheuseofadelicatelittlemachinedoingsuchfineworkthat it couldcut twenty-fourhundred tinycogsononeof the littlewheelsof awatch. In the fourthroomhelearnedtomaketheescapementwheelandsomeotherparts;andhehadtomakethem,notmerelypassably,butexcellently.Inthefifthandlastroom,hemustdothecareful,patientworkthatmakesawatchgoperfectly.Therearespeciallittlecurvesthatmustbegiventothehairspring;andthescrewsonthebalancewheelmustbecarefullyadjusted.Ifthewatchranfasterwhenitwaslyingdownthanwhenitwashangingup,helearnedthatcertainonesofthebearingsweretoocoarseandmustbemadefiner.Inshort,hemustbeabletomakeawatchthat,whetherhanginguporlyingdown,andwhethertheweatherwashotorcold,wouldnotvaryfromcorrecttimemorethantwoandahalfsecondsadayatthemost.Then,andnottillthen,wasthestudentregardedasafirst-classwatchmaker.

Thegraduateofsuchaschoolknewhowtomakeawholewatch,butheusuallylimitedhisworktosomeonepart.Everypartofawatchwasmadeexpresslyforthatwatch,butsometimesahundreddifferent persons worked on it. The very best of the Swiss watches were exceedingly good; thepoorestwereverybad,andmuchworsetoownthanapoorAmericanwatchbecauseitcostsmoretorepairaSwisswatchthananAmericanwatch.

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CourtesyWalthamWatchCo.

WHEREWATCHESAREMADE

Onceasinglemanmadeawholewatchbyhand.Nowonewatchmaybetheproductofahundredhands,eachmandoinghisparticularpart.

Even though in America the parts of watches are made by machinery, an apprentice has toundergojustascarefulandjustasextendedtraininghereas inSwitzerland.Apoorwatchisworsethan none at all, and careless work would not be tolerated in any watch factory. Of late evenSwitzerland has been importing American machinery in order to compete with the United States.Thesemachinesdosuchcareful,minute,intricateworkthat,asyoustandandwatchthem,youfeelasiftheymustknowwhattheyareabout.Oneofthemtakestheframe,—thatis,theplatestowhichthewheelsarefastened,—makesitoftheproperthinness,cutsthenecessaryholesinit,andpassesitovertothenextmachine,whichisreachingoutforit.Thefeedergives[69]thefirstmachineanotherplate;and so theworkgoesondownawhole lineofmachines.At length theplate is taken inhandbyamachine,or rather agroupofmachines,whichcandoalmost anything.Before they let it go, theyactuallyperformonehundredandforty-twodifferentoperations,eachbringingitnearercompletion.Thesemachinesareautomatic,butneverthelesstheymustbeconstantlywatchedbyexpertmachiniststokeeptheminorderandmakesureoftheirturningoutperfectwork.

Whileonelineofmachineshasbeenperfectingtheplate,othershavebeenatworkonscrewsandwheelsandsprings.Asmanyoftheseasareneededforonewatchareputintoalittledivisionofatrayandcarriedtoanotherroomforitsjewelsandtherestofitsoutfit.Thejewels,whicharepieces

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ofrubies,sapphires,garnets,orevendiamonds,areveryvaluabletoawatch.Whenyouknowthatthelittle wheels are in constant motion, and that the balance wheel, for instance, vibrates eighteenthousandtimesanhour,itisplainthatavastamountofwearcomesuponthespotwherethepivotsofthesewheelsrest.Nometalcanbemadesmoothenoughtopreventfriction,andthereisnometalhardenoughtopreventwear.The"jewels"aresmootherandharder.Theyaresawedintoslabssothinthatfiftyofthempiledupwouldmeasureonlyaninch.Thesearestucktoblockstobepolished,cutintodisksflatononesidebutwithalittledepressionontheothertoreceiveoil,boredthroughthecenter,andplacedwhereverthewearisgreatest—providedthepurchaseriswillingtopayforthem.A"full-jeweled" watch contains twenty-three jewels; that is, in twenty-three of the places where the mostseverewearcomes,orwherefrictionmightpreventthewatchfromgoingwithperfectsmoothness,therewillbepracticallynowearandnofriction.Alow-pricedwatchcontainsonlysevenjewels,butifyouwantawatchtolast,itpaystobuyonethatisfull-jeweled.

Andnowtheseplatesandwheelsandscrewsaretobeputtogether,or"assembled,"asthisworkiscalled.Thisisasimplematter justassoonasonehaslearnedwherethedifferentpartsbelong,forthey are made by machinery and are sure to fit. After the assembling comes the adjusting of thebalancewheelandthehairspring.Thereisnothingsimpleaboutthiswork,forthetinyscrewswiththelargeheadsmustbeputintotherimofthebalancewheelwiththeutmostcare,orelsealltheotherworkwillbeuseless,andthewatchwillnotbeaperfecttimekeeper;thatis,onethatneitherlosesnorgainsmorethanthirtysecondsamonth.

ItissaidthattheearliestwatchesmadeinEuropecostfifteenhundreddollarsandtookayeartomake.Therehasalwaysbeenademandforacheappockettimepiece,andoflatethisdemandhasbeensatisfiedbythemanufactureofthe"dollarwatch."Properlyspeaking,thisisnotawatchatall,butasmall spring clock. It has no jewels, and its parts are stamped out of sheets of brass or steel bymachinery.Thehairspringsaremadeincoilsofeightandthenbrokenapart;andthemainspringsaremadeby themile.Twentyholesaredrilledata time,and thefactory inwhich"dollarwatches"werefirstmanufacturedisnowabletoturnoutfifteenthousandaday.

