Manned Space Flight Experiments Symposium Gemini Missions III and IV

8/4/2019 Manned Space Flight Experiments Symposium Gemini Missions III and IV

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This is a compilation of DaDers on in-flight experiments presentedat the first symposium of a series, Manned Space Flight ExperimentsSymposium, sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-tion. The results of experiments conducted during the Gemini MissionsIII and IV are covered. These symposiums are to be conducted for thescientific community at regular intervals on the results of experimentscarried out in conjunction with manned space flights.


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FOREWORD ............................INTRODUCTORY REMARKS - GEMINI EXPERIMENTS SYMPOSIUM , .....By George E. Mueller, Ph.D., Associate Administrator

for }{znned Spac_ Flight, NASA Headquartersi. GE0-ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS ...............

By L. l>o_ukelman, Institute for Defense Analyses_ Arlington,Va. _ and NASA Goddard Space Flight Center;

J. R. Gill, Ph.D._ NASA Headquarters;Lt. Col. J. A. McDivitt, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center;F. E. Roach, Ph.D., Institute of TelecommunicationScience and Aeronomy; and

Lt. Col. E. H. White II, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center2. EXPERIMENT S-5, SYNOPTIC TERRAIN PHOTOGRAPHY DURING

GEMINI IV ........................By Paul D. Lo_;_an_ Jr. ; Ph.D., NASA Goddard Space Flight

Center3. EXPERIMENT S-6, SYNOPTIC W_ATHER PHOTOGRAPIPf DL_RING

GEM_TNI IV ........................By Kenneth M. Nagler, United States Weather Bureau,

ESSA; and Stanley D. Goules_ MeteorologicalSatellite Laboratory

4. EXPERIMENT M-3_ INFLIGHT EXERCISER ON GEMINI IV ......By Lawrence F. Dietlein_ M.D., NASA Manned Spacecraft

Center5- EXPERIMENT M-4, INFLIGHT PHONOCARDIOGRAM ..........

By Lawrence F. Dietlein, M.D., NASA Manned SpacecraftCenter

6. EXPERIMENT M-6, BONE DEMI}_RALIZATION ON GEMINI IV .....By Pauline B. Mack_ Ph.D._ Nelda Childers Stark

Laboratory for Human Research;George P. Vose, Texas Woman's University;Fred B. Vogt, M. D. ; andPaul A. LaChance; Ph.D.; NASA Manned Spacecraft Center

7. EXPERIMENT T-l, REENTRY COMMUNICATION ON GEMINI III ....By Lyle C. Schroeder, NASA Langley Research Center;

Theo E. Sims, NASA Langley Research Center; andWilliam F. Cuddihy; NASA Langley Research Center

8. EXPERIMENT D-9_ SIMPLE NAVIGATION ON GEMINI IV .......By Capt. E. _h Vallerie, USAF, Space Systems Division,

NASA Manned Spacecraft Center9. EXPERIMENT MSC-IO, TW0-COLOR EARTH LIMB PHOTOGRAPHY

ON GEMINI IV .......................By Max Petersen; Ph.D., Massachusetts Institute of

Technology

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i0. EXPERIMENT3C-I_ELECTROSTATICHARGENGEMINIIIIGE_NI IV ...................... 137 JJBy Patrick Lafferty, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center

!i. EXPERIMENT MSC-2_ PROTON-ELECTRON MEASUREMENT ONaEM_I IV ........................ 149 jBy James Marbach, NASA Yanned Spacecraft Center

12. EXPERIMENT _C-3_ TRI-AXIS MAGNETOMETER ON GEMINI IV .... 161 jBy William D. Womack_ NASA Manned Spacecraft Center

13. EXPERIMENT D-8, RADIATION IN SPACECRAFT GEMINI IV ..... 171 fBy Lt. M. F. Schneider, Air Force Weapons Laboratory;

Lt. J. F. Janni, Air Force Weapons Laboratory_ andLt. G. E. Radke, Air Force Weapons Laboratory

