S M A L L M A M M A L S I N C A P T I V I T Y 73

for the first few weeks, as isolated mon- gooses become extremely aggressive and will attack even juveniles if they d o not have time beforehand to work off their aggressivity. It is of course better to obtain the animals in pairs or groups initially so that this problem does not arise.

A curious phenomenon which should perhaps be mentioned in conclusion is the physical effect resulting from social ostracism. A member of a mongoose group which has been severely attacked by a superior may then be ignored by the rest of the group and even driven away. It will retreat as far from the group as possible and, with its social contact severed, within a few hours begins to exhibit symptoms of lethargy, a staring coat and loss of appetite; in a few days or weeks it dies. Post-mortem examination reveals the presence of neither organic disease nor physical injury, but the blood urea will have risen to more than 100 times its normal level. Similar symptoms in response to social subordination and stress have also been demonstrated in tree-shrews Tupaiidae (1 1) and Field voles Microtus arualis (10) and seem to be a more widespread phenomenon amongst mammals than was previously thought. To date, such animals have always died despite immediate medical attention and removal from the stress situation. Deaths can most easily be

avoided by giving the animals as much room as possible so that they can elude each other in potentially stressful situa- tions.

K E F E R E N ( : E S

1 . RAI.I)WIZI. P. H., S C H W A R I ' L , <;. W. & S C H W h R . 1 7. E. R. (1952): Life history and economir status of the mongoose in Hawaii. J. Mammal. 3s: 33.5-356. 2 . EISNFR. 1'. & D A V I S , J . A. (1968): Mongoose and millipedes. Science, N. Y. , 160: 1367. 3. EWER, R. F. (1973): The carnivores. Ithaca. N .Y. : Cornell University Press. 4 . RASA, A. 0. F. (1972): Some aspects of social organization in captive Dwarf Mongooses. J. Mam- mal. 53: 181-185. 5. RASA. A . O. E. (1973): Intra-familial sexual rr- pression in thc Dwarf Mongoose, Hefogale pawuln. Natunuiss. 60: 303-304. 6. R A S A , A . 0. E. (IY73): Marking behaviour and its social significance in the African Dwarf Mongoose Helogale undulala rufula. Z. Tierpsgchol. 32: 293-3 18. 7. RAS.4. A . 0. E. (1973): Prey capture, feeding techniques and their ontogeny in the African Dwarf Mongoose, Helogale undulata rufula. Z. Tierpsychol. 32: 4 4 9 4 8 8 . 8. R E N S C H . B . & D C C K E R . G. (1959): Die Spiele von Mungo und Ichneumon. Rehauiour 14: 185-2 13. 9. T I N B E K G E N . N. (1951): The study of instinct. Ox- ford: Clarendon Press. 10. V A X D E N MX)VEI. , H . (1973): Sorial subordina- tion, renal function and bchaviour in the field vole. Natunuics. 60: 4 3 4 4 3 5 . 1 1 . V O N HOIST, D. (1972): Die Funktion der Nebennicren mannlicher Tupaia belangeri. J. comp. Physiol. 78: 289-306. 12. WALKER, E. P. (1968): Mammals o/ the world 2. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.

Manuscript submitted 25 March 1974.

Management of meerkats Suricata suricatta

in captivity C. WEMMER' & M. J. F L E M I N G Chicago Zoological Park, Brookfield, Illinois 605 13, USA

Meerkats Suricala suricatla are diurnal, exhibited in small numbers and in condi- social mongooses which come from the tions that do not encourage full expres- drier regions of southern Africa. Al- sion of their diverse and intriguing though common in zoos, they are often habits. This paper outlines some

Present address: 22630, USA.

Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park. Front Royal, Virginia

74 S M A L L M A M M A L S IN C A P T I V I T Y

important behavioural characteristics of the species, presents a cage design that takes these factors into account, and makes management suggest ions based on our experience at the Chicago Zoo (Brook field).