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IX

THEMAKINGOFSHOES

Didyoueverstoptothinkhowmanydifferentqualitiesyouexpectinashoe?Youwantthesoletobehardandfirmsoastoprotectyourfeetinroughwalking;andalsosoftandyieldingsoastofeelspringyandnotboard-like.Youwanttheupperleathertokeepthecoldairfromcomingin;andalsoporousenoughtolettheperspirationout.Yourfeetarenotexactlylikethoseofanyoneelse;andyetyouexpect to findatanyshoestoreacomfortableshoe ready-made.Youexpect thatshoe tocomeclose to your foot, and yet allow you tomove itwith perfect freedom.You expect all these goodqualities,andwhatismoreremarkable,itdoesnotseemdifficultformostpeopletogetthem.Thereisanoldsaying,"Tohimwhowearsshoes, thewholeearth iscoveredwith leather";andalthoughmany different materials have been tried in shoemaking, leather is the only one that has provedsatisfactory,forthesoleoftheshoeat least.Oflate,however,rubberandrubbercombinationsandfeltsandfeltcombinationshavebeenused.

Most hides ofwhich soles aremade come from the large beef packing-houses or fromSouthAmerica.GoatskinscomefromAfricaandIndia.Thegreaterpartofahideismadeupofasortofgelatine.This easily spoils, and therefore it has to be "tanned"; that is, soaked in tannin andwater.Whenamansetouttobuildatannery,heusedtogointothewoodswherehecouldbesureofenoughoaktreestosupplyhimformanyyearswiththebarkfromwhichtanninismade;butithasbeenfoundthatthebarkofseveralotherkindsoftrees,suchaslarch,chestnut,spruce,pine,andhemlock,willtanaswellas thatofoak.Tanninisnowpreparedin theforestandbrought to the tanners,whoputtheir tannerieswhere theyplease,usuallynearsome largecity.Thehidesare firstsoaked inwater,andeveryparticleoffleshisscrapedaway.Theyarelaidinheapsforawhile,thenhunginawarmroom till thehair loosensandcanbeeasily removed, then soaked in tannic extract andwater.Thetannin unites with the gelatine; and thus the hide becomes leather. This process requires severalmonths. Hides are also tanned by the use of chemicals, in what is called "chrome" tanning. Thisprocessrequiresonlyafewhours,butitisexpensive.

Inearliertimestheshoemakerusedtogofromhousetohousewithhislapstone,waxedend,awl,and other tools. The farmer provided the leather,which he had tanned from the hides of his owncattle.Now,however,manufacturerscanbuythesolesofonemerchant,theheelsofanother,theboxtoe and stiffenings of another, and so on. In the United States there are many factories which donothingbutcutsoles,orratherstampthemoutwithdies,ahundredormoreinaminute.Thesesolesandalso the lessheavy inner soles go throughmachines thatmake all parts of themof a uniformthickness.Thetravelingshoemakeralwayshammeredhissoleleathertomakeitwearbetter;butnowamoment betweenveryheavy rollers answers the samepurpose.Anothermachine splits the innersoleforperhapsaquarterofaninchallthewayaround,andthusmakesalittleliptowhichtosewthewelt.Anumberof layersor"lifts"of leatherarecemented together for theheel,andareputunderheavypressure.

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Theupperpartsofashoe,the"uppers,"astheyarecalled,arethevamporfrontoftheshoe,thetop,thetip,and(inalacedshoe)thetongue.Nearlyalltheupperleatherthatshowswhenashoeisonismade from thehidesofcattle,calves,goats,andsheep;butbesides theparts that show therearestiffenersfortheboxtoeandthecounterstosupportthequartersovertheheel;therearelinings,andmanyothernecessary"findings,"forty-fourpartsinallinanordinaryshoe.Muchexperimentingandmorethinkinghavegoneintoeveryoneoftheseforty-fourparts;andmuchrememberingthatshoeshave harder wear than anything else in one's wardrobe. The cotton linings, for instance, must bewoveninaspecialwayinordertomakethemlastandnot"rubup"whentheyarewetwithwaterorperspiration.Theyarebleachedwiththeutmostcarenottoweakenthem,andtheyaresingedbetweenred-hotcopperplatestoremoveallthenap.

Then, too, a gooddeal ofmetal is used inmaking a shoe, not only theornamental bucklesondress shoes and theheavy,usefulbuckleson stormboots,butvariouspieces thathelp tomake theshoestrongandenduring.Therearenails,shankstostrengthenthearchoftheshoe,metalshankstothebuttons,andeyelets.Notmanyyearsago,eyeletssoonworebrassy,andthentheshoelookedoldandcheap.Theyarenowenameled,orthetopofthemismadeofcelluloidinacolortomatchtheshoe.Thetagsonlacingsandthehooksforholdinglacingsarealsoenameled.A"box-toegum"isused to support the box-toe stiffening.Cement covers the stitches; andmany sorts of blacking areusedinfinishingthework.Itisbynomeansasimpleoperationtomakeapairofshoes.