14. EXPERIMENT S-4, ZERO g AND RADIATION ON BLOOD DURINGGEMINI III ........................ 217

By M_hael A Bender_ Oak Ridge National Laboratory;rolyn Gooch, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; and

Kondo_ Oak Ridge National Laboratory

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INTRODUCTORY REMARKS - G_INI EXPERIMENTS SYMPOSIUM

By George E. Mueller, Ph.D.Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight

NASA Headquarters

6

I would like to welcome all of you on behalf of NASA. This is thefirst of a series of symposia that will be held to report the results ofManned Space Flight experiments. We hope to hold such symposia at regu-lar intervals, ordinarily within 90 days after the completion of a mission.

One of the fundamental objectives of the U.S. space program_ spelledout in the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, is the widestpracticable dissemination of information about our space activities andtheir results. This series of symposia is aimed at accomplishing thatobjective.

The _ _ A _ _ _,.. _ _ _sucuc_u conduct u_ e_}eriments on the .x_u_=... twu manned Geminiflights marks a milestone in the program_ in that it has demonstratedthat we can make use of man's special characteristics for this purpose,even while we are perfecting the techniques of flying a new spacecraftsystem and learning its special characteristics. We have obtained sig-nificant results even while we were learning how to use the equipment.

We should keep in mind that some of the results to be reported are,of necessity, tentative. This is true for two reasons: first, the ex-perimenters intend to make further analysis of the data they have ob-tained; and second, a number of these experiments will be repeated onfuture missions. The data will not be complete until all of the missionshave been conducted.

But even recognizing the tentative nature of these results, I be-lieve we can draw two important general conclusions from the Gemini IIIand Gemini IV experiments. The first of these are the data on man him-self - the confirming results that the astronauts can adapt to the specialenvironment of space and perform useful and effective work. The medicalresults of Gemini IIl and Gemini IV, and further substantiation fromGemini V - although the latter results are not being reported today -give great confidence that the manned space flight effort can move on aswe have planned, without the introduction of requirements such as arti-ficial gravity aboard the spacecraft.


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The second is that there is further substantiation of the evidenceprovided in the Mercury program that man, with his ability to reason andrecognize patterns, can see things in space that we do not program oninstruments to see. On this point, I invite your attention particularlyto the astronomy paper, first on today's program, by Drs. Dunkelman, Gill,and Roach.

The third general conclusion to be drawn from these experiments isthat the outstanding quality of earth photographs that can be obtainedfrom space goes a long way toward the demonstration of the feasibilityof a number of significant applications of manned space flight for theimprovement of life here on earth.

In the paper to be presented by Dr. Lowman, for example, you willlearn of how synoptic terrain photographs have added to the store ofknowledge of the geological structure of parts of North America andAfrica. If we can increase our knowledge of geology, it follows thatwe can use this knowledge in the search for new sources of water, oil,and the other products of the earth that are so important to man's wellbeing.

You will also see photographs that demonstrate how we can under-stand the oceans better by observation from space. Here again is anopportunity to increase knowledge in an area directly related to thewelfare of the whole human race.

lastly, the series of experiments being reported today on space-craft technology and space environment provides extremely valuable datafor future spacecraft design and operation, as well as a confirmingunderstanding of designs already being prepared for flight.

The results of the experiments on these first two Gemini flightspermit us to proceed with greater confidence in the definition of theApollo Applications Program, in which we plan to employ the hardwareand capabilities of the Apollo system for a number of missions otherthan the basic Apollo Program.

Finally, I would like to thank all of the experimenters for theirresponse to our request for reports at this time. The American peopleare entitled to prompt reports of the results. We are started wellalong the road to filling their requirements.

Now let us proceed with the symposium.