Meerkats are reported to live in colonies of over 25 animals, composed of several families containing adult breeding pairs and their offspring (2). O u r observations indicate that only one 9 per family pro- duces young and that when younger % become sexually mature, they are banished from the family. T h e dd seem able t o coexist peaceably.

Food consists of insects, small verteb- rates, and a variety of fruits and vegeta- bles. Some animals have strong prefer- ences for meat while others prefer fruit. Our animals receive a ground meat mix (Zu/Preern Feline Diet), minced horse- meat, oranges, apples, and grapes sea- sonally. Meat having a loose consistency is preferred to a hard patty. Live crickets and mice are fed twice weekly. Cooked egg yolk should be fed on occasion as a treat as well as young mice, cicadas, l o - custs and grasshoppers. Most food is quickly tossed out of the plate and onto the floor and consequently the food may he covered with sand but meerkats d o not seem t o suffer from it. S l ! H S 1 R X 1 . k

Active meerkats spend a large portion of the day scratching and digging in the substrate even though they reap few rewards for thc effort. Masonry sand is best as i t can be cleaned quickly each day with a screen sifter. Sand absorbs urine and other liquids; it is a good abrasive for the rapidly growingclaws o f the forefeet, and it probably helps to groom the fur to some extent. In the absence of sand the cl;~ws grow long, animals lose interest in scratching and digging and they often grow heavier. Sand changing frequency depends upon the size of the cage and the number of meerkats. I t should be

S O ( : 1 h I B k. I 1 A I’ I O U R

FOOD

removed when it becomes tainted, and the entire cage then scrubbed and disin- fected. T h e cage must be completely dry before fresh sand is added (see Foot Problems). Other types o f substrate (grass clippings, wood shavings, litter green and ‘astro-turf‘) may he more con- venient but in our view are clearly less satisfactory than san?.

As scratching is directed at ir- regularities, small holes, cracks or cre- vices, it is important to locate such fea- tures at a good vantage point for the visitors. A floor drain in an obscure corner of the cage for example, will often stimulate scratching and digging by sev- eral meerkats for long periods, and thus the drain should either be covered or repositioned.

B U R R O W S

Meerkats retire to their burrows to rest, when frightened or when eluding a playmate (see Plate 8). Burrows of the proper size can also help keep the fur in good condition. Man-made burrows built with clay or soil are quickly de- stroyed and so these should be fashioned out of an indestructible material (ce- ment, wiremesh tubes, plastic pipe, tile tubing) and measure about lOcm in diameter. Burrows also become the focal point of play and meerkats will chase one another through them in a game that is highly entertaining to visitors. However, burrows quickly become impregnated with a grimy accumulation o f anal gland and skin scent, which is difficult to clean without adequate access to all parts of the tunnel. We recommend that all tunnels be removable for cleaning purposes. If a mother meerkat prefers a tunnel to a concealed nestbox for her litter we have found that the young often become ex- cessively grimy and acquire a dark mat- ted fur. This is presumably the result of condensation of the animal’s breath on the cool plastic walls of the pipe we use for tunnels. Perhaps a perforated pipe would provide suitable cross-ventilation to prevent this.

S M A L L M A M M A L S IK C A P T I V I T Y 75

P K O M 0 N TO R I ES A S D 1'E M P t R A T U R E R E Q U I R E M E N T S

Certain members of the colony frequent- ly stand upright on their hindlegs as sentinels or to sunbathe in frontof a heat lamp. These animals seem to prefer promontories within the enclosure for this purpose. Meerkats should be main- tained at a temperature between 20-25"C, since they spend most of the time sunbathing in cooler temperatures and are loathe to expend energy on more vigorous activities. Our animals retire to their nestboxes or burrows when the temperature drops below 20°C. Animals also retire duringvery hot weather or stretch out on their bellies on the apparently cooler sand.