Atabusyshoefactoryitisalways"tagday,"forwhenanorderisreceived,thefirststepinfillingit is tomakeouta tagorformstatinghowtheshoeis tobemadeupandwhenit is tobefinished.These records are preserved, and if a customer writes, "Send me 100 pairs of shoes like thoseorderedOctober10,1910," themanufacturerhasonly to read the record inorder toknowexactlywhatiswanted.

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CourtesyUnitedShoeMchy.Co.

THEGOODYEARPULLING-OVERMACHINE

Thismachinecost$1,500,000andfiveyearsofexperimenttoperfect.Itshapestheforepartoftheupperofashoeoverawoodenlast.

Next, the leather isselected, firstgradeorsecondgrade,according to theprice tobepaid.Thepatternsfortheuppersarenowbroughtintoplay—and,bytheway,itisnosmallmattertopreparethehundredsofpatternsneededforanewlineofshoesinallthedifferentwidthsandsizes.Insomefactories[77]thecuttingisdonebymachinery;inothersthe"uppercutter"laystheleatheronablockandcutsaroundthepatternwithasmallbutverysharpknife.Itneedsskillandjudgmenttobeacutter;for a carelessworkman can easilywaste the skins badly by not laying the patterns on to the bestadvantage.Whilethisworkisgoingon,thelinings,trimmings,soles,andotherpartsarealsobeingprepared,andallthesemanypiecesnowmeetinthe"stitching-room."Atthefirstglance,itdoesnotseemasiftherightonescouldevercometogether,eventhoughtheyaremarked,andsometimesitdoeshappen thata4avamp, for instance, isputwith5aquarters,andnobodyknows thedifferenceuntiltheexperiencedeyeoftheforemannoticesthatsomethingiswrongwiththeshoe.Theuppersoftheshoearenowstitchedup,andafteracarefulinspection,theyaresentontothe"lasting-room."The"last"oftheearliertimeswasroughlywhittledout,anditwasthesameforbothfeet;butthelastofto-day isalmostaworkofart,socarefully is itmadeandpolished.Theshoemanufacturers jokinglydeclarethatlastsmustbechangedthreetimesadayinordertokeepupwiththefashions.Feetdonotchangeinform,savewhentheyhavebeendistortedbybadlyshapedshoes;butinspiteofthis,peopleinsistuponhavingtheirshoeslongandnarrow,orshortandwide,withhighheelsorwithlowheels,

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withbroadtoesorwithpointedtoes,asthewhimofthemomentmaybe.Itreallyisabigproblemfortheshoemanufacturerstosuitpeople'sfanciesandyetgivethemsomedegreeofcomfort.

Whiletheuppersarebeingstitched,thesolesandinnersolesandcountershavebeenmadereadyandbroughttothelasting-room.Thetoestiffenersandalsothecountersarenowcementedintotheirplaces.Theinnersoleistackedtothelast,andtheuppersareputinplaceandheldtherebyatackattheheel.This isdonebymachines;but theirworking is simplecomparedwith thatof themachinewhichnowtakeschargeofthehalf-madeshoe.Thismachineputsoutsturdylittlepincerswhichseizetheedgeoftheuppers,pullitsmoothlyandevenlyintoplace,anddriveatackfarenoughintokeepitfromslipping.Nowcomesthewelting.Aweltisanarrowstripofleatherwhichissewedtotheloweredgeoftheupperallthewayaroundtheshoeexceptattheheel.Thisbringstheupper,thelipoftheinner sole, and thewelt together. The inside of the shoe is now smooth and even, but around theoutsideofthesoleistheridgemadebytheweltandthesewing,andwithintheridgeadepressionthatmustbefilledup.Tarredpaperorcorkinasortofcementareusedfor this.Theshankisfastenedinto itsplaceand theweltmadesmoothandeven.Theoutersole iscoatedwithrubbercement,putintopositionunderheavypressuretoshapeitexactlylikethesoleofthelast,andthensewedtothewelt.Ifitwasnotforthewelt,theoutersolewouldhavetobeseweddirectlytotheinnersole.Thenailingandpeggingoftheold-fashionedshoemakerarealsoreproducedbythemodernmachine.

The shoe is still open at the heel; but now the heel parts of both sole and uppers are fastenedtogether; the edgeshavebeennicely trimmed, andnext theheels arenailed to the shoebyanothermachinewhichdoes theworkatablow, leaving thenailsstandingouta littlebelowthe lowest lift.Anotherliftisforceduponthese;andthatiswhytheheelofanewshoeshowsnosignsofnails.Theheelistrimmed,andthencomethefinalsandpaperingandblackening.Thebottomofanewshoehasapeculiar soft,velvetyappearanceand feeling;and this isproducedby rubbing itwith fineemerypaper fastened upon a little rubber pad. A stamping-machinemarks the solewith the name of themanufacturer.Lastofall,theshoeisputuponatreeingmachine,whereanironfootstretchesitintopreciselytheshapeofthewoodenlastonwhichitwasmade.

Thisisthemethodbywhichlargenumbersofshoesaremade,buttherearemanydetailswhichdiffer.Lacedshoesmusthavetonguesaswellaseyelets,whilebuttonedshoesmusthavebuttonsandbuttonholes."Turned"shoeshavenoinnersole,butuppersandoutersolearesewedtogetherwrongsideoutandthenturned.Inshoemaking,asinallotherbusiness,ifamanufactureristosucceed,hemustseethatthereisnowaste.Hehasofcoursenouseforacarelesscutter,whowouldperhapswastelargepiecesofleather;buteventhetiniestscrapsareofvalueforsomepurpose.Theycanbetreatedwith chemicals, softened by boiling, and pressed into boards or other articles ormade into floorcoverings. At any rate, they must be used for something. No business is small enough or largeenoughtoendurewaste.

