Manned Space-Flight Experiments Gemini V Mission

8/7/2019 Manned Space-Flight Experiments Gemini V Mission

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MANN ED SPACE- FLIGHT EXPER IMENTSINTERIM REPORTGEMINI V MISSION

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AUDITORIUM OF THE FEDER AL OFFIC E BUILDING-6WASHINGTON, D. C.JANUARY 6, 1966


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FORENORD

T h is c o m p i l a t io n of p a p e r s c o n s t i t u t e s a n i n t e r i m r e p o r t on t h ere su l t s o f exper im en t s conduc ted du r i n g t h e Gemini V manned space f l ight .The resul ts of experiments conducted on Gemini I11 and I V manned spacef l i g h t s ha ve b ee n p u b l is h e d p r e v i o u s l y i n a s i m i l a r i n t e r i m r e p o r t ,"Manned Space Flight Experiments Symposium, Gemini Missions I11 and IVY"which i s avai lable upon reques t f rom M S C Experiments Program Office,Houston, Texas (Code EX , A t t e n t i o n o f R . K i n a r d ) .

The Gemini V m i ss i on p ro vi de d t h e g r e a t e s t o p p o r tu n i t y t o d a t e f o rconduc t ing exper im en t s ; t he inc reased m iss ion dura t ion o f e igh t daysprovided t h i s added ca pa bi l i ty , The t o t a l miss ion exper iment complementw a s s e ve n te e n. F i v e e x p er i me n ts w ere d es ig n ed t o o b t a i n b a s i c s c i e n t i f i cknowledge, f i v e were medical , and seven were te chn ol og ica l and engine er ingi n n a tu r e. S i x of t h e exp eriment s had f lown pre vi ou sly on Gemini I V Y andelev en were new. The re su l t s of th e exper iments , in c lud ing real- t imem odi f i ca t ion t o p re f l ig h t p l ans made necessa ry by abnormal spa cec r a f ts ys te m o p e r a t i o n , a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e f o l lo w i n g p a p e r s.

I n k e ep in g w i th t h e p ri ma ry purpose o f t h i s s e r i e s of a c t i v i t i e s ,which i s t h e e a r l y r e p o r t i n g a n d d i s s e m i n a t i o n of t he r e su l t s o f Gem in if l i g h t e xp e ri me nt s, it s ho ul d b e r e i t e r a t e d t h a t some o f t h e r e s u l t sp r es e nt e d a r e t e n t a t i v e . A s D r . Mueller pointed out by way of i n t roduc-t i o n t o th e previo us symposium, th e exper imenters have i n some cases no tcomple ted t h e i r ana lyses o f t h e da t a . M oreover, a number of experimentsw i l l be r epea te d on fu t u re m is s ions , and th e t o t a l experimen t w i l l no tb e c om p le te u n t i l a l l t h e m is s ions have been conduc ted and th e r e s u l t sco r re l a t ed and ana lyzed .


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CONTENTS

PageFOREWORD.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii1. EXPERIMENT S-1, ZODIACAL LIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . 1

By E . P. Ney, Ph.D.; andW . F. Huch, Ph.D., U ni ve rs it y of Minn esota. . . . . . .2. EXPERIMENT S-5, SYNOPTIC TERRAIN PHOTOGWHY 9By Paul D . Lowman, J r . , Ph.D., NASA Goddard SpaceF l i g h t C e n t e r . . . . . . .3. EXPERIMENT S-6, SYNOPTIC WEATHER PHOTOGRAPHY 19

S t a n l e y D . S o u l e s , N a t i o n a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l S a t e l l i t eBy Kenneth M . N ag le r, U.S. Weather Bu re au , ESSA; and

Center, ESSA . . . . . . . . . .4. EXPERIMENT S-7, CLOUD-TOP SPECTROMETER 31By F. S ai ed y, Ph.D., U ni ve rs it y of Maryland;D. Q. Wark; andW . A . Morgan, Environmen tal Scie nce Ser vi ce s

Adminis tra t i o n5. EXPERIMENT S-8/D-13, VISUAL ACUITY AND ASTRONAUT

VISIBILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45By Seibert Q. Duntley, Ph.D.;Roswell W . Aust in ;John H . Taylor ; and

James L. H a r r i s , V i s i b i l i t y L ab o ra to r y, S c r i p p sIns t i tu t e o f Oceanography , Unive r s i ty o f Ca l i fo rn ia6 (a ) . EXPERIMENT M - 1 , CARDIOVASCULAR CONDITIONING . . . . . . . 75By Lawrence F. D i e t l e i n , M.D.; and

W i l l i a m V. Ju dy , NASA Manned Sp ac ec ra ft Ce nt er6 ( b ) . EXPERIMENT M-3, IN-FLIGHT EXERCISER . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 1

By Lawrence F. Dietlein, M.D.; andRi ta M . Rapp, NASA Manned S p ace c ra f t C en te r


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Page7 . EXPERIMENT M-6, BONE MINERALIZATION . . . . . . . . . 109

By Pauline B . Mack, Ph.D., Nelda Ch il de rs S ta rkLabora t o ry fo r Human N u t r i t i o n R e se ar ch ;George P. Vose, M.S., Texas Woman's U n i v e r s i t y ;Fred B . Vogt, M.D., T e x a s I n s t i t u t e f o rP a u l A. LaChance , Ph.D., NASA Manned S p a c e c r a f tR e h a b i l i t a t i o n and Research; and

Center8. EXPERIMFNT M-9, HUMAN OTOLITH . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

By E . F . M i l l e r , 11, M.D., U.S. Naval Avi a t i onMedical Center9 . EXPERIMENT D 4 / D 7 , C E L E S T I m RADIOMETRY ARDSPACE-OBJECT RADIOMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 1

By Major B . B r e n t n a l l , A i r Force Systems Command,NASA Manned S p a c e c r a f t C en te r10. MPE8IMENTS D-1, D-2 , AND D - 6 , BASIC OBJECT,

NEARBY OBJECT, AND SURFACE PHOTOGRAPHY . . . . . . .By Col. D . McKee, A i r Force Systems Command, 169NASA Manned S p a c e c ra f t Ce nt er


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1. EXPERIMENT S - 1 , ZODIACAL LIGHT PH0TOGFU"Y

By E. P. Ney and W. F. HuchUniversity of Minnesota

The light o f the imonless night sky as viewed from the ground con-sists principally of scattered light from cities, twilight and starlight,zodiacal light, airglow, and aurora." All of these contributing sourcesvary with either time or position in the sky, or both. The quantitativeobservation of any of these from the ground is further complicated by theeffects of scattering and absorption within the atmosphere. For severalyears, the University of Minnesota has carried out a program aimed atseparating and understanding the individual contributions to the nightsky brightness.polarimeters, and special camera techniques. More recently, we have hadthe assistance of the manned space program in obtaining special photo-graphs in earth-orbiting missions (MA-9and Gemini V).

In this study, we have used balloon-borne photometers,

The principal purpose of this report is to describe the Gemini Vobservations in the context of their relation to ground-based and balloonexperiments on dim-light phenomena.Zodiacal light is the visible manifestation of dust grains in orbitabout the sun. The brightness of the light at 20" elongation from the

sun and on the ecliptic is about 2 x of the sun's surface bright-ness, or about the same as the zenith sky observed from the ground atthe time of full moon. At 60" elongation, the brightness is about2 x of the sun's surface brightness, or about one-half the bright-ness of the brightest milky way. At larger elongation angles, the zodia-cal light becomes obscured by the terrestrial continuum airglow, whichhas an average surface brightness of about 2 x 10 of the sun's surfacebrightness. In the direction approximately opposite to the sun is thephenomenon of the gegenschein, which is believed to be about 2 x 10 ofthe sun's surface brightness. N o previous attempts to photograph thegegenschein were successful.

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*Although lightning is an important contributor and Cerenkov light fromcosmic-ray air showers is a detectable source, we confine ourselves hereto slowly varying sources of light.


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As observed from the ground, the zodiacal light is grossly distortedby the effects of atmospheric extinction. From balloons at 100 000 feet,the effects of atmospheric extinction may be essentially eliminated, evenin the horizontal direction.the zodiacal light. The photograph was made with Ansco film 529, anf/@.8 lens, and a 1-minute exposure.zontal direction is 21".tal, and the ecliptic appropriate for figure l-1.was made over Texas to eliminate aurora.graph as a diffuse light increasing toward the horizontal, according tothe Van Rijn variation of brightness with zenith angle. No twilight isevident in figure 1-1;however, measuring the zodiacal light from bal-loons is impossible at elongation angles of less than 19" because of thetwilight.mine the minimum angle from the sun at which the zodiacal light could bestudied without twilight contamination.

Figure 1-1 shows a balloon photograph ofThe solar elongation in the hori-Figure 1-2 shows the star field, the horizon-The balloon photographThe airglow shows in the photo-

One of the objectives of the Gemini V experiment was to deter-

To estimate airglow contamination of zodiacal light measurements inthe visible region of the spectrum, an experiment was performed in theMA-9 flight (ref. 1).photographed the airglow in profile from above, with exposures of 10 sec-onds, 30 seconds, and 120 seconds on Ansco film 529.one of these photographs.the horizon is delineated by very distant lightning strokes, and theairglow layer shows with a sharp line on top and a rather diffuse illu-mination below.in the visible region of the spectrum arises in a layer 20 km thick andat an altitude of about 95 km.it had not previously been demonstrated because height measurements ofthe airglow have been made for selected lines and small regions of thecontinuum. The principal brightness, however, is throughout the con-tinuum, and broad-band spectral observations with the MA-9photographsshow that all the important illumination within the film bandwidth arisesin a thin layer. This statement cannot, of course, be taken to includethe 6300 line of oxygen or the infrared to which the film is not sensi-tive.the light was reaching the film and only third-magnitude stars could beidentified because of the low transmission of the spacecraft window.

Cooper carried a camera with an f/l lens andFigure 1-3 showsThe moon had not risen, so the earth is dark,

These photographs showed that the majority of the lightAlthough this result was not unexpected,

Sensitometry of the MA-9 negatives showed that only 10 percent of

The MA-9 experiment had conclusively shown that experiments onextraterrestrial light could be performed without airglow contaminationat altitudes above 90 km.the following questions: What is the smallest elongation at whichzodiacal light measurements can be made from an earth-orbiting spacecraftabove the airglow layer? Can the gegenschein be detected and meas-ured from above the airglow layer?

The Gemini V experiments were addressed to(a)(b)


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3The camera designed fo r t h e exper iments had an f / l l e n s , u s e dEastman Kodak T r i X f i lm , and w a s p r o g r a m e d w i t h t r a n s i s t o r c i r c u i t s t ot ak e doub l i ng exposu res i n sequence , s t a r t i ng a t 1 / 2 second and f i na l l y

r each i ng 3 minutes . Between succ essiv e exposu res , 20 seconds o f shu t t e r -c l osed t i me was a l lowed f o r spa ce cra f t maneuver ing. The f i e l d o f viewof the camera w a s 50" by 130, o b t a in e d b y r o t a t i n g t h e o p t i c a l s y st emdur in g th e exposure . With t h e camera mounted i n t h e p i l o t ' s window, ap h o t o s e n s i t i v e eye w a s a r r an g e d t o s ta r t th e programed sequence a t sun-s e t . I n t h e a c t u a l e x p e r i m e n t , t h e p h o t o e y e w a s no t u sed because t hecamera was tu rned on by Conrad prec i se ly a t sunse t .