S C E N T - M A R K I N G

Meerkats deposit a brownish secretion from the anal gland on prominences within the cage. Active animals will also mark the cage walls even when many suitable marking objects are present. The result is a wide brown band border- ing long sections of the floor. This can be wiped away with soap and water on a weekly basis. When young are present it is best to avoid disturbing the cage and instead a sign can explain the signifi- cance of the wall discolouration to the visitors. Alternatively the wall can be painted a dark d o u r up to 13 cm above the level of the substrate.

WIRE

A N I N D O O K E X H I B I T

In our experience the presence of these features in the enclosure can elicit a full and natural expression of the meerkats' behaviour. The ingenuity and experi- ence of the staff can be used to design an aesthetically pleasing and functional in- door cage (Fig. 1). A simulated termite mound or sandstone stump constructed in one corner of the cage occupies ap- proximately 1.5 m? of floor space and is 1 m high. A wooden foundation should be bolted to the floor of the cage. The desired shape of the mound is produced by nailing pieces of contoured plywood cut to shape with an electric hand sabresaw. These should be reinforced and interconnected with wooden cross struts. 'The position of the burrows and tunnels should be predetermined and channels should be left or cut into the plywood leaves for the pipe. PVC pipes, 10 cm in diameter, and elbows were used for tunnel construction; these should be easily removed for cleaning.

Pieces of wiremesh screen are stapled across the contoured plywood surfaces until the entire structure is covered. A second covering of a larger mesh screen is stapled over the fly screen. The struc- ture is covered with cement and stippled with a wallpaper brush to produce a coarse sand grain finish. The mound can be stained with a water, acid, or oil base stain, available commercially for colour- ing cement.

PLfiTIC TUNNEL H A T W COVER I CONCRETE

MESn

WALL

F L w w

Fig. 1. Cross-section of the concrete 'termite mound' containing plastic tunnels and nestboxes.

76 S M A L L M A M M A L S IN C A P T I V I T Y

The corner o f the mound is a 7 0 ~ 7 0 c m opening in which are placed the nestboxes. This opening is covered with a removable plywood panel.

M A N A(; EM E s . r Foot probltms: Small localized areas of wet sand are o f no consequence, but when all the sand is wet or even moist the foot pads become soft, which may lead to open sores and ulcers. Since merely to add a layer of dry sand does not alleviate the situation, the w e t sand should be immediately replaccd. Excessive urine in tunnels or nestboxes also causes skin irritations.

Tooth problems: Meer-kats have a tenclen- cy to develop heavy deposits of tarter on the teeth. This can be prevented by pro- viding adequate roughage, preferably adult mice. Once a tarter deposit begins, i t often continues to accumulate below the gumline, and leads to irritation, diffi- culty i n chewing, and eventual loss of the tooth. Careful observation at feeding time usually reveals which animals have tarter accumulations. Animals missing all or most of their cheek teeth survive well as long as a balanced diet is pro- vided.

Introduction and removals: Introducing a stranger t o an established group of meerkars almost always results in a fight and the ‘intruder’s’ death, unless it is removed. Likewise, if a family member is removed for any length of time a fight will occur when it is reintroduced. For example, we removed an adult ? for two months from an adult group containingone d a n d three??. When she was reintroduced to the group she was severely attacked. On the other hand w e have removed the adult d from the group containing two other adults and infants for u p t o three days without adverse effects. We are not sure of the maximum amount of time an animal can be removed from a group without evok- ing a fight; thus, if possible, medical

treatments should be administered with- out removing the subject from the cage (unless it is one of a single pair of adults). To build a group, it is best to begin with a single pair and allow them to breed, or to begin with a group of related animals in which social relations are already estab- lished.