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X

INTHECOTTONMILL

Ifyouravelabitofcottoncloth,youwillfindthatitismadeupoftinythreads,somegoingupanddown, andothersgoing from right to left.These threadsare remarkably strong for their size.Lookat oneunder amagnifyingglass, in abrilliant light, andyouwill see that the little fibersofwhichitismadeshinealmostlikeglass.Examineitmoreclosely,andyouwillseethatitistwisted.Breakit,andyouwillfindthatitdoesnotbreakoffsharp,butratherpullsapart,leavingmanyfibersstandingoutfrombothends.

Cottoncomestothefactorytightlypressedinbales,andtheworkofthemanufactureristomakeitintotheselittlethreads.Thebalesarebig,weighingfourorfivehundredpoundsapiece.Theyaregenerallysomewhatragged,fortheyaredoneupincoarse,heavyjute.Thefirstglanceatanopenedcottonbaleisalittlediscouraging,foritisnotperfectlycleanbyanymeans.Bitsofleavesandstemsaremixedinwiththecotton,andevensomeofthesmallerseedswhichhaveslippedthroughthegin.Thereisdust,andplentyofit,thatthecoarseburlaphasnotkeptout.Thefirstthingtodoistoloosenthecottonandmakeitclean.Greatarmfulsarethrownintoamachinecalleda"bale-breaker."Rollerswithspikes,bluntsoasnottoinjurethefiber,catchitupandtearthelumpstopieces,and"beaters"tossitintoalight,foamymass.Somethingelsehappenstothecottonwhileitisinthemachine,foracurrentofairispassingthroughitallthewhile,andthisblowsoutthedustandbitsofrubbish.Thiscurrentiscontrolledlikethedraftofastove,anditisallowedtobejuststrongenoughtodrawthecottonawayfromthebeaterwhenithasbecomelightandopen,leavingthehardermassesformorebeating.Whenitcomesoutoftheopener,itisinsheetsor"laps"threeorfourfeetwideandonlyhalfan inch thick.Theyarewhiteand fleecyandalmostcloudlike;andso thin thatanysandorbrokenleavesstillremainingwilldropoutoftheirownweight.

In this work themanufacturer has been aiming, not only at cleaning the cotton andmaking itfluffy,butalsoatmixingit.Therearemanysortsofcotton,someoflongerorfinerormorecurlyorstrongerfiberthanothers,somewhiteandsometingedwithcolor;buttheclothwovenofcottonmustbe uniform; therefore all these kindsmust be thoroughlymixed.Even the tossing and turning andbeatingthatithasalreadyreceivedisnotenough,andithastogointoa"scutcher,"threeorfourlapsatatime,oneontopofanother,tohavestillmorebeatinganddusting.Whenitcomesout,itisinalongrollorsheet,soeventhatanyyardofitwillweighverynearlythesameasanyotheryard.Thefibers,however,arelying"everywhichway,"andbeforetheycanbedrawnoutintothread,theymustbemadetolieparallel.Thisisbroughtaboutinpartbycarding.Whenpeopleusedtospinandweavein their own houses, they used "hand cards." These were somewhat like brushes for the hair, butinsteadofbristlestheyhadwiresshapedmuchasifwirehairpinshadbeenbenttwiceandputthroughleather insuchawayas toformhooksononesideof it.This leatherwas thennailed toawoodenbackandahandleadded.Thecardertookonecardineachhand,andwiththehookspointingoppositewaysbrushedthecottonbetweenthem,thusmakingthefiberslieparallel.Thisisjustwhatisdoneinamill,onlybymachinery,ofcourse.Insteadofthelittlehandcards,therearegreatcylinderscovered

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withwhatiscalled"cardclothing";thatis,canvasbristlingwiththebentwires,sixorsevenhundredtothesquareinch.Thistakestheplaceofonecard.Theplaceoftheotherisfilledbywhatarecalled"flats," or narrow bars of iron covered with card clothing. The cylinders move rapidly, the flatsslowly, and the cotton passes between them. It comes out in a daintywhite film not so verymuchheavier thanaspider'sweb,andsobeautifullywhiteandshiningthat itdoesnotseemasif thebig,oily,noisymachinescouldeverhaveproducedit.Inamoment,however,itisgonesomewhereintothedepthsofthemachine.Wehaveseenthelastofthefleecysheet,forthemachinerynarrowsitandroundsit,andwhenitcomesintosightagain,itlookslikeasoftroundcordaboutaninchthick,andiscoiledupincansnearlyayardhigh.Thiscordiscalled"sliver."

INACOTTONMILL

The "sliver" coming through the machine, and the "roving" being twisted and wound onbobbins.