The experiment, performed on August 24, 1965, d u ri n g o r b i t 46, w a scomposed of two parts. Before su ns et , t he command p i l o t (Cooper) ac-q u i r e d a d e f i n i t e s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n i n which h e us ed h i s r e t i c l eand t he Sou t he rn Cross as a r e f e r ence . This plac ed th e o t he r window andt h e c amera i n t h e c o r r e c t p o s i t i o n t o ph oto gra ph t h e t w i l i g h t a nd t h ez o d ia c a l l i g h t . A f t e r 5 minutes of s t epped exposu re s , t he spacec ra f tw a s maneuvered t o t he Con s t e l l a t i on Grus, where a and B Grus andFomalhau t supp l i ed t h e r e f e r ence f i e l d for t h e r e t i c l e . The p o s i t i o no p p o s i t e t h e s u n w a s c e nt er e d i n t h e c am era 's f i e l d . I n t h i s o r i e n t a -t i o n , s p a c e c r a f t m o ti on s were s topped as f a r as p o s s i b l e ( u s in g t h e r e f -e rence s t a r s ) t o a tt em pt a n i n e r t i a l f ix .t a k e n , a n d t h r e e o f t h e s e are of spec i a l i n t e r e s t . F rames 1 t h rough 5are p r o p e r l y e x p o s e d , b u t t h e t w i l i g h t was so b r i g h t t h a t i t obscuredt h e z o d i ac a l l i g h t .exposure. Also v i s i b l e i n t h i s n eg at iv e i s t h e i l l u m i n a t e d h o r i z o n ,w i t h t h e a i r g l o w l ayer showing i n p ro f i l e above i t . The frame representsapproximate ly the smallest e l o n g a t i o n a t wh ic h z o d i a c a l l i g h t may bes t u d i e d w i t h o u t e x t e r n a l o c c u l t i n g ; t h e e l o n g a t io n i s 16".

I n a l l , 17 exposu res were

Frame 7 shows t h e zod i aca l l i g h t wi t h an 81 -second

Thi s phot ograph may be s t u d i ed qu an t i t a t i v e l y f o r a i rg l ow b r i g h t ne s sand z o d ia c a l l i g h t , b u t t h i s s tu d y a pp ea rs v er y d i f f i c u l t b e ca us e of ap h ot o gr a ph i c a r t i f a c t . F i g u re 1-4 i s a p r i n t o f frame 7 , which showst h e z o di a ca l l i g h t ; f i g u r e 1-5 i s a ske t ch o f t he s t a r f i e l d shown i nf i g u r e 1-4. The t op po r t i on o f frame 7 was p r i n t e d w it h 40 t imes t h ee xp o su re o f t h e t o p . T h is r a t i o b r i n g s o u t t h e e a r t h l im b and t h e a i r -glow l a y e r w hich show i n s p i t e of t h e a r t i f a c t .i n p r o f i l e , h as a bo ut t h e same s u r f a c e b r i g h t n e s s as t h e z o d i a c a l l i g h ta t 16O e l onga t i on .4 x The r a t i o o f p r o f i l e t o ze-n i t h b ri g h t n e s s o f t h e a ir g lo w i s about 40, so t h e i n f e r r e d z e n i t h a i r -glow br ightness i st h r e e t imes b r i g h t e r t h a n t h e a v e r a g e n i g h t t i m e a i r g l o w b u t w i t h i n t h erange of variat ion commonly observed.

The ai rg low la y er , viewedThe z o d i a ca l l i g h t a t t h i s e l o n g a ti o n ( r e f . 2 ) i s

o f t h e s u n ' s s u r f a c e b r i g h t n e s s .o f t h e s u n ' s s u rf a c e b r i g h t n e s s . T h is i s about

Frames 8 an d 9 show exposure of t he f i l m by t h r us t e r l i g h t , andf rarnec. I n - i L e x c e c e i ~ ~ eznotior, ~f t h e stai- field. iivwever, frames


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1 5 and 1 6 r e p r e s e n t good c e l e s t i a l h o l d s , and b o th o f t h e s e n e g a t i ve sappear t o show th e gegenschein . I t s c e n t e r i s about halfway between0 and I Aquarius, and it a p p ea r s t o ha ve a n a n g u l a r s i z e o f a b ou t loo.I t i s w i t h i n a f e w deg rees of t h e d i r e c t i o n o p p os i te t o t h e s un. I t sb r i g h t n e s s i s e s ti m at ed t o b e i n t h e r an ge of 1X 1 0 t o 9 X oft h e s u n ' s s u r f a c e b r i g h t n e s s . F i g u r e 1-6 shows th e s t a r f i e l d photo-g raphed i n th e gegensche in exper iment . S t a r s t o t h e s ix th magn itude mayb e i d e n t i f i e d . F i g u r e 1-7 i s a drawing wh ich r ep resen t s t he s t a r f i e l dshown in f igure 1-6. The d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t o t h e sun s h o ul d b e t h ed i r e c t i o n o f t h e g e g e n s c h e i n i f t h i s phenomenon i s produced by the back-s c a t t e r i n g of s u n l i g h t b y d u s t . T h er e i s no evidence o f t h e w e s t e r lyd i sp lacemen t which might be expec ted i f t h e gegensche in r e su l t ed f rom acomet-l ike dust t a i l of t h e e a r t h .

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REFERENCES

, 1. G i l l e t t , F. C . ; Huch, W . F . ; Ney, E . P . ; and Cooper, G . : J . Geophys.Res. , vol. 69 , no . 13, 1 9 6 4 , p. 2827.

2. G i l l e t t , F . C.; S t e i n , W. A . ; and Ney, E. P . : Astrophys . J . ,vol. 140, no . 1, 1 9 6 4 , p. 292.


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Figure 1-3.-Photograph of t h e a i r gl o w viewed i n p r o f i l e from above.This was one of th e exposures t aken i n MA-9.shows t h e a i r g l o w i n s p i t e of a f a c t o r of about 1 0 i n a t te n u a ti o nthrough the spacecraf t window.p i c t u r e are on the d i s t a n t hor i zon , and t h e sky i s moonless.

The 30-second f/lThe l i gh t n i ng flashes i n t h i s


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Figure 1h.-Print of frame 7, from theGemini V experiment.of the print has been given 40 timestne exposure of the bottom. The qual-ity of the bottom portion is degradedby an artifact, but the airglow layerand the horizon lit by twilight can beclearly seen. The zodiacal light iscentered on the ecliptic. In the ori-ginal negative, the zodiacal light canbe seen as far as the star a Libra.Because of the manner in which the fieldis exposed, the top and bottom portionsof the frame have less exposure than thecenter.

The upper portionFigure 1-5.- Sketch of the pertinentfeatures of figure 1-4.


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Figure 1-6.- Print of frame 1 5 , from the Gemini V experiment. The con tr asti n t h i s p ic t ur e i s enhanced by photographic reproduction , but the exposurei n the gegenschein are a i s quite evident on the original negative. Twophotographs of t h i s area were obtained, and both show th e enhanced exposurei n the gegenschein dire cti on.

Figure 1-7.-Drawing of the s tar f i e l d shown i n fig ure 1-6. The brightst ar s are ident ified, and th ei r visua l magnitudes are writ ten next t othe Greek letters. For example, 8 Aquarius i s fo ur th magnitude. Satu rnand Alta i r are f i r s t magnitude. Sixth magnitude s ta rs are iden t i f iedin sp i te of the motion during t h i s 160-second exposure.


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2 . EXPERIMENT S-5, SYNOPTIC TERRAIN PHOTOGRAPHY

Paul D Lowman, Jr ., Ph . D .NASA Goddard Space F l i g h t C en te rThe Synop tic T er ra in Photography Experiment (S-5) w a s s u c c e s s f u l l yconduc ted dur ing th e Gem in iV m iss ion , t he second o f the Gem ini f l i g h t son which i t w a s ca r r i e d . Th i s r ep or t sum marizes b r i e f l y th e m ethods andr e s u l t s o f t h e e x pe ri me n t. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e many e x c e l l e n t p i c t u r e so b t a i n e d i s i n p r o g r e s s , a nd a f u l l r e po rt i s n o t p o s s i b l e a t t h i s t i m e ;

i n s t e a d , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p i c t u r e s w i l l be p resen ted and desc r ibed .The purpose o f t h e exper iment was t o o bt a i n a large number of h igh-q u a l i t y co lor p h o to g ra p hs o f s e l e c t e d l a n d a r e a s f o r g e o l o g ic a nd g eo -g raph i c s tudy . Sou the rn M exico , e as t e rn Af r i ca , and Au s t r a l i a wereg i ve n h i g h p r i o r i t y , b u t i t w a s s t r e s s e d t h a t good pic tures of any c loud-f r e e la nd ar ea would be us ef ul . The same camera (H asse lbl ad 500 C ) and

f i l m (Ektachrome MS) used on the G e m i n i I11 and IV m iss ions were ca r r i edon the Gemini V f l i g h t .*

The exper im en t can be cons ide red h igh ly suc cess fu l . Desp i t e fu e land power l im i t a t ions , wh ich p reven ted spacec ra f t o r i en ta t ion , approx i -mately 170 u s a b l e p i c t u r e s of l and a reas were t aken ; a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o no f t h e s e a r e o f e x c e l l e n t q u a l i t y , a n d a few a r e e v en u s a b l e f o r s t e r e o -scopic s tudy. The lo ca t i on s and t imes of a l l 70-mm H a s s e l b l a d p i c t u r e sa r e l i s t e d i n r e fe re nc e 1.F i g u r e 2-1 , taken over I ran , shows an area approximate ly 90 m i l e son a side of the Zagros Mountains, about 50 m i le s e a s t o f t h e c i t y of

Sh i ra z . The two l a rg e l a ke s , pa r t ly su r rounded by s a l t f l a t s , a r e t h eDaryacheh-ye Tashk ( t o t h e nor th ) and th e Daryacheh-ye Bakhtegan. Thenor thw est - t ren ding ranges a re most ly Mesozoic and T er t i a r y sedimentaryr o c k s f o l d e d i n t o a s e r i e s of a n t i c l i n e s and s y n c li n e s . The d a rk h i l l sa t bot tom center a re composed of volcanic rock.T h is p i c t u r e a pp ea rs t o be p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l f o r r e f i n i n g e x i s t i n gmaps of the area . I t shows cons ide rab ly more g eo log ic and topogr aph icd e t a i l t h a n t h e G e o l o g ic a l Map o f I r a n ( r e f . 2 ) whose scale (1:2 500 000)i s c lo se t o t h a t of th e Gemini photograph. The p i c t u r e would be espe-c i a l l y use fu l i n mapping Qua ternary a l luv ium and eva por i t e d ep os i t s andi n d e l in e a t i n g major f a u l t s .F i g u r e s 2-2 and 2 - 3 , taken over southwestern I r an , show an are a ofgr ea t geo log ic i n t e r e s t . The mountain ranges ar e Cenozoic sedimentaryrocks fo lded i n to an t i c l in es and sync l ines o f r em arkab le com plex i ty . O f


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p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e f a u l t s ca rp a t t h e l e f t . T h i s f e a t u r e r e -f l e c t s a r ecen t and p robab l y s t i l l a c t i v e f a u l t o f t h e " s c i s s o rs " t y pei n which movement has opp os i t e d i re c t io n s a t oppos i t e ends .b ot to m of t h e p i c t u r e , t h e r igh t -hand f a u l t b lock has moved up; towardt h e t op , t h e l e f t - han d s i de has moved up . The r ecency o f t he f au l t i sshown by t h e v i r t u a l l y n e g l i g i b l e amount o f d i s s e c t i o n of t h e s c a r p .l i n e a r f e a t u r e s t o t h e l e f t o f t h e f a u l t a r e p ro ba bl y t r u nc a t e d s t r a t ar a t h e r t h a n s an d d u ne s, s i n c e t h e y c a n b e s e e n t o c o n t i n u e u n de r t h e a l -luvium.