Paternal behaviour: T h e father o f a litter is likely to exhibit two patterns o f be- haviour that may alarm the keeper inex- perienced in meerkat management. Some dd have a tendency to carry new- born infants about the cage and deposit them at various locations. T h e 0’s re- sponse is to retrieve the young and de- posit them sornewhere else. If the d is persistent the activity appears chaotic and the young become4cattered about the cage. This pattern has been observed during the first ten days after birth, usually about an hour before feeding. Removal of the d for u p to three days does not prevent its occurrence when he returns. On the other hand his attention could be diverted by presenting food.

T h e d also plays with the young. If no other animal (except the mother) is pres- ent he will d o so as soon as they emerge from the nest and begin moving about. We considered removing our d from his first litter since the play appeared to be excessive and rough at first. However, intense play including biting, clasping, and mounting is not abnormal, though visitors will sometimes interpret the ani- mals’ activity as fighting. Play interac- tions between d and young are probably a normal part of social development within the colony ( 1 ) .

Births: Females are capable of becoming pregnant shortly after giving birth. On three occasions our ? conceived during her postpartum oestrus, but the second litter never survived longer than a week. Maybe the presence of the previous litter somehow interferes with the mother’s ability to execute her maternal duties.

'I'hus, i t might be best t o remove some or all members o f the first litter before the mother gives birth again unless the next litter is not desired for management reasons.

Head-rolling and aggression: O n several occasions shortly after birth we have witnessed an interaction between the mother and her subadult daughter that is manifested by repeated bouts o f head- rolling. This is a rapid alternating rota- tion o f the head directed to the other animal's head. Ewer ( I ) interprets the pattern t o be inhibited biting, and we agree with her interpretation. T h e pat- tern normally is seen rather infrequent- ly , but when it occurs frequently between two animals, it often results in fighting. I t also occurs before fights, e.g. when a stranger is introduced to a colony and when ;1 colony member is reintroduced

after several days' absence. 'I'he be- haviour can be used by keepers as an indication of potential hostilities be- tween two animals.

Elimination in nPstboxe.5: Although meer- kats usually deposit urine and faeces in a corner, they also eliminate inside the nestbox. It is therefore desirable t o pro- vide two nestboxes and to clean them regularly.

I'KOUUCT MI Y T I O U E D I S T t l E TES-I'

Zu/Preem diets: manufactured hy Kiviana Foods. In c.. Hills IXvision, Topeka. Kan. 66601, I!SA.

K E F E K E S C E S 1 . E W E R . R . F. (l9ti3): T h e behaviour o f the iiieci- kat (Suricuki surirnttn (Schrrbei.)). Z. 7irrpsychol. 20: 570-607. 2. S I I C t I A F L I S . H. (1972): IXeSc-hlcic-hkatzen (Vivei. . riden) Afrikas. Siitrgefierk. Milt . 13: 1 - 1 10.

Manuscript submitted 18 March 1974

Observations on captive brockets Mazama americana and M . gouazoubira

W A R R E N 1). T H O M A S Director, G1ndy.s Porter Zoo, Brownsidle, .!exas 78.520, USA

T h e Gladys Porter Zoo has maintained a group o f 20 Red brockets M a z a n a americana temama for several years and has recently acquired seven Brown broc- kets M. gouazoubira pandora. T h e genus Mazuma is subdivided into four species and 20 subspecies and is distributed from Mexico t o Argentina (2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7). In general they a re shy, retiring ani- mals and are seldom seen in the wild. 'They tend to be nocturnal and rely for survival o n their speed and small size to escape predators (5). Given proper care

and surroundings they have proved t o be an excellent zoo exhibit.

T h e Mexican red brocket is a small animal, rarely measuring oveI 4 5 t o 50 cm at the shoulder or weighing more than 20 kg. T h e Yucatan brown brocket is slightly larger in size, being 2 to 5 cm taller at the shoulder and weighing 2 t o 4 k g more than the Red. Red brockets are a deep, rich red coppery-chestnut colour becoming darker o n the legs and fading into a near white on the under- side and neck (see Plates 3 and 4).

' I'he author is now Director o f the 1.0s Angeles %cm, California 90027. LISA