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Thesliver isnotuniform;evennowits fibersarenotentirelyparallel,and it isasweakaswettissuepaper.Itnowpaysavisittothe"drawing-frame."Fourorsixsliversareputtogetherandrunthrough this frame.Theygobetween fourpairsof rollers, the firstpairmovingslowly, theothersmorerapidly.Theslowpairholdthesliversback,whilethefastonepullthemon.Theresultisthatwhen theslivercomesout fromthe rollers, its fibersaremuchstraighter.Thisprocess is repeatedseveraltimes;andatlastwhenthefinalslivercomesout,althoughitlooksalmostthesameaswhenitcamefromthecarding-machine,itsfibersareparallel.Itismuchmoreuniform,butitisveryfragile,andstillhastobehandledwithgreatcare.Itisnotnearlystrongenoughtobetwistedintothread;andbeforethiscanbedone,itmustpassthroughthreeothermachines.Thefirst,or"slubber,"givesitaveryslight twist, justenough tosuggestwhat iscoming later,andofcourse indoing thismakes itsmaller.Thecottonchangesitsnameateveryoperation,andnowitiscalled"roving."Ithastakenonelongstepforward,fornowitisnotcoiledupincans,butiswoundon"bobbins,"orgreatspools.Thesecondmachine,the"intermediatespeeder,"twistsitaverylittlemoreandwindsitonfreshbobbins.Italsoputstworovingstogether,sothatifonehappenstobethininoneplace,thereisachanceforittobestrengthenedbyathickerplaceintheother.Thethirdmachine,the"finespeeder,"simplymakesafinerroving.

Allthisworkmustbedonemerelytopreparetherawcottontobetwistedintothetinythreadsthatyouseebyravelingapieceofcottoncloth.Nowcomestheactualtwisting.Ifyoufastenoneendofaverysoftstringandtwisttheotherandwinditonaspool,youwillgetaspooloffiner,stronger,andharder-twisted string than you had at first. This is exactlywhat the "ring-spinner" does. Imagine abobbinfullofrovingstandingonaframe.Downbelowitaresomerollsbetweenwhichthethreadfrom the bobbin passes to a second bobbin which is fast on a spindle. Around this spindle is the"spinning-ring," a ringwhich ismade towhirl around by an endless belt.Thiswhirling twists thethread, and another part of themachinewinds it upon the second bobbin.Hundreds of these ring-spinnersandbobbinsareonasingle"spinning-frame"andaccomplishagreatdeal inaveryshorttime.The threads that are to be used for the "weft" or "filling" go directly into the shuttles of theweaversafterbeingspun;butthosewhicharetobeusedfor"warp"arewoundfirstonspools,thenonbeamstogointotheloom.

Littlechildrenweavetogetherstripsofpaper,straws,andsplints,—"overone,underone,"—andthe weaving of plain cotton cloth is in principle nothing more than this. The first thing to do inweavingistostretchoutthewarpevenly.Thiswarpissimplymanyhundredsoftinythreadsaslongastheclothistobe,sometimesfortyorfiftyyards.Theymustbestretchedoutsidebysideandclosetogether.Tomakethemregular,theyarepassedbetweentheteethofasortofuprightcomb;thentheyarewoundupon the loombeam,ahorizontalbeamat thebackof the loom.Here theyareasclosetogetherastheywillbeinthecloth.Withamagnifyingglassitiseasytocountthethreadsofthewarpinaninchofcloth.Somekindsofclothhaveahundredorevenmoretotheinch.Inordertomakecloth,theweavermustmanageinsomewaytolowereveryotheroneoftheselittlethreadsandrunhis shuttle over them, as the children do the strips of paper in their paperweaving. Then hemustlowertheothersetandruntheshuttleoverthem."Drawingin"makesthispossible.Afterthethreadsleavethebeam,theyaredrawnthroughthe"harnesses."Thesearehangingframes,oneinfrontoftheother, filledwith stiff, perpendicular threads orwires drawn tight, andwith an eye in each thread.Through these eyes the threads of the warp are drawn, the odd ones through one, and the eventhrough the other. Then, keeping the threads in the same order, they pass through the teeth of a

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"reed,"—thatis,ahangingframeshapedlikeagreatcombaslongastheloomiswide;andlast,theyarefastenedtothe"frontbeam,"whichrunsinfrontoftheweaver'sseatandonwhichtheclothistoberolledwhenithasbeenwoven.Eachharnessisconnectedwithatreadle.Theweaverputshisfooton the treadle of the odd threads and presses them down. Then he sends his shuttle, containing abobbinfullofthread,slidingacrossovertheoddthreadsandundertheeven.Heputshisfootonthetreadleoftheeventhreadsandsendstheshuttlebackovertheevenandundertheodd.Ateachtripofthe shuttle, theheavy reed is drawnback toward theweaver topush the last threadof thewooforfillingfirmlyintoplace.

Thisisthewayclothiswoveninthehandloomswhichusedtobeineveryhousehold.Thepowerloomusedinfactoriesis,eveninitssimplestform,acomplicatedmachine;butitsprincipleisexactlythesame. Ifcolorsare tobeused,greatcare isneeded inarrangingwarpandwoof. Ifyouravelapieceofcheckedgingham,youwillseethathalfthewarpiswhiteandhalfcolored;andthatinputtinginthewooforfilling,acertainnumberofthethreadsarewhiteandanequalnumberarecolored.Ifyoulookcloselyattheweavingofatablecloth,youwillseethatthesatin-likefiguresarewovenbybringingthefillingthreadnot"overoneandunderone,"butoftenovertwoorthreeandunderone.Indrillingoranyothertwilledgoods,severalharnesseshavetobeusedbecausethewarpthreadisnotlowereddirectly in linewiththeonepreceding,butdiagonally.Suchworkas thisusedtorequireavastamountofskillandpatience;butthefamousJacquardmachinewilldoitwithease,andwilldomorecomplicatedweavingthananyoneeverdreamedofbeforeitsinvention,foritwillweavenotonlyregularfiguresextendingacrossthecloth,butcanbemadetointroduceclustersofflowers,afigure,orafacewhereveritisdesired.Bytheaidofthis,everylittlewarpthreadorclusterofthreadscanbeliftedbyitsownhookedwirewithoutinterferingwithanyotherthread.Cardsofpaperorthinmetal aremade for eachpattern, leaving aholewherever thehook is to slip throughand lift up athread. After the cards are oncemade, the work is as easy as plain weaving; but theremust be aseparatecardforeverythreadoffillinginthepattern,andsometimesasingledesignhasrequiredasmanyasthirtythousandpatterncards.