Toward th eThe

Figure 2-4 shows th e mouth of t h e Yangtze Riv er and t h e E a s t ChinaS e a , l oo k in g t ow ar d t h e e a s t . T h i s p i c t u r e i s typ ica l of many takendur ing t h e Gemini V mission which show submarine topography and turbid-i t y c u r re n ts .v a l u e f o r hydrologic and oceanographic s tudies ( r e f . 3 ) , s i n c e t h e ypermi t a s i mul t aneous v i ew o f l a rge ocean a r eas , wi t h t he added advan-t a g e of c o l o r .

Such photographs a r e be l i ev e d t o be of g r e a t p o t e n t i a l

Figure 2-5, taken over New Mexico, i s one o f t h e most n o r t he r l yp i c t u r e s o f t h e Un i t ed S t a t e s ob t a i ned on any o f t h e Mercu ry o r Geminif l i g h t s . I t shows a wide va r i e t y o f r ock t ypes and s t ru c t u r e s . Thewhi te pa tch a t t o p ce n t e r (marr ed by a f l a w ) i s the gypsum sand of theWhite Sands N at io na l Monument. West of t h e Monument a r e t h e San AndresMountains, which ar e bordered on t h e s o ut h by t h e T e r t i a r y v o l c a n i c s o ft h e Organ Mountains. West of the R i o Grande, a t t h e t op l e f t , a s e r i e sof n o rt he rl y- tr en di ng f a u l t s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of Magdalena Peak a rev i s i b l e . F i n a l l y , a t l e a s t two u n i t s c an b e d i s t i n g u i sh e d i n t h e Quater-na ry basa l t f l ows west of the Rio Grande a t t h e l e f t , a l t ho u g h t h e m ostrecent geologic map of New Mexico ( r e f . 4 ) shows on ly one map u n i t .

T h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a r ece n t geo l og i c map o f t h i s a rea makes t h i spho t ograph o f pa r t i cu l a r va l ue fo r compar i son pu rposes .s t u d y i n d i c a t e s t h a t many of t h e m a jo r l i t h o l o g i c u n i t s a nd s t r u c t u r e s( e s p e c i a l l y f a u l t s ) shown on t h e 1:500 000 sca le geologic map a rev i s i b l e o n t h e p ho to gr ap h , whose o r i g i n a l s c a l e w a s about 1:2 000 000.The photograph, moreover, shows many f e a t u r e s o f Qua t e r na ry a l l uv i umwhich a re no t shown on th e map and pe rm its ra pi d d ete rm in at i on of t h ee x t e n t o f t h e pediments sur rounding t h e mounta ins , f e a t ur es which a reno t shown c l ea r l y on e i t he r t opograph i c o r geo l og i c maps .

P r e l i m i n a r y

Because of day l i gh t r e s t r i c t i o n s , pho tog raph ing sou t he rn Af r i ca w a sn o t p o s s i b le d u ri n g f l i g h t s p r i o r t o G emini V. However, a large numbero f e xc e l le n t p i c t u r e s of t h i s a r e a were o b t a in e d d u r in g t h i s m i s s io n .One of t h e s e i s shown i n f ig ur e 2-6, taken over South West Afr ica .i nc l udes a con s ide rabl e pa r t o f t h e Namib Des er t , which ex tends fo rseve ra l hundred m i l e s a l on g t h e c o a s t o f s o u t h er n A f r i c a , and p a r t o ft h e P recambri an sh i e l d . Th i s p i c t u r e demons t ra t e s t h e p o t e n t i a l v a l u e

I t


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of h y p e r a l t i t u d e p h o t o g r a p h y f o r s t u d i e s o f r e g i o n a l s a n d d u n e d i s t r i b u -t i o n a nd s t r u c t u r a l g eo lo gy . The co ns pi cu ou s f r a c t u r e p a t t e r n a t t h er i g h t i s covered more completely by a n ad jo in ing pho tograph . An i n -t e r e s t i n g c i r c u l a r f e a t u r e i s shown a t t h e t o p r i g h t , v ag ue ly s u g g e s t i v eof t h e Richa t s t ru c t u r e pho tographed on th e Gemini I V m iss ion .

CONCLUDING REMARKS

T h i s r e p o r t c o v e r s o n l y a v e r y small part of the immense amount ofg e o l o g i c a nd g e o g ra p h ic i n f o r m a t io n c o n t a in e d i n t h e t e r r a i n ph o to g ra p hstaken dur ing the Gem in i V m i s si o n . F u r th e r d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s a r e i n p ro g-r e s s t o e v a l u a t e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e e xp er im en t. The crew a r e t o b e com-mended for t h e i r i n t e r e s t and competence i n c a r ry i n g ou t t h e t e r r a i np ho to gr ap hy un de r d i f f i c u l t c o n d i t i on s .

REFERENCES

1. Underwood, R . W . : Gemini V 7Omm Photography I d e n t if i c a t io n . NASAB L - 1 1 1 , S e p t . 7 , 1 9 6 5 .2 . N a t i o n a l I r a n i a n O i l Company: Ge ol og ic al Map of I r a n (1:2,500,000).

19573. G e t t y s , R . F . : Evaluation of Color Photos Exposed from the Gemini(GT-4) Fl ig h t ove r th e Gulf o f Ca l i fo rn i a . Unpub li shed m anusc r ip t ,

Techn ica l P roduc t ion Depar tm ent , U . S. Naval Oceanographic Of f ic e ,Washington, D .C . , June 1965 .

4. Dane, C . H . ; and Bachman, G . 0. : Geologic Map of New Mexico. U. S .Geolog ica l Survey , 1 9 6 5 .


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Figure 2-1.- South-central Iran, showing the Zagros Mountains.


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Figure 2-2 . - Sou th -e a s te rn I r a n , showing f o lded mountains cut by scissors f au l t ( l e f t ) .


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Figur e 2-5.- Soutri-eastern Iran, snowing an area o folded mountains overlapping the areashown in figure 2-2.


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Figure 2-4.- Mouth of the Yangtze R i v e r , showing b o t t o n i topogra phy and!or tm.:? idi ly c i r r a n t s .


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Figure 2- 5 . - South-central New Mexico, showing the Rio Grande val ley, the Sar i Andresand Organ Mountains, and t h e White Sands Nat io na l Monument ( t o p ) .


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3 . EXPERIMEI\JT S - 6 , SYNOPTIC WEATHER PHOTCGRAPHY

By Kenneth M. NaglerU. S. Weather Bureau, ESSAStanley D. SoulesNational Environmental Satellite Center, ESSA

SUMMARY

As part of the continuing effort to obtain a selection of high-resolution color pictures of cloud systems, well over a hundred views ofmeteorological interest were obtained by the Gemini V crew. A number ofthese are being studied by various investigators.

DESCRIPTION

The S-6weather photograpny experiment on Gemini V was a continu-ation of the effort to collect a selection of meteorologically inter-esting photographs.Gemini and Mercury flights--especially Gemini IV, the first flight onwhich weather photography was scheduled as a specific experiment.A number of cloud pictures were obtained on previous

Since weather is highly variable from area to area and day to day, .there remain many cloud systems which meteorologists would like to seephotographed in color on the scale obtainable from the Gemini flight al-titudes.The basic aims, procedures, and equipment for the weather photog-raphy effort are essentially the same as have been discussed previ-

ously (refs. 1, 2).Briefly, for a variety of systems, one aim is to get pictures whichhelp in interpreting meteorological satellite views.cover much of the earth each day and are becoming an increasingly impor-tant part of the world's meteorological observation system.the requirement for extensive area coverage through televised picturesgoes a limitation in resolution.the meteorologist interpret some of the features he sees on the opera-tional meteorological satellite pictures.

TIROS picturesBut with

Thus, the Gemini photographs can help


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Also, there are special meteorological and related phenomena whichcan be studied through pictures on the scale obtainable on the Geminiphotographs.Another aim is the obtaining of views of the same cloud pattern ontwo or more passes of the spacecraft on the same day in order to studymovement and changes over fairly short time intervals.The procedures for conducting the experiment were the same as forthe Gemini IV flight. Well in advance of the flight, a number of mete-orologists (primarily from tne National Environmental Satellite Centerand the Weather Bureau) were queried as to the types of cloud systemsthey would like to see and as to what particular geographical areas wereof interest to them. Several months before tne flight, the aims of theexperiment were discussed in detail with the flight crew.specific types of clouds were suggested as possibilities f o r viewing ontheir mission.

A number of

The mission plan was arranged so that the pilots could devote partof their time over the pre-selected areas to this cloud photography. AtCape Kennedy on the day preceding launch, the pilots were briefed on sev-eral interesting features likely to be seen on their mission. From timeto time during the mission, areas of interest were selected from weatheranalyses and from TLROS pictures. Whenever operationally feasible, thisinformation was communicated to the crew in time for them to locate andto photograph the clouds in question, provided this did not interferewrith their-otherduties.attitude of the spacecraft for this purpose, the pilots were able tosearch for the desired locations. Otherwise, they could take picturesonly of those scenes which happened to come into view.

As long as fuel was available for changing the

The equipment consisted of the Hasselblad camera (Model 500 C, mod-ified by NASA) with a haze filter on the standard Zeiss Planar, 80-IIIIIIf2.8 lens. The 70-mm film used on the flight--for the combined purposesof the S-6 weather photography experiment, the S-3 terrain photographyexperiment, and general purpose photography--included three rolls ofEktachrome MS SO-217 film and one roll of Anscochrome D-70 film, for atotal of about 250 frames.

RFSULTS

Astronauts Cooper and Conrad used all of the film and, with a veryfew exceptions, obtained photographs of excellent quality. Over half ofthe pictures showed clouds. A selection of views of special meteorolog-ical interest is shown here.