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i. GE0-ASTRONOMICALBSERVATIONS,By L. Dunkelman

Institute for Defense Analyses, Arlington, Va., andNASA Coddard Space Flight Center

J. R. Gill, Ph. D,Office of Space Science and Applications,

NASA HeadquartersLt. Col. J. A. McDivitt

NASA Manned Spacecraft Center

F. E. Roach, Ph.D.Institute of Telecommunication Science and Aeronomy,

Boulder, ColoradoLt. Col. E. H. White II

N__ Manned Spacecra__t Center

O

ABSTRACT 3 /o/The nature of airglow, aurora, zodiacal light, the twilight

scene and of other celestial phenomena are reviewed in conjunction withobservations made from manned spacecraft, and particularly from the62-orbit Gemini IV mission of June 3-7, 1965. A progress report of ob-servations on the following is made: zodiacal light, meteors (belowthe spacecraft), auroras (over South Australia), nightglow, and twilighthorizon blue bands (first observed from Mercury 8 in October, 1962. )The photographs of these bands were taken during orbits of Gemini IV.

INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY __

The Gemini IV mission was sufficiently lengthy -- in time -- topermit repeated observations of sky phenomena under conditions largelysimilar. The manned Mercury orbital flights had established the fol-lowing general features:


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(i) Th_nigh_ airglow band (which had been referred to as a "hazelayer" by the Mercury 6 and the Mercury 7 astronauts) is, on the n_gbtside of the earth, visible at all times.(2) Twilight is characterized by a brilliant, banded, multi-

colored arc which extends along the horizon in both directions from theposition of the sun.(3) As seen through the Mercury window, the faintest stars observedat night, evenunder relatively ideal conditions, were described as ofthe fifth magnitude. However, from Gemini IV identification was madeofeven seventh magnitude stars in the southern constellation of CoronaAustralis. This identification was madethrough the right-hand pilot'swindow, which was of optical quality. However, any observation of starsunder daylight conditions (ref. i) continued to be (from Gemini IV) verydifficult, if not impossible.

Newor unique observations madeby the Gemini IV astronauts, however,concerned:(i) Thestructure of nightglow(2) Polar auroras(3) Meteors(4) Photography of certain twilight bandsThe Gemini IV astronauts employedthe sextant (ref. 2) to make

numerousmeasurementsof the width of the nightglow. They also con-firmed results obtained by other means: (i) visually during theMercury 7 mission (ref. 3), (2) photographically during the Mercury 9mission (refs. 4 and 5), and (3) photoelectrically, since 1955, onmanyrocket flights (ref. 6).Another dim, sky phenomenon,the zodiacal light, was identifiedalso by Gemini IV, and was described as a "shaft of light." It wasseen for a brief interval just before the sun cameup. This zodiacallight had been seen first from Mercury 7. An artist's conception ofthis light is shown in figure I-I. An isophotal map showing the rela-tive intensities of this light and of the "counter flow" (Gegenschein)

_otted in polar coordinates _s shown in figure 1-2.Pertinent data were obtained also from the debriefing of the flightcrew aboard the "Wasp"on June 9, 1965, also from onboard voice tape,from debriefing concerning the experiments, and from color photographsoriginally madeon 16-mmfilm.


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The Night Glow

The night glow (refs. 7 and 8) is also called night airglow. Ithas been described by all orbiting astronauts as layer-like. This night-glow layer is ever-present on the night horizon. It is illustrated infigures l-3a_ l-3b, and I-3c. Please observe figure 1-4 in this connec-tion_ to compare the brightness of the night glow with other featuresof the day and night skies.

The appearance of this airglow structure is illustrated in thesketch below:

Astronaut Sketch from Gemini IV Logbook of Airglow Structure.

Even a rough estimate of the linear scale of ....= _o_igs Is _interest for comparison with the structure of air-glow features deducedfrom ground observations. For example, assuming a height of 230 km,the air-glow circle is at a distance of 1687 km. At this distance al-detail corresponds to 2_ 1687 _ 29.4 km and a 10-detail, to36O294 km.