Themachinesinacottonmillaretheresultofexperimenting,lastingthroughmanyyears.Theydonotseemquiteso"human"asthosewhichhelptocarryonsomepartsofothermanufactures;buttheyarewonderfully ingenious.For instance, thesliver is so light that it seems tohavehardlyanyweight,butitbalancesatinysupport.Ifthesliverbreaks,thesupportfalls,andthisstopsthemachine.Again,ifoneofthethreadsofthewarpbreakswhenit isbeingwoundonthebeam,aslenderbentwire thathasbeenhungonit falls. Itdropsbetweentworollersandstopsthem.Thentheworkmanknowsthatsomethingiswrong,andaglancewillshowwhereattentionisneeded.Successinacottonmilldemandsconstantattentiontodetails.Amillmanagerwhohasbeenverysuccessfulhasgiventothoseoflessexperiencesomewisedirectionsaboutrunningamill.Foronething,heremindsthemthatbuildingisexpensiveandthatfloorspacecounts.Ifbyrearrangingloomsspacecanbemadeformore spindles, it is well worthwhile to rearrange. He tells them to study their machines and seewhethertheyareworkingsoslowlythattheycannotdoasmuchaspossible,orsofastastostrainthework.Hebidsthemtokeeptheirgearingsclean,tobeclearanddefiniteintheirorders,andtoreadthetradepapers;butaboveeverythingelsetolookoutforthelittlethings,alittleleakinthemilldam,alittletoomuchtightnessinabelt,ortheidlenessofjustonespindle.Hereinlies,hesays,oneofthegreatdifferencesbetweenasuccessfulandanunsuccessfulsuperintendent.

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Weavingaspracticedinfactoriesisacomplicatedbusiness;butwhetheritisdonewithasimplehand loom in a cottage or with a big power loom in a great factory, there are always threemovements.Oneseparatesthewarpthreads;onedrivestheshuttlebetweenthem;andoneswingsthereedagainstthefillingthreadjustputin.

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XI

SILKWORMSANDTHEIRWORK

About silk there is somethingparticularlyagreeable.Thereare fewpeoplewhodonot like thesheen of a soft silk, the sparkle of light on a "taffeta," and the richness of the silk that "can standalone."Itsdelicaterustleischarming,andthe"feel"ofitisadelight.Ithasnotthechilloflinen,thedeadnessofcotton,orthe"scratchiness"ofwoolen.Itpleasestheeye,theear,andthetouch.

The caterpillars of a few butterflies and ofmanymoths are spinners of fibers similar to silk.Amongtheselast is thebeautifulpale-greenlunarmoth.Spidersspina lustrousfiber,andit issaidthat a lover of spiders succeeded, by a good deal of petting and attention, in getting considerablematerial fromacompanyof them.Silkworms,however,are theonlyprovidersof real silk for theworld.Onceinawhileglowingaccountsarepublishedoftheeasewithwhichtheycanberaisedandtheamountofmoneywhichcanbemadefromthemwithverysmallcapital.Thisbusiness,however,likeallotherkindsofbusiness,requirescloseattentionandskillifitistobeasuccess.Anexperthassaidthatitneedsmoretimetobuildaspoolofsilkthanalocomotive.

Thewaytobegintoraisesilkwormsisfirstofalltoprovidesomethingforthemtoeat.Theyareveryparticularabouttheirbilloffare.Theleafoftheosageorangewillanswer,buttheylikemuchbetter the leaf of thewhitemulberry. Then send to a reliable dealer for a quarter of an ounce ofsilkwormeggs.Thatsoundslikeasmallorder,butitwillbringyounineortenthousandeggs,readytobecomesturdylittlesilkwormsifallgoeswellwiththem.Putthemonatablewithatopofwirenetting coveredwith brownpaper, and keep them comfortablywarm. In aweek or two, therewillappearsome littlewormsaboutaneighthofan inch longandcoveredwithblackhairs.These tinywormshavetobecomethreeinchesormoreinlength,andtheyareexpectedtoaccomplishthefeatinabout amonth. If aboy four feet tall shouldgrowat the silkworm's rate foronemonth,hewouldbecomeforty-eightfeettall.Itisnowonderthatthewormshavetomakeabusinessofeating,orthatthekeeperhastomakeabusinessofprovidingthemwithfood.Theyeatmostofthetime,andtheymakeaqueerlittlecracklingsoundwhiletheyareaboutit.Theyhavefromfourtoeightmealsadayofmulberryleaves.Thewormsfromaquarterofanounceofeggsbeginwithonepoundaday,andworkuptobetweenfortyandfifty.Silkwormslikeplentyoffreshair,andiftheyaretothrive,theirtablemustbekept clean.Agoodway tomanage this is toputover thempaper full ofholes largeenoughforthemtoclimbthrough.Laytheleavesuponthepaper;thewormswillcomeupthroughtheholestoeat,andthelitterontheirtablecanbeclearedaway.Asthewormsgrowlarger,theholesmustbemadelarger.Itisnowonderthattheirskinssoonbecometootightforthem.Theyactuallylose theirappetite foradayor two,and theyslipaway to somequietcornerunder the leaves, andplainlywishtherewerenootherwormstobotherthem.Soontheskincomesoff,andtheymakeupforlosttimesoenergeticallythattheyhavetodroptheirtightskinsthreetimesmorebeforetheyarefullygrown.Wetmulberryleavesmustnotbegiventhem,ortheywillbecomesickanddie,andtherewillbeanendofthesilkwormbusinessfromthatquarter-ounceofeggs.Theymusthaveplentyofroomontheirtableaswellasintheirskins.Atfirstatrayortabletwofeetlongandalittlemorethan