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Always o f in t e res t are v ie ws o f t r o p i c a l st o rm s . F i g u r e 3-1 showsa s m a l l t r o p i c a l s t o rm n e a r t h e M a rs h al l I s l a n d s . The s p i r a l c l o u d b an dsand t h e s u r r o u n d in g c lo u d s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s im mature d i s t u r b a n c e c a nbe seen i n g r ea t de t a i l . F igu re 3-2 shows Tro p ic a l S to rm Doreen i n t h ee a s t e r n N o r t h P a c i f i c , a l a r g e r storm of n e a r l y t yp ho on i n t e n s i t y . I na d d i t i o n t o g e t t i n g p i c t u r e s o f t h i s s to rm , t h e Gemini V crew twice pro-v ided t im e ly in fo rm at ion on i t s l oc a t i on , i n fo rm at ion which w a s used byt h e W eather B urea u i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f advisor ies on Doreen.

Views of an area of F l o r i d a on s u c c e s si v e p a s s e s o f t h e s p a c e c r a f ta re shown i n f i g u re s 3-3 throu gh 3-5.10 :30 a . m . l o c a l t i m e ) t h a t cumulus clouds had formed over most of t h el a n d a reas , b u t , w i t h a few except ions such as t h e o n e o v e r Merr i t t Is-lan d, t h e c louds d i d not have much v e r t i c a l development. By about noonl o c a l t i me ( f i g . 3-4) , a l i n e of towering cumulus had formed some 20 t o30 mi l es in l an d f rom t h e ea s t coa s t . By about 1 : 30 p.m. ( f i g . 3-5) , someof t h es e tower ing cumulus c louds had r eached th e thunder s to rm s t a ge , andt h e i r c i r r u s a n v i l t o p s h ad s p r ea d westward t o c e n t r a l F l o r i d a .

Note i n f i g u r e 3-3 ( abou t

F i g u r e 3-6, o v e r l a p p in g t h e p r e v io u s p i c t u r e , c o mp l et es t h e v ie w o fF l o r id a and shows a la r g e thund ersto rm southwest of Miami. On t h e fo l-lowing day , abou t 24 hour s a f t e r f igu res 3 -5 and 3-6 were t aken , t hec l o ud p a t t e r n o v er F l o r i d a w a s as shown i n f i gu re 3-7. A gain , t h e l i n eo f g r e a t e r v e r t i c a l developm ent o c c ur r e d - except over w a t e r a r e a s - b u twi th s t rong thunders torm development c on fi ne d t o t h e w e s t e rn p a r t o f t h eF l o r id a Keys. The c loud s t r e e t s a re p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l formed and area l i n e d w i t h t h e e a s t e r l y winds b l ow in g s t r a i g h t a c r o s s F l o r i d a .

These a nd o t h e r v ie ws o f F l o r i d a a r e b e in g s t u d i e d r e l a t i v e t o t h elo ca t i on and t imin g of thunde rs torm format ion i n th e Cape Kennedy -Merr i t t I s l a n d r e g io n .

A s w a s m ent ioned i n th e d i scuss ions o f th e c loud pho tography exper-iment on Gemini I V Y some fea tures bes ides c louds a r e o f i n t e r e s t t o mete-o r o l o g is t s and s c i e n t i s t s i n r e l a t e d f i e l d s . F ig u re 3-8 i l l u s t r a t e s av ie w o f i n t e r e s t t o o ce an og ra ph er s. The d e t a i l i n t h e s h a ll o w w a t erbo ttom conf igura t ion i n t h e Bahama a re a as s e e n on t h i s a nd o t h e r v i ew si s b e in g s t u d i e d. A ls o, b e ca us e o f c e r t a i n s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e de po si -t i o n of wind-borne and water-borne sand , t h e oceanographers as w e l l asm e t eo r o lo g is t s a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e c o n fi g u ra t io n o f sand dunes showni n some o f t h e p i c t u r e s t a k e n as p a r t of t h e S-5 experiment .

In summary, t h e h igh-qu al i ty p i c tu re s tak en by th e Gemini V crewhave made a d e f i n i t e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e know ledge o f c l o ud s y s te m s .They a r e v er y much i n demand by t h e met eor olo gic al community and a r ebe ing used or p l an n ed f o r u s e i n a number of meteorologica l and re la tedi n v e s t i g a t i o n s .


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REFERENCES

1. Nagler, K. M . ; and Soules, S. D . : Cloud Photography from t h eGemini I V S p a c e f l i g h t .Sept . 1965. B u l l . Am. Meteorol . SOC., v o l . 46, no. 9 ,2. Nagler, K . M . ; and Soules , S. D . :Photography During Gemini I V .Symposium, Gemini Missions I11 and I V Y Washington, D . C . ,October 18-19, 1965.

Experiment S-6, Synoptic WeatherManned Space Flight Experiments


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NASAS-65-45494

Figure 5-1.- A s i na l l t r op i c a l storm near t h e Marshal l Islands, taken at G125 ~ m ,August 23, 1965.


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XASA

F i gu r e 3-2.- Tropica l S torm Doreen ove r the ea s te rn Nor th Pacific Ocean, ta ken a t2133 GMT, August 2 3 , 1965 .


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NASAS-65-45531

Figure 3-3. - View of Florida, taken at 1531 G M T , August 22, 1965; the first of three viewsof this area taken on successive passes.


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NASA

Figure 3-4.-View of F l o r i d a , t a k e n a t 1707 GMT, August 22 , 1965; t h e f i r s t of t h r e e v iewsof t h i s a r e a t a ke n on s uc c e s s i ve pa s s e s .


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Figure 3-5.- View of Florida, taken at 1838 GMT, August 22, 1965; the third of three viewsof this area taken on successive passes.


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Figure 3-6.-View of large thunderstorm over southern Florida, taken at 1838 GbU.August 22, 1965.


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NASAs-6',-4iLi8

F i g u r e 3-7.- View of Florida, taken at 1826 GMT, August 23, 1965,approxinately24 hours later t h a n figures 3-5 and 3-6 .


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NASAS-65-Jt5395

Figure 5-8.- Great Exuma and nea rby i s l an ds i n the Bahamas, showing the i n t e r e s t i ngbot tom c on f i gu r a t i on i n t he s ha ll ow w a t e r , t a ke n a t 1839 G M T , August 2 2 , 1965.


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4. EXPERlMENT S-7, CLOUD-TOP SPECTROMETER

By F. SaiedyUnivers i ty of MarylandD. Q. Wark and W . A. Morgan

Envi ronm enta l Sc ience Se r v ice s Adm in i s t r a t ion

INTRODTJCTION

TIROS w ea th er s a t e l l i t e s h a ve p r e s e n t e d m e t e o r o l o g i s t s a nd w e a th e rf o r e c a s t e r s w it h c l o u d p i c t u r e s which show t h e g e o g r ap h i c d i s t r i b u t i o no f c l o u d i n e s s a nd p e r m i t t h e q u a l i t a t i v e j udg ment of c l o ud t y p e s . Cloudt y p es a r e c l a s s i f i e d a cc or di ng t o t h e i r a l t i t u d e s . M e te o ro l og i st s a r ei n t e r e s t e d i n c lo u d a l t i t u d e s b e ca u se a l t i t u d e s i n d i c a t e t h e dynamic andthermodynamic s t a t e o f t h e a tmosphere upon which wea ther f o r ec as t s a reb a s e d .

I n 1961 , Hane l sugges ted ( r e f . 1) t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e a b s o r p t i o nb y t h e 2.0 1-1 C02 band i n t h e s u n l i g h t r e f l e c t e d from t h e c l o ud f o r t h ede te rm in at io n of cl ou d a l t i t u d e . The same ye ar , Yamamoto and Warkp o i n t e d ou t ( r e f . 2 ) t h a t t h e C02 band l i e s on th e wing of t h e H 2 0 banda t 1.87 1-1.m ised by va r i a t io ns i n th e amount o f water vapor i n th e a tm osphere .They proposed the use of the oxygen A band a t 7600 A; measurements i nt h i s band would no t be a f f ec t ed by wate r vapor .

The accura cy of such det erm ina t io n would, th en , be compro-0

METHOD

Ba s i ca l ly th e method o f t h i s experiment c on s i s t s o f com paring th ec l o u d ' s r a d i a n c e a t a s p e c i f i e d w a ve le ng th i n s i d e t h e b an d w i t h i t sr ad ia nce i n an a tm ospher i c window ou t s i de th e band . Th i s r a t i o w i l lshow th e abso rp t io n o r t r a nsm i ss ion o f oxygen i n t h e a tm osphere abovet h e c l o u d t o p .s ion of oxygen i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r e s su r e a l t i t u d e of t h e c l o ud andt h e a t mo s ph e ri c p a t h t r a v e r s e d by l i g h t from t h e sun t o t h e c l ou d t o pa nd , a f t e r r e f l e c t i o n , from t h e c lo u d t o p t o t h e me as ur in g in s t ru m e n t( f i g . 4 - 1 ) .

Since oxygen i s uniformly mixed with a i r , t h e t r a n s m i s -

The m a them at i ca l r ep resen ta t ion i s s t a t e d i n t h e e qu at io n


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7 = f [p, (sec z + sec a , lwhere:

T = oxygen t ransmissionp = p r es s ur e a l t i t u d ez = z e n i t h a n g l e o f t h e suna = viewing angle .

The instrument used on the Gemini V mi ss i on w a s d es ig ne d t o t e s t t h ef e a s i b i l i t y of m e as ur in g t h e c l ou d a l t i t u d e b y t h i s method.l eng t h chosen i n s i de t he band i s a t 7631 A f o r l o w c l o ud s a nd 7607 Afo r h i gh c l ouds .

The wave0 0

INSTRUMEWI ANC FILM CALIBRATION

A c r o s s s e c t i o n of t h e i n s t r u m e n t i s shown i n f i gu re 4-2.ins t rument i s a. s m a l l hand-hel d spec t rog raph which c on s i s t s o fa 3.2 by 3.2-cm r e p l i c a g r a t i n g w it h 1200 l ines /mm blazed for 7500 A i nt h e f i r s t - o r d e r s pe ct ru m. A S c h o t t RG8 f i l t e r ( c u t o f f , 6700 A ) i s usedt o e l i m i n a t e h i g h e r o r d e r s p e c t r a .and 0 .1 mm wide, which correspo nds t o 5 A r e s o l u t i o n .

The0

0

The entrance s l i t i s 6.0 mm l ong0

0The spectr um from 7500 t o 7800 A , which includes the oxygen band,i s recorded on a h ig h- sp ee d i n f r a r e d f i l m c a r r i e d i n t h e ba ck o f a cam-era equipped with a f o c a l p l a n e s h u t t e r . The i n s t ru m e n t a l s o p h ot og ra ph st h e c loud on the upper par t o f the f i lm f rame by means of ' a n o t h e r l e n s .F i gu re 4-3 shows the completed spectrograph.spec t rograph i s shown i n f ig u re 4-4 whi ch r ep re sen t s a d e n s i t o m e t e r t r a c eof a photographed spectrum.j u s t r e s o l v e d .c a l ib r a t ed i n t o v a r i a t i o n i n r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t y by a method descr ibedi n r e fe r en c e 3.

The c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e0The oxygen doublets are 5 A a p a r t a n d a r eThe v a r i a t i o n i n d e n s i ty o f t h e f l i g h t f i lm i s c a r e f u l l y


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OBSERVATION FROM G E M I N I V

One of t h e p r i m a r y o b j e c t s of the Gemini V cloud- top exper iment w a st o o b t a i n o b s e r va t io n s o f t h e c lo ud from t h e s p a c e c r a f t c o i n c i d e n t w i t hobs e rv a t io ns from a i r c r a f t . Consequen tly, a p l a n for t h e r e p o r t i n g o fc lo ud h e ig h t by c i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y a i r c r a f t w a s i n i t i a t e d . The ge o-g r a p h i c a r e a s w ere r e s t r i c t e d b y o p e r a t i o n a l r eq u i re m e nt s t o t h e s o u th e rnUni t ed S t a t e s , e as t e r n Pa c i f i c , wes te rn At l an t i c , and Guam-Phil ippinesa r e a s . An around- the-c lock weather watch was e s t ab l i sh ed by a s p e c i a lm e t e o r o l o g i c a l s t a f f on the day before the Gemini V l i f t - o f f .g r ap h ic a r e a s t h a t c o in c id e d b o t h w i t h p r o je c t e d s p a c e c r a f t o r b i t s andprom is ing c loud cover s were se l ec t e d , and th e in fo rm at ion w a s conveyedt o Gemini co n t ro l . When th e se l e c t e d a reas were in t rodu ced in to th eGemini V f l i g h t pl a n, c i v i l i a n and mi l i t a r y a i r c r a f t w e r e n o t i f i e d o ft h e p l a c e a nd t im e o f o b s e r v a t i o n . The U. S. Weather Bureau ResearchF l i g h t F a c i l i t y p la ne s t a t i o n e d i n M i a m i w a s p l a c e d o n t h e a l e r t f o rc lo ud o b s e rv a ti o n i n t h e v i c i n i t y of F l o r i d a .

The geo-

A t t h e p r e s c r i b e d a r e a s t h e a s t r o n a u t p o i n t e d t h e s p a c e c r a f t d o w n ,a im ed the spec t rograph th rough the v i ewf inde r a t t h e s e l e c t e d c l o u d s ,and ope ra t ed th e ins t rum en t . Then th e a s t r ona u t recorded th e t im e o fo b s e r v at i o n t o t h e n e a r e s t s ec on d, t h e s p a c e c ra f t p i t c h and yaw a n g l e s ,and a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e cl o ud . The s e l e c t i v e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e a s t r o -naut depended upon h i s background i n meteorology.c lo ud t y p e s , d e r i v ed from h i s a v i a t i o n t r a i n i n g , r e s u l t e d i n t h e improvede f f i c i e n c y of t h i s e x pe ri me n t o v e r t h a t of an unmanned s a t e l l i t e . Thec o o p e r at i o n o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t o r g a n i za t i o n i n me as ur in g c l ou d h e i g h tf ron a i r c r a f t w a s good, b u t , due t o t h e v a s t a r e a c o v e r ed , few o f t h ea i r c r a f t o b s e r v at i o n s were i n n e a r c o i nc id e nc e. The only coincidento b s e r v a t i o n o b t a i n e d was over F lo r ida where the U. S. Weather BureauResea rch F l igh t F a c i l i t y p la ne w a s v e ct or ed t o t h e area of Gemini Vo b s e r v a t i o n .

His knowledge of

Dur ing the f l i gh t o f Gem in i V , twen ty - six spec t r ograp h ic obse rva -t ions were ob ta ined on va r ious c loud types - some f o r low cloud overth e west co as t o f Baja C a l i f o r n i a , some f o r f a i r l y h i gh c l o u d on a t r o p -i c a l s to rm i n th e ea s t e rn Pa c i f i c , and some on t ro p i ca l s torm Doreen.The instrument w a s o p e r a te d c o r r e c t l y by t h e a s t r o n a u t , and a l l p i c t u re swere co r r e c t l y aimed and exposed.

RESULTS

An example of the type of spectrum and photograph i s g i v e n i nf i g u r e 4-5. It r e p r e s e n t s a c l o u d i n t h e i n t e r t r o p i c a l co nve rge nc e


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34zone. Figure 4-6 shows dens ime t e r t r a ce s of t h e s pe c t r a o f t h r e e t ypesof cloud - high, medium, and low. It i s q u i t e a pp ar en t, q u a l i t a t i v e l y ,t h a t t h e t r a n sm i s s i o n of r a d i a t i o n i n t h e o xygen band f o r h i g h c l ou d i smuch l a rge r t han t ha t f o r l ow c l oud . The r e s u l t s pr ov e 'ihe f e a s i b i l i t yo f t h e c l o ud-a l t i t ud e measu rements from spac ec ra f t by t h i s method.

Table 4 - 1 summarizes some of t h e Gemini V obs erv a t i ons which haveThe measured oxygen transmission from Gemini V are com-been s t ad i ed .pared wi th the calculated oxygen t ransmission f rom Wark and Mercer( r e f . 4) t o o b t a in t h e p re s su re a l t i t u d e .

T h e v a l u e s o f p r e s s u r e a l t i t u d e c a l c u l a t e d a n d p r e s e n t e d i nt a b l e 4 - 1 do no t i n c l u d e t h e r e q u i r e d c o r r e c t i o n d ue t o t h e m d l t i s c a t -t e r i n g o f r a d i a t i o n i n s i d e t h e c l o u d s b e f o r e i t i s r e f l e c te d t o t h es p a c e c r a f t .a c t u a l a l t i t u d e m ea su re me nts .Hi l leary and Morgan ( ref . 3 ) .depends mainly on t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e c l o u d .problem shows that the thickness of the cloud can be determined, -wi thaccuracy adequat e fo r co r r ec t i n g t h e c l oud- t op a l t i t u d e s , from t he meas-urements of t h e b r i g h t n e ss of t h e c l ou d . F i g u r e 4-7 shows the dependenceo f t h e b r i g h t n e s s o f t h e c l ou d on t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e c l o u d , t h e z e n i t hang l e o f t h e sun, and the v iewing angle . An o b s e r v a t i o n o f a whi t e ca rdi n sunl ight was obta ined dur i ng th e miss ion . The ang le be tween th e cardand the sun's r a y s w a s not recorded , however , p revent ing an absolu tei n - f l i g h t c a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e s p e ct r o gr a p h . C o n si d er in g t h e r e l a t i v ebr i gh tne ss , we were ab le t o make an es t i ma te of t he c loud th ic kn es s ,which i s shown i n t ab le 4-11 . These r e s u l t s suppor t t o some ex t en t ou rca l cu l a t i on be t ween b r i gh t nes s and t h i cknes s .

T h e m u l t i s c a t t e r i n g i n s i d e t h e c l o u d s c a u s e s l o w e r - t h a n -This problem has been d i scussed by Sa iedy ,The magni tude of necessary cor rec t ionR e c e n t c a l c u l a t i o n o n t h i s

DISCUSSION

In a planned second s ta ge of t h i s exper iment on a subsequentf l igh t , more emphas i s will be p l aced on co i nc i den t obse rva t i ons byr e s t r i c t i n g t h e s p a c e c r a f t o b s e rv a t io n t o t h e s o ut h er n U n it ed S t a t e s .Ai r c r a f t cove rage will be more complete, and t wo o r pos s i b l y t h r ee a i r -c r a f t w i l l b e a v a i l a b l e f o r v e c t o r i n g i n t o t h e s e l e c t e d c l ou d c ov er .The o b se r v a ti o n on w h i t e c a r d t o c a l i b r a t e t h e s p e c tr o g ra p h i n o r b i twill be ca r e fu l l y p l anned f o r c l oud b r i gh t ne s s measu ri ng, wi t h t her e s u l t s o f which t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f measur ing c loud th ickness can bet e s t e d .

Cloud th ickness , bes ides be ing impor tan t for c loud- top measurements ,I f t h i s e xp er im en t p r ov e s s u c c e s s f u l,i s a v a l u a b l e p a r a m e t e r b y i t s e l f .we sh a l l i n the fu tu re , from unmanned sp ac ec ra f t , have three-d imens ion a l


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35

pictures of clouds with a geographic resolution of 6 by 6 miles.National Environmental Satellite Center, capitalizing on the experiencegained so far from the Gemini V flight, has successfully proved thefeasibility of and determined the system design requirements for asophisticated second-generation weather satellite instrument.

The

ACKNOWLEDGEINEN%c

The authors wish to acknowledge with thanks the cooperation of theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration and, particularly, theastronauts L. Gordon Cooper and Charles Conrad, Jr. We are indebtedalso to D. M. Mercer, H. Jacobowitz, and F. VanCleef of the EnvironmentalScience Services Administration for their assistance, and to D. T.Hilleary who participated in the design and construction of the spectro-graph.

REFERENCES

1. Hanel, R. A.: J. Geophys. Res., v o l . 66,1961,p. 1300.2. Yanamoto, G. A.; and Wark, D. Q.: J. Geophys. Res., vol. 66,1961,P. 3596.3. Saiedy, F.; Hilleary, D. T.; and Morgan, W. A.: Applied Optics,vol. 4,1965,p. 495.4. Wark, D. Q.; and Mercer, D. M.: Applied Optics, vol. 4, 1965,

p . 839.


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37

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38

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Figure 4-2 . - Optical layout of t h e spectrograph.

39

- . -, E *& - L A'


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Figure 4-3.- View of the spectrograph showing the two objective lenses.


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41

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455 . EXPERIMENT S-8/D-13, VISUAL ACUITY AND ASTRONAUT VISIBILITY

By Seibert Q. Duntley, Roswell W . Aus t in ,John H. Taylo r , and James L . Harr i sV i s i bilit y Labor a tory , S cri p ps Ins t i t u t e o f OceanographyU n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a

SUMMARY

P r e f l i g h t , i n - f l i g h t , and p o s t f li g h t t e s t s of t h e v i s u a l a c u i ty ofboth the Gemini V crew members showed no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f ic a n t changei n t h e i r v i s u a l c a p a b i l i t y . O bs er va ti on s o f a prepared and moni toredp a t t e r n o f r e c t a n g l e s m a d e a t a ground s i t e near Laredo, Texas confirmedt h a t t h e v i s u a l p er fo rm an ce o f an a s t r o n a u t i n s p a ce w a s w i t h i n t h e s t a -t i s t i c a l r an ge of h i s p r e f l i g h t t h r es h o ld s , and t h a t l a b o r at o r y v i s u a la c u i t y d a t a c an b e c ombined w i t h e n vi ro n me n ta l o p t i c a l d a t a t o p r e d i c tc o r r e c t l y m a n ' s l i m i t i n g v i s u a l c a p ab i li t y t o d i sc r im i n at e s m a l l o b j e c t son t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e e a r t h i n d ay ti me .