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onefootwidewillbelargeenough;butwhentheyarefull-grown,theywillneedabouteightysquarefeetoftableorshelves.Atspinningtime,eventhiswillnotbeenough.

Afterthewormshaveshedtheirskinsfourtimesandtheneatenasmuchastheypossiblycanforeightor tendays, theybegin to feel as if theyhadhadenough.Theynoweatvery little and reallybecomesmaller.Theyarerestlessandwanderabout.Nowandthentheythrowoutthreadsofsilkasfineasaspider'sweb.Theyknowexactlywhattheywant;eachlittlewormwantstomakeacocoon,andall theyaskofyou is togive them the right sortofplace tomake it in.When they liveoutofdoorsinfreedom,theyfastentheircocoonstotwigs;andifyouwishtogivethemwhattheylikebest,getplentyofdrytwigsandweavethemtogetherinarchesstandingovertheshelves.Prettysoonyouwillseeonewormafteranotherclimbupthetwigsandselectaplaceforitscocoon.Beforelongitthrows out threads from its spinneret, a tiny opening near themouth, andmakes a kind of net tosupportthecocoonwhichitisabouttoweave.

Thesilkwormmayhaveseemedgreedy,buthedidnoteatoneleaftoomuchforthetaskthatliesbefore him. There is nothing lazy about him; and now he works with all his might, making hiscocoon.Hebeginsattheoutsideandshapesitlikeaparticularlyplumppeanutofaclear,paleyellow.Thesilkisstiffenedwithasortofgumasitcomesoutofthespinneret.Thebusylittlewormworksaway,layingitsthreadsinplaceintheformofafigureeight.Forsometimethecocoonissothinthatonecanwatchhim.Itiscalculatedthathistinyheadmakessixty-ninemovementseveryminute.

Thecoveringgrowsthickerandtheroomforthesilkwormgrowssmaller.Afteraboutseventy-twohours,putyoureartothecocoon,andifallisquietwithin,itiscompletedandthewormisshutup within it. Strange things happen to him while he sleeps in the quiet of his silken bed, for hebecomesadrybrownchrysaliswithoutheadorfeet.Thenotherthingsevenmoremarvelouscometopass,forinaboutthreeweeksthelittlecreaturepushesthethreadsapartatoneendofthecocoonandcomesout,notasilkwormatall,butamothwithheadandwingsandlegsandeyes.Thismothlayshundredsofeggs,andinlessthanthreeweeksitdies.

Thisiswhatthesilkwormwilldoifitisleftalone;butitisthebusinessofthesilk-raisertoseethatitisnotleftalone.Abouteightdaysafterthecocoonisbegun,itissteamedorbakedtokillthechrysalissothatitcannotmakeitswayoutandsospoilthesilk.Thequarterofanounceofeggswillmakeaboutthirtypoundsofcocoons.Nowisthetimetobespeciallywatchful,forthereisnothinginwhichratsandmicesodelightasaplump,sweetchrysalis;and theycarenothingwhatever for thethreeorfourthousandyardsofsilkthatiswoundabouteachone.

Totakethissilkoffisadelicatepieceofwork.Asinglefiberisnotmuchlargerthanthethreadofacobweb,andbeforethesilkcanbeused,severalthreadsmustbeunitedinone.First,thecocoonissoakedinwarmwatertoloosenthegumthatthewormusedtostickitsthreadstogether.Endsofsilkfromhalfadozenormorecocoonsarebrought together, run througha littlehole inaguide,andwoundonareelasonethread.Thisneedsskillandpractice,forthereeledsilkmustbekeptofthesame size. The cocoon thread is so slender that, of course, it breaks very easily; and when thishappens,another threadmustbepiecedon.Then, too, the innersilkof thecocoonis finer than the

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outer;sounlesscareistakentoaddthreads,thereeledsilkwillbeirregular.Thewatermustalsobekeptjustwarmenoughtosoftenthegum,butnottoohot.