INTRODUCTION

Repor t s by Mercury as t ronauts o f t h e i r s i g h t i n g smal l o b j e c t s o n t h eg ro un d p ro mp ted t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f a c o n t r o l l e d v i s u a l a c u i t y e xp er im en twhich w a s f i r s t conducted i n Gemini V. The f i r s t o b j e c t i v e o f E x pe ri -ment S-8/D-13 w a s t o m easure t h e v i s u a l a c u i t y of t h e crew membersb e f o r e , d u r i n g , a n d a f t e r l on g- du ra ti on s p ac e f l i g h t s i n o r d e r t o a s ce r-t a i n t h e e f f e c t s o f a prolonged sp ac ec ra ft environment . The second ob-j e c t i v e w a s t o t e s t t h e u s e o f b a s i c v i s u a l -a c u i t y d a t a c ombined w i t hmeasured o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f g ro un d o b j e c ts and t h e i r n a t u r a l l i g h t i n g ,as w e l l as of t he a tmosphere and th e space c ra f t window, t o p red ic t t h ef l i g h t c r ew ' s l i m i t i n g naked-eye v i s u a l c a p a b i l i t y t o d i s c r i m i na t e smal lo b j e c t s o n t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h i n d a y l i g h t .

IN-FLIGHT VISION TESTS

I n - f l i g h t V i s i o n T e s t e rThe visual performance of both crew members w a s t e s t e d o n e o r more

t im es each day by means o f an in - f l igh t v i s i on t e s t e r . Th i s w a s a smal l ,s e l f - c o n t a i n e d , b i n o c u l a r o p t i c a l d e vi c e c o n t a i n i n g a t r a n s i l l u m i n a t e d


49/183

46a r r a y o f 36 h i g h c o n t r a s t a nd low c o n t r a s t r e c t a n g l e s .t a n g l e s were o r i e n t e d v e r t i c a l l y i n t h e f i e l d of view a nd h a l f wereo r i e n t e d h o r i z o n t a l l y .randomized; th e pr es en ta t ion w a s s e q u e n t i a l , and t he s equences were non-r e p e t i t i v e .30-degree adapt i ng f i e l d , th e appa rent luminance of which w a s approxi -mate ly 100 foo t - l amber t s .c h o i c e ju dgm ents o f t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f e ac h r e c t a n g l e a nd i n d i c a t e d t h e i rresponses by punching ho les i n a r e c o r d c a r d .accom plishe d by means of a b i t e b o a r d e qu ip pe d w i t h t h e f l i g h t crew mem-b e r ' s d e n t a l im p r es s io n .ins t rument w a s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s p a c e c r a f t .

H a l f o f t h e r e c-R e ct an g le s i z e , c o n t r a s t , and o r i e n t a t i o n were

Each rec tangle w a s viewed s ingly a t t h e c e n t e r o f aBoth members o f t h e f l i g h t crew made fo rced -

Opt i ca l a l i nemen t w a sE l e c t r i c a l power f o r i l l u m i n a t i o n w i t h i n t h e

The space av a i l ab l e be tween t h e eyes o f t h e a s t ro nau t and t h e s l op -i ng i nne r su r f ace o f t he spacec ra f t wi ndow, a matter of 8 or 9 i n c h e s ,w a s a n i m p or t an t c o n s t r a i n t o n t h e p h y s i c a l s i z e o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t . Thesuper ior visual performance of both crew members , as e v id e n ce d b y c l i n i -c a l t e s t s co re s of 20/10 and 20/12,made it n e c es s ar y t o u se g r e a t c a r ei n a l i n i n g t h e i ns tr um e nt w i t h t h e o b s e r v e r ' s e y e s , s i n c e t h e e y es a ndnot the ins t rument mus t s e t t h e l i m i t o f r e s o l u t i o n . I n o r d e r t o a c hi ev et h i s , t h e p e rm i s s ib l e t o l e r a n c e o f d e c e n te r i n g between a c o r n e a l p o l ea n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g o p t i c a l a x i s o f t h e e y e p i e c e w a s l e s s t h a n 0.005 o fan inch .d e n t a l i m pr es si on t o t a k e a dv an ta ge o f t h e f i x e d g e o m e t r i c a l r e l a t i o nbe tween the upper t ee th and the eyes .t h e i n - fl i g h t v i s i o n t e s t e r .

T h i s t o l e r a n c e w a s met by means of a b i t e boa rd equ ipped wi t h aFi gure 5-1 shows a photograph of

S e l e c t i o n o f t h e T e s tThe choice of t e s t w a s made on l y a f t e r p ro t r ac t ed s t udy .i n t e r ac t i ng r equ i r emen t s were cons i de r ed .

c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e a s t r o n a u t s s h o u l d c ha ng e d u ri n g t h e l o n g - d u r a ti o nf l i g h t , t h e r e a d in g s s h ou l d n o t go o f f s c a l e .b r o a d r a n g e o f t e s t i n g w a s n o t r e a d i l y c o mp at ib le w i t h t h e d e s i r e t o ha vef i n e s t e ps w i th i n th e t e s t and y e t have s u f f i c i e n t r e p e t i t i o n t o i n s u restatistically.significantr e s u l t s .ove r , it w a s of pr ime impor tance t o measure th e change i n such a way t h a tt h e l i m i t i n g c a p a b i l i t y o f a s t r o n a ut s t o d e t e c t , r e co g n iz e , c l a s s i f y , andi d en t i fy unknown ob j ec t s i n space o r on t h e g round wou ld be p r ed i c t ab l e .T h is p r e d i c t i o n r eq u ir em e nt t e n d e d t o e l i m i n a t e t h e us e of S n e l l e n l e t -t e r s , La n do lt r i n g s , c h e ck e rb o a rd s , and v i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a lp a t te r n s u se d i n t e s t i n g v i s i o n .t h e h i gh e r o r d e r v i s u a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s depend upon t h e q u a d r a t i c c o n t e n to f t he d i f f e r ence i mages be t ween a l t e rna t i ve ob j ec t s , whe reas a l l of thec o nv e nt io n al t e s t p a t t e r n s y i e l d low p r e c i s i o n i n fo r m at io n on t h i s i m -por t an t pa r ame t e r .o l d t e s t s u n d e si r ab l e.

ManyI f , f o r ex am ple , t h e v i s u a l

Th i s r equ i r emen t f o r a

I f im portan t changes occu rred , more-

Both the or y and exper iment show t h a t

The same cons i d e r a t i on a l s o r ende r s de t e c t i o n t h r e sh -


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47I t w a s a l s o deemed d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e p a t t e r n c ho se n f o r t h e i n-

This con-f l i g h t t e s t e r should be compat ib le wi th tha t used on the ground, wheresea r ch con t ami na t i on o f t he s co re s m u s t b e c a r e f u l l y a v o i d e d .s i d e r a t i o n a l s o made a ny d e t e c t i o n t h r e s h o l d t e s t u n d e s i r a b l e .

The optimum choice o f t e s t proved t o be t h e o r i e n t a t i o n d i s c r i m i n a -t i o n o f a ba r na rrow enough t o be un re sol ved i n wi d t h bu t l ong enough t op r o vi d e f o r t h r e s h o l d o r i e n t a t i o n d i s c r im i n a t io n .t e n s e a n d t h e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a s t o f a l l o f t h e bars u sed i n t h e t e s t weres u f f i c i e n t t o make them r e a d i l y d e t e c t a b l e , b u t o n l y t h e l a r g e r memberso f t h e se r i e s were above t h e t h r es h o l d o f o r i e n t a t i o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .These two thresholds are more w i de l y s e p a r a t e d f o r t h e b a r t h a n f o r anyother known t e s t o b j e c t . The i n h e r en t q u a d r a t i c c o n t e nt o f t h e d i f f e r -ence image between orthogonal bars i s o f g r e a t e r m a g n i t u d e t h a n t h e i n -h e r e n t q u a d r a t i c c o n t en t o f t h e b a r i t s e l f .ch an ge s i n t h e v i s u a l p er fo rm an ce o f t h e a s t r o n a u t s i s , t h e r e f o r e , m o r eg e n e r a l l y p o s s i b l e on t h e b a s i s of o r i e n t a t i o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h r e s h o l d sfor the bar than f rom any other known datum.

The so l id angular sub-

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a n y

R e ct an g le s i n t h e V i si on T e s t e rThe r e c t a n g l e s p r e s e n t e d f o r view in g w i t h i n t h e i n - f l i g h t v i s i o nt e s t e r were reproduced photographica l ly on a t r a n s p a r e n t d i s c .s e r i e s of r e c t a n g l e s were i n c l u d e d , t h e m a j o r s e r i e s b e i n g s e t a t

c o n t r a s t - 1 a nd t h e min or s e r i e s b e i n g s e t a t a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f t h i sv a l u e . The h i g h e r c o n t r a s t s e r i e s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e pr im ar y t e s t and w a sc ho se n t o s i m u l a t e t h e e x p ec t ed r a n ge o f a p p ar e nt c o n t r a s t p r e s e n t e d b yt h e g r ou nd p a n e l s t o t h e e ye s of t h e a s t r o n a u t s i n o r b i t . The s e r i e sc o n s i s t e d of s i x s i z e s o f r e c t a n g l e s , s i z e s which c o ve re d a s u f f i c i e n tr a ng e t o g u a rd a g a i n s t v i r t u a l l y any c o n ce i va b le change i n t h e v i s u a lp e rf or m an ce o f t h e a s t r o n a u t s d u r i n g t h e l on g - d u ra t i o n f l i g h t .i n t e r v a l s w e r e smal l enough, however , t o prov id e a s u f f i c i e n t l y s e n s i t i v et e s t .

Two

The s ize

The s t r ingent requi rements imposed by condi t ions of space f l igh tmade i t i m p os s ib l e t o u se as many r epe t i t i ons o f each r ec t ang l e as w a sd e s i r a b l e from s t a t i s t i c a l co n si d er a ti o ns .d e ci de d t o d i s p l a y e ac h o f t h e s i x r e c ta n g u l ar s i z e s f o u r t i m e s . T h iscompromise produced a s u f f i c i e n t s t a t i s t i c a l sample t o make t h e s e n s i t i v -i t y o f t h e i n - f l i g h t t e s t com parable t o t h a t o r d i n a r i l y a c h i e v e d w i t ht h e most common v a r i e t y o f c l i n i c a l w a l l c h a r t .r es po n ds r o u gh ly t o t h e a b i l i t y t o s e p a r at e p er fo rm an ce a t 20/15 fromperformance a t 20/20. It w a s judged th a t t h i s compromise be tween th es e n s i t i v i t y of t e s t and the range of t h e v a r i a b l e s t e s t e d w a s t h ep r op e r o ne f o r t h i s e x p l o r a to r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

After much study i t w a s

T h is s e n s i t i v i t y c or -


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A secondary t e s t a t l o w e r c o n t r a s t w a s i n c l u d e d as a s a f e g u a r da g a i ns t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t v i s u a l p erf or ma nc e a t low cont ras t mightchange in some d i f f e r en t way. With only twelve re c t an gl es ass ig na blew i t h i n t h e i n - f l i g h t v i s i o n t e s t e r f o r t h e low c o n t r a s t a r r a y , i t w a sd ec id ed t o u se o n ly t h r e e w i de ly d i f f e r e n t r e c t a n g l e s i z e s , p r e s e n t i n geach of these s i z e s f o u r t i m e s .

Because of t h e ac ce le ra te d l aunc h schedule of Gemini V it w a s n o tp o ss i bl e t o u se t h e f l i g h t i n s tr um e nt f o r p r e f l i g h t e xp er im en ts .d a t a were, t h e r e f o r e , o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e f i r s t o f t h e i n - f l i g h t v i s i o nt e s t e r s ( s e r i a l no. 1) w h i l e t h e l a s t i n st ru m e n t t o b e c o n s t r u c t e d( s e r i a l no. 5 ) w a s p u t a bo a rd t h e s p a c e c r a f t .o p t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l e xc ep t f o r t h e i r t w el ve l ow c o n t r a s t r e c t a n g l e s ,which measured a c on tr as t of 4.332 and -0 . 2 3 3 . r e s p e c t i v e l y .

These

The two inst ruments were

Ana l ys i s of Cor rec t Sco re sA compar i son of the cor rec t scores made by t h e crew members on t h e

ground ( p r e f l i g h t ) a nd i n sp ac e ( i n - f l i g h t ) can b e us ed t o a s c e r t a i nw hethe r t h e i r o b s er ve d v i s u a l p e rf or m an c e d i f f e r e d i n t h e e n vi ro n me n tsor changed dur ing the 7-day m ission. The co rr ec t sc ore s f rom t h e lowc o n t r a s t a n d h i g h c o n t r a s t s e r i e s i n t h e v is io n t e s t e r a re shown f o rb o t h c r e w members i n f i g u re 5-2. T h e r e s u l t s o f s t a n d a r d s t a t i s t i c a lt e s t s a p p li e d t o t h e s e d a t a a r e shown i n t a b l e s 5-1 t h rough 5-IV.

TABLE 5-1.- VISION TESTER (GROUND VERSUS SPACE)

F 6 . 1 2 1 .020.05 3 .58 3 .58F

Fo.0 1 6 . 3 7


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49

1N u m b e rM e a n

5-11.- V I S I O N TESTER ( G R O U N D V E R S U S SPACE)

~

G r o u n d Space Ground Space7 9 7 920.7 20.7 9 . 7 8.6

C o n r a d c = -1 I C = -0.23

s . a-1;

. t0.05F

2 . 7 1 . 7 1.2 2.00 1.132.14 2.142.79 2.43

TABLE 5-111 .- V I S I O N TESTER ( I N - F L I G H T T R E N D )


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TABLE 5-IV.- V I S I O N TESTER ( IN-FLIGHT TREND)

ConradLNumberMe anS.d

~ ~~~ c = -1 C = -0.23First 4 Last 4 First 4 Last 4

4 4 4 421 . 3 1 9 . 5 8.8 8 . 7 5

1 . 5 1.1 2.8 0.83-~~ ~~ _ _ _ _ ~t 1 . 6 4 0

F 1 . 9 6 1 1 . 1 9- t0.05 2 . 45 2 . 45FO. 05 9 . 2 8 5 . 2 8Fo.01 25 . 5

Comparisons between preflight and in-flight data are given intables 5-1 and 5-11.. A l l students' t tests show no significant differ-ence in means. A l l Snedecor's F tests show no significant differencein variances at the 0.05 level, with the exception of Cooper's highcontrast comparison which shows no significant difference at the0.01 level.

Comparisons between the in-flight data at the beginning of themission with that at the end are made in tables 5-111 and 5-IV. Allstudents' t tests and Snedecor's F tests show no significant differenceat 0.05 level with the exception of the F test on Conrad's low contrastcomparison which shows no significant contrast at 0.01 level.These statistical findings support the null-hypothesis advanced bymany scientists before the Gemini V mission was flown. Examination ofthe sensitivity of the test must next be considered, and this topic istreated in the following section.

Preflight Physiological BaselineDesign of the in-flight vision tester, as well as the ground sight-ing experiments described in a later section and the interpretation ofthe results from both experiments, required that a preflight physiologi-cal baseline be obtained for both crew members. For this purpose a

NASA van was fitted out as a portable vision research laboratory, moved


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t o t h e Manned S pacec ra f t Cen te r a t Houston, Texas, and op er at ed byV i s i b i l i t y L a bo ra to ry p er s on n e l.r e s e a r c h van. T h e a s t r o n a u t s , s e a t e d a t t h e l e f t , v iewed r e a r- s cr e enp r o j e c t i o n s f r o m an a u to m at ic p r o j e c t i o n s ys te m l o c a t e d i n t h e o p p o s i t eend o f t h e van. Each a s t r o n a u t p a r t i c i p a t e d i n s e v e r a l s e s s i o n s i n t h el a b o r a t o r y van, dur in g which th ey became exper ienced i n t h e psycho-p h y s i c a l t e ch n iq u e s of t h e r e c t a n g l e o r i e n t a t i o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n v i s u a lt a s k .a pro per ly numerous s t a t i s t i c a l s am ple. The as t ro na u t s ' fo rced-cho icev i s u a l t h r e s h o l ds f o r t h e d i s c ri m in a ti o n t a s k were measured accura te lya n d t h e i r r e s p o n s e d i s t r i b u t i o n s d e t e r m i n e d s o t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a -t ions and conf idence l i m i t s o f t h e i r p r e f l i g h t v i s u a l p er fo rm an ce weredetermined.

Figure 5-3 i s a cutaway drawing of t h i s

A s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e n u m b e r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n s were made t o s ecu re

F igure 5-4 i s a l o g a ri t h m ic p l o t o f t h e p i l o t ' s p r e f l i g h t v i s u a lt h r e sh o l d s f o r t h e r e c t a n gl e o ri e n t at i o n d is c ri m in a t i o n t a s k . I n t h i sf i g u r e t h e s o l i d an g u la r s u b te n se o f t h e r e c t a n g l e s i s p l o t t e d a lo n g t h eh o r i z o n t a l a x i s be ca u se b o th t h e i n - f l i g h t v i s i o n t e s t e r an d t h e g roundobse rva t ion exper im en t s used angu la r s i ze as t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e .The so l id l i n e i n t h i s f i g u r e r e p r es e n t s t h e f o rc e d- ch o ic e r e c t a n g l eo r i e n t a t i o n t hr e sh o ld o f t h e p i l o t a t t h e 0 .5 0 p r o b a b i l i t y l e v e l . Thedashed curves ind ica te the - 0 , +o, a n d + 2 a l e v e l s i n t er ms o f c o n t r a s t .The s i x c i r c l e d p o i n t s i n t h e upper row i n d i c a t e t h e a n g ul ar s i z e s o ft h e h i gh c o n t r a s t ( C = -1) r e c t a n g l e s p r e s en t e d by t h e i n - f l i g h t v i s i o nt e s t e r . The t h r e e c i r c l e d p o i n t s o f t h e mid dle and lower rows show t h ea n gu l ar s i z e s of t h e low c o n t r a s t r e c t a ng l es u se d i n t h e t r a i n i n g u n i t(no. 1) and t h e f l i g h t u n i t (no. 5 ) r e s p e c t i v e l y .

By means of figure 5-4, t h e s e p a r a t e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s r e c o r d e d o nt h e r e c o r d c a r d s i n t h e i n - f l i g h t v i s i on t e s t e r can be us ed t o d et er mi nea t h r es ho ld of angu la r s i ze . These th resh o lds a r e p l o t t e d f o r t h e h i ghand low cont ras t t e s t s of t h e command p i lo t i n f ig u r es 5-5 and 5-6, andf o r t h e p i l o t i n f i g u r e s 5-7 and 5-8. I n t h e s e f o u r f i g u r e s t h e h o r i -z o n t a l s o l i d l i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e f o rc ed -c h oi ce r e c t a n g u l a r o r i e n t a t i o nt h r e s h o l d a nd t h e h o r i z o n t a l bro ke n l i n e s show s t a t i s t i c a l c o n fi d en c el i m i t s i n terms o f a n g u l a r s i z e .

T hes e f o u r f i g u r e s a l s o s up p o rt t h e n u l l - h y p o t h e s i s , a nd t h e i rq u a n t i t a t i v e as p ec t c o n s t i t u t e s a s p e c i f i c a t i o n of t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o ft h e t e s t . Thus, as plann ed, changes i n v i s u a l performance comparablew i t h t h o s e o n a o n e l i n e c o n v e n t i o n a l c l i n i c a l w a l l chart would havebeen d e t e c t e d . P r e f l i g h t t h r e s h o l d d a t a c an , t h e r e f o r e , b e u se d t o p r e-d i c t t h e l i m i t i n g v i s u a l a c u i t y c a p a b i l i t i e s of a s t r o n a u t s du ri ng s p ac ef l i g h t p r o v i d e d a d e q u a t e p h y s i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e o b j e c t , i t sbackground, a tmospher ic e f f e c t s , and space craf t window e x i s t s . A t e s tof s uc h p r e d i c t i o n s w a s a l s o c a r r i e d o ut a nd i s d e s c r ib e d i n t h e f ol lo w -i n g s e c t i o n s .


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52

GROUND OBSERVATIONS

Ground observations were made of prepared and moni tored rec tan gu larp a t te r n s i n o rd er t o t e s t t h e u s e of b a s i c v i s u a l a c u i t y d a t a c ombinedw i t h m easured o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f g r ou nd o b j e c t s a nd t h e i r n a t u r a ll i g h t i n g , t h e a tm o sp h er e, and t h e s p a c e c r a f t window t o p r e d i c t t h e l i m i t -i n g naked-eye v i s u a l c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e a s t r o n a u t s t o d i s c r i m i n a t e s m a l lo b j e c t s on t h e s u r fa c e of t h e e a r t h i n d a y l i g h t .

EquipmentThe exper imenta l equipment co ns i s t s of an in - f l i gh t photometer t omoni tor the spacecraf t window, t e s t p a t t e r n s a t two ground observat ion

s i t e s , i n s t r u m e n t a ti o n f o r a t m os p he r ic , l i g h t i n g , a nd p a t t e r n m easu re-ments a t b o t h s i t e s , and a l a b o r a t o r y f a c i l i t y ( h o u s e d i n a t r a i l e r v a n )f o r t r a i n i n g t h e a s t r o n a u t s t o p er fo rm v i s u a l a c u i t y t h r e s h o l d m easure-men t s and fo r ob t a i n i ng a p r e f l i g h t p h y s i o l o g i c a l b a s e l i n e d e s c r i p t i v eo f t he i r v i sua l pe r fo rmance and i t s s t a t i s t i c a l f l u ct u a ti o n s . Theseequipments , except the l a s t , a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a gr a p h s.