Thesilkistakenoffthereel,andtheskeinsarepackedupinbalesasifitwereofnomorevaluethan[97]cotton.Indeed,itdoesnotlooknearlysoprettyandattractiveasalapofpurewhitecotton,foritisstiffandgummyandhashardlyanyluster.Nowitissenttothemanufacturer.Itissoakedinhotsoapywater forseveralhours,and it isdrawnbetweenplatessoclose together that,while theyallowthesilktogothrough,theywillnotpermittheleastbitofroughnessordirttopass.Ifthethreadbreaks, a tiny"faller," suchasareused incottonmills, fallsdownandstops themachine.The silkmustnowbetwisted,subjectedtotwoorthreeprocessestoincreaseitsluster,anddyed,—andifyouwouldliketofeelasifyouwerepayingavisittoarainbow,gointoamillandwatchtheloomswiththeir smooth, brilliant silks of all the colors that can be imagined. After the silk is woven, it ispolishedon lusteringmachines,singed todestroyallbitsof freefibersor lint, freedofall threadsthatmayproject,andscouredifitisofalightcolor;thensold.Clickheretoseealargerversionofthisphoto.

CourtesyCheneyBros.

HOWSPUNSILKISMADE

Everymanufacturersaveseverythinghecan,andeventhewastesilkwhichcannotbewoundonreelsisturnedintoasalableproduct

Themothwhosecocoonprovidesmostofoursilkiscalledthe"bombyxmori."Thereareothers,

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however,andfromsomeofthesetussahsilk,Yamamai,andShantungpongeearewoven.Thesewildmothsproduceastrongerthread,butitismuchlesssmooththanthatofthebombyx.

Thereisalsoagreatamountof"woodsilk,"orartificialsilk,onthemarket.Tomakethis,woodpulpisdissolvedinetherandsquirtedthroughfinejetsintowater.Itissoonhardenoughtobetwistedintothreadsandwoven.Itmakesanimitationofsilk,brightandlustrous,butnotwearingsowellasthesilkofthesilkworm.Nevertheless,formanypurposesitisusedasasubstituteforsilk,andmanybraidsandpassementeriesaremadeof it.Then, too, thereare the"mercerized"goods,whichoftencloselyresemblerealsilk,althoughthereisnotathreadofsilkinthem.Itwasdiscoveredmanyyearsagothatifapieceofcottonclothwasboiledincausticsoda,itwouldbecomesoftandthickandbetterable toreceivedelicatedyes.Unfortunately, italsoshrankbadly.At length itoccurred tosomeonethattheclothmightbekeptfromshrinkingbybeingstretchedoutduringtheboilinginsoda.Hewasdelightedtofindthatthisprocessmadeitmorebrilliantthanmanysilks.

Thethreadsthatfastenthecocoontothebushandthoseintheheartofthecocoonareoftenused,togetherwiththefiberfromanycocoonsthroughwhichthewormshavemadetheirwayout.Thisisrealsilk,ofcourse,butitismadeofshortfiberswhichcannotbewound.Itiscardedandspunandmadeintofabriccalled"spunsilk,"whichisusedextensivelyfortheheavierclassesofgoods.Then,too,silksareoften"weighted";thatis,justbeforetheyaredyed,saltsofironortinareadded.Onepoundofsilkwillabsorbtwoorthreepoundsofthesechemicals,andwillapparentlybeaheavysilk,while it is really thin and poor.Moreover, this metallic weighting rubs against the silk fiber andmysteriousholessoonbegintoappear.Awise"drycleaner"willhavenothingtodowithsuchsilks,lest he shouldbeheld responsible for theseholes. It is thisweightingwhichproduces thepeculiarrustle of taffeta; and if women would be satisfied with a taffeta that was soft and thin, themanufacturerswouldgladlyleaveoutthesaltsofiron,andthesilkswouldwearmuchbetter.Cottonisseldommixedwiththesilkwarpthread;butitisusedas"filling"inalargeclassofgoodswithsilkwarp. The custom has arisen of advertising such goods as "silk," which of course is not a fairdescriptionofthem.Advertisementssometimesgivenoticeofamazingsalesof"Shantungpongee,"whichhasbeenmadeinAmericanloomsandisaverydifferentarticlefromtheimported"wildsilk"pongee.

Withsomanyshamsin themarket,howisawomantoknowwhatsheisbuyingandwhether itwillwear?Thereareafewsimpleteststhatarehelpful.Ravelapieceofsilkandexaminethewarpandwoof. If they are of nearly the same size, the silk is not so likely to split. Seehow strong thethreadis.Burnathread.Ifitburnswithalittleflame,itiscotton.Ifitcurlsupandsmellslikeburningwool,itisprobablysilk.Anothertestbyfireistoburnapieceofthegoods.Ifitissilk,itwillcurlup;ifitisheavilyweighted,itwillkeepitsshape.Ifyouboilasampleincausticpotash,allthesilkinitwilldissolve,butthecottonwillremain.Ifthewholesampledisappears,youmaybesurethatitwasallsilk.Soft, finelywovensilksaresafestbecause theywillnotholdsomuchweighting.Crêpedechineismadeofahardtwistedthreadandthereforewearswell.Taffetacancarryalargeamountofweighting,andisalwaysdoubtful;itmaywearwell,anditmaynot.Thereisalwaysareasonforabargainsaleofsilks.Thestoremaywishtoclearoutacollectionofremnantsortogetridofalineofgoodswhicharenolongertobecarried;butasidefromthis,thereisusuallysomedefectinthegoods themselves or else they have failed to please the fashionable whim of themoment. Silk isalwayssilk,andifyouwantit,youmustpayforit.

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