Spacecraft window photometer.- A p h o t o e l e c t r i c i n - f l i g h t p h o t o m e t e rw a s mounted nea r t h e l ower r i g h t c o rne r o f t h e p i l o t ' s window o f t h eGT-V s p a c e c r a f t , as shown i n f ig ur e 5-9, i n o rde r t o measure t h e amountof ambient l i g h t s ca t t e r e d by t h e window i n t o t h e pa t h o f s i gh t a t t h emoment when obse rva t io ns of th e ground t e s t pa t t e rn s were made. Thephotometer ( f ig . 5-10) had a narrow (1.2') c i r c u l a r f i e l d of v i ew , w hichw a s d i r ec t ed t h rough t he p i l o t ' s wi ndow and i n t o t he open i ng o f a s m a l lb l a ck c a v i t y a f e w inches away outside the window.s c a l e w a s l inear and ex tended f rom approximate ly 60 t o 3000 f o o t -l amber t s . S i nce t h e appa ren t l umi nance o f t he b l ack ca v i t y w a s alwaysmuch less than 60 foo t - l amber t s , any r ead i ng o f t h e i n - f l i gh t phot omet e rw a s asc r i bab l e t o ambient l i g h t s ca t t e r ed by t h e window. Typ i ca l da t adur ing passes over the Laredo s i t e a r e shown i n f i gu re 5-11, T h i s i n -format ion combined wi th d at a on t h e beam t ra nsm it t an ce of t h e window andon the a pparent luminance of t h e background s qua res i n th e ground pat -t e r n a r r a y e n a b le d t h e c o n t r a s t t r a n s m i t t a n c e o f t h e window a t t h emoment of obse rva t i on t o be ca l c u l a t ed . Un i fo rmit y o f t h e window cou l dbe te s t e d by removing t h e photometer f rom i t s p o s i t i o n i n g b r a ck e t andmaking a hand-held scan of t h e window, u si ng a b l a c k r e g i o n of space i nl i e u of t h e b l ac k c a v i t y . A d i r e c t - r e a d in g m e te r in c o r p o r a t e d i n t h ephotometer enabled th e command p i l o t t o ob serve th e photometer re adingswhi le the p i l o t scanned h i s own window f o r uni formi ty . A cor respondingscan of t h e command p i l o t ' s window c ou ld be made i n t h e same way. Dataf romt he pho t ome t e r w a s s e n t t o t h e ground by r ea l - t i me t e l eme t ry .E l e c t r i c a l power f o r t h e p h ot om e te r was p ro vi de d e n t i r e l y by b a t t e r i e swi t h i n t he i n s t rumen t .

The photometric


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53Ground observat ion s i t e s . - Si t e s were p rov ided on th e Gates Ranch,40 miles no r t h of Laredo, Texas ( f i g . 5 - 1 2 ) , and on the Woodleigh Ranch,90 m i l e s s o u t h o f C ar na rv on , A u s t r a l i a , ( f i g s . 5-13 and 5-14) . A t t h e

T e x a s s i t e , 1 2 squares of p lowed, g raded, and r aked so i l 2 0 0 0 f t by2000 f t were a r rm ged i n a 4 by 3 m at r ix .s tyro foam -coa ted wa l lboa rd were l a i d ou t i n each square . The i r l en g t hd e c re a s ed i n a un i fo rm loga r i thm ic p rogress ion f rom 610 f e e t i n t h enor thwest cor ner ( sq uar e number 1) t o 15 2 f e e t i n t h e s ou th we st c o rn e r(square number 1 2 ) o f t h e a r r a y . Each o f t h e 1 2 r e c t a n gl e s w a s o r i e n t e di n one o f f o u r p o s i t i o n s ( i . e . , nor th - sou th , e a s t - w e st , o r d i a g o n a l ) ,a n d t h e o r i e n t a t i o n s were random within the s e r i e s of 12 . Advance knowl-e dg e of t h e r e c t a n g l e o r i e n t a t i o n s was w i t h h e l d fr om t h e f l i g h t c re ws in ce t h e i r t a s k w a s t o r e p o r t t h e o r i e n t a t i o n s . P r o vi s io n w a s madef o r c ha ng in g t h e r e c t a n g l e o r i e n t a t i o n s b et we en p a ss e s a n d f o r a d j u s t i n gt h e i r s i z e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a n t i c i p a t e d s l a n t r a n g e , s o l a r e l e v a t i o n ,a n d t h e v i s u a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e a s t r o n a u t s o n p r e c e d i n g p a s s e s .o b s e r v a t i o n s i t e i n A u s t r a li a w a s somewhat s i mi l a r t o t h e Texas s i t e ,but , inasmuch as no obse rva t ions occur red the re dur ing GT-V, t h e s p e c i f i cd e t a i l s a r e u nn ec es sa ry i n t h i s r e p o r t .

W hi t e r ec t ang les o f

The

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n .- I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a t b o t h g r o u n d s i t e s c o n s i s t e d o fa s i n g l e t ri po d -m o un t ed , m u l t i p ur p o s e , r e c o r d i n g p h o t o e l e c t r i c p h o to m et e r( f i g s . 5-15 and 5-16) c a p a b l e o f o b t a i n i n g a l l t h e d a t a n eed ed t o s p e c i f yt h e a p p ar e n t c o n t r a s t o f t h e p a t t e r n as s e en fr om t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t t h emoment of ob se rv at io n. The app are nt luminance of t h e background sq ua re s,n ee ded f o r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e c o n t r a s t l o s s due t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t window,w a s a l s o a s c e r t a i n e d by t h i s i n s t ru m e n t. A 14-foot h igh mobi le tower ,c o n s t r u c t e d o ftr ipod-mount e dplowed su rf acearrangement i s

metal s c a f f o l d i n g a n d a tt a c h e d t o a t r u c k , s u p po r te d t h ephotometer h igh enough above t h e ground t o e nable t h eof th e background squares t o be measured p roper ly . Th i sshown i n f i gu re s 5-17 and 5-18.

Scheduled Observat ionsObse rva t ion of t he Texas g round pa t t e rn s i t e w a s f i r s t a t t em pted

on r evo lu t ion 18, b u t f u e l c e l l d i f f i c u l t i e s w hich d en ie d t h e u s e o ft h e p l a t f o r m w a s a p p a r e n tl y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r l a c k o f a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h eg r o u n d s i t e .

The second schedu led a t t em pt t o see t h e pa t t e r n nea r Laredo w a s onr e v o l u t i o n 33. A c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e s i t e was achieved by t h e command p i l o tb u t n o t b y t h e p i l o t , a nd no r ea d -o u t of r e c t a n g l e o r i e n t a t i o n w a s made.

A t t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e e x pe ri m en t er s, t h e t h i r d a t te m p t a t Laredo,s c h e d u l e d o r i g i n a i l y f o r r e v o l u t i o n 4 5 , was made on revolut ion 48 i no r d er t o s ec u re a higher sun and a s h o r t e r s l a n t r a n ge . S u cc e ss w a sachieved nn +his pzss Xi6 1s d e s c r ib e d below i n t h e s e c t i o n on r e s u l t s .


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54

Unfavorab l e c l oud cond i t i ons caused t he fou r t h s chedu l ed obse rva t i ona t t h e Texas s i t e , on r evo l u t i on 60, t o b e s cr ub be d.o f t h r u s t e r control made obse rva t i on o f t h e g round pa t t e r ns i mposs i b l e ,a l th o ug h e x c e l l e n t w e a t he r c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l e d on t h r e e scheduled occa-s i o ns a t La redo ( r evo l u t i o ns 75 , 92 and 107) and once a t t h e A u s t r a l i a ns i t e ( r e v o l u t i o n 88) . L o n g r a n g e v i s u a l a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e smoke mark-e r s u s e d a t b o t h s i t e s was r e p o rt e d i n ea ch in s t a n c e , b u t t h e d r i f t i n gs p a c e c r a f t w a s n o t p r o p er l y o r i e n t e d n e a r c l o s e s t a pp ro ac h t o t h e p a t t e r nt o enab l e ob se rva t i ons t o be made. A f l e e t i n g g l i m p s e o f t h e L a r e d op a t t e r n o n r e v o l u t i o n 92 enabled i t t o b e s u c c e s s f u l l y p h ot og ra ph ed w i t hhand cameras. On re v o lu ti o n 107, r o l l r a t e s were n e u t r a l i z e d by u s e o ft h r u s t e r s p r i o r t o t h e p a s s o v er L a re do , a nd a l t h o ug h t h e command p i l o tr e p o r t e d a f l e e t i n g g lim ps e of t h e p a t t e r n a t c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h , t h eviewing t ime w a s n o t s u f f i c i e n t f o r him t o r e a d t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h er e c t a n g l e s s u c c e s s f u l l y .

T h e r e a f t e r , l a c k

Resul t sQ u a n t i t a t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n o f ground markings w a s achieved only once

dur ing GT-V.ground observ a t ion s i t e near Laredo, Texas a t 18:16:1b on t h e t h i r d d ayof t h e f l i g h t . D e sp it e e a r l y a c q u i s i t io n of t h e smoke marker by t h ecommand p i l o t and fu r t he r acqu i s i t i on by h i m o f t he t a rge t pa t t e rn i t s e l fw e l l b ef o re t h e p o i n t of c l o s e s t a p pr oa ch , t h e p i l o t d i d n o t a c q u i r e t h emark ings u n t i l t he spac ec ra f t had been t u rn ed t o p rov i de him wi t h agoing-away view. Telem etry re co rd s Trom t h e in - f l i g h t photom eter showst h a t th e p i l o t ' s window produced a heavy v e i l o f s c a t t e r e d l i g h t u n t i lt h e s p a c e c r a f t w a s ro t a t e d i n t o t h e going-away po s i t i on . P r esumab l y,e l im ina t i on of th e morning sun on th e p i l o t ' s window enabled him t o makev i s u a l c o n t a ct w i th t h e p a t t e r n i n t i m e t o make 2 qu i ck obse rva t i on o ft he o r i en t a t i on o f some r ec t ang l e s . I t may be noted t h a t , dur ing ap-p roach , t he r educ t i on of c o n t r a s t due t o l i g h t s c a t t e r e d by t h e windoww a s more s e v e r e t h a n t h a t d ue t o l i g h t s c a t t e r e d by t h e a t mo sp he re .

T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n o c c u r re d d u r i n g r e v o l u t i o n 48 a t t h e

An a m bi gu it y e x i s t s b etw een t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n of t h e r a d i o r e p o r tmade a t t h e t im e of t h e p a s s and t h e w r i t t e n r e c o rd i n t h e f l i g h t l o g .The w r i t i n g w a s made " b li n d" w h i le t h e p i l o t was a c t u a l l y l o ok i ng a t t h ep a t t e r n ; it i s a diagram drawn i n t h e manner dep ic ted i n th e GT-V f l i g h tp l a n , t h e M i ss io n O p e ra t io n P l a n , t h e D e s c r i p t i o n of Experiment , andother documents. The o r i en t a t i on of ' t h e r e c t a n g l e s i n t h e 6 t h a nd 7 t hsqua re s appear s t o have been co r r e c t l y no t ed . The ve r ba l r ep or t g i vensevera l seconds l a t e r c o r r e c t l y r e c or d s t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e r e c t a n g l ei n th e 6 t h s q ua re i f i t i s assumed tha t the spoken words descr ibe theappea rance o f t he pa t t e rn as seen f rom a p o s i t i o n e a s t o f t h e a r r a y w hi legoing awa

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