It seems reasonable that an astronaut looking through a window ata field of some tens of degrees width would record structural detail inthe air glow layer only if the angular spacing were somewhere betweenthe 1 and i0 numbers given above, and corresponding to linear dimen-sions between_ say_ 30 and 300 km. Ground observations over the yearshave suggested a large air-glow structure with patterns up to 2500 kmin extent. Also on occasion smaller structural "cells" have been ob-served from the ground. Their sizes were in the 100-200 kilometerrange (ref. 9)-

Gemini IV observations of the Earth horizon confirm the observa-tion made from the Mercury 9 mission that, under conditions of "nomoon", the Earth horizon can be delineated. Gemini IV observations ofthe moonless night scene are summarized thus: There are three horizonbands. The top one is a bright night-glow band and is viewed "edge-on."The second band is more dimmed, while the third band is the faintest_ ordarkest_ of the three. These differences in luminosity are due to dif-ferences in path length through the airglow.


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The Polar Aurora

On two occasions the Gemini IV astronauts observed curtain-likephenomena that probably were polar auroras.

From the Earth surface the sighting of an aurora (Auroral Map,fig. 1-5) between geographic latitudes 33 N and S is relatively in-frequent. Thus it becomes pertinent to inquire whether the Gemini IVsightings were due to the favorable position of that spacecraft.

One general advantage of that position is immediately apparent,namely the fact that from a spacecraft_ it is possible to see from 13 (at perigee) to 17 (at apogee) farther along the earth's surface; thus,the extreme latitudes widen to around 50. A second advantage is thatthe geomagnetic pole is some ll from the geographic pole; thus at twoparts of the orbit a "horizon" at a geomagnetic latitude of 61 becomespossible. This extreme possibility corresponds to an apogee sightingat the horizon over that part of Earth where the orbit is closest toeither the north (western Atlantic) or the south (Australian) geomagneticpole. Actually the optimum position is the latter, since apogee occurredin the southern hemisphere. The sightings were actually made overAustralia and in precisely those regions that we might have anticipated(but did not).

The astronauts' report indicates that they saw one aurora projectedagainst the solid Earth_ and positioned so that the geomagnetic latitudeof the phenomenon (assuming they were looking southward from Australia_which is near latitude 45 ) was probably about 50o (about 5 south ofthe spacecraft).

We may now assemble a number of pertinent facts (taken chieflyfrom reference 7) :

(i) At a geomagnetic latitude of 50 , ground sightings of aurorasoccur less than 5 percent of the time when the observations are normal-ized to a cloudless and moonless sky. If we take the Yerkes Observatoryin the northern hemisphere as a reasonable example of conditions to beexpected, auroras as observable there about 6 percent of the time (ref. 7,page ii0).

(2) During sunspot minima, visual auroras are only about 25 per-cent as frequent as during the sunspot maxima (fig. 4.7 in ref. 7). Sun-spot minimum occurred about in July, 1964, and activity has now justre-commenced, but only slightly_ in the next new cycle.

(3) Auroras are strongly correlated with geomagnetic activity;that is_ they are very infrequent where magnetic activity is low.


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During the first week of June, 1965, magnetic activity was extremelylow (% on the average being i. 5).(4) A_oras occur most frequently during equinoxes (_rch and

September) and most seldom during the solstices (fig. 4.8 in ref. 7).Thus_ all four factors listed above prove unfavorable for sightingan aurora from the ground. Furthermore, the auroral watch at Saskatoonreported no auroras during the first week in June. Our conclusion isthat the auroral sightings from Gemini IV were probably the result ofits unusually favorable position for making observations, as comparedwith the less favorable positions for any observers on the ground. Thefact that Gemini IV observers reported no color associated with thesephenomenasuggests that the brightness was IBC I or possibly IBC II.(Colors can be distinguished for auroras of brightness II + or III -.)There is also the possibility that a fainter auroral feature might be

visible against dark Earth backgroundas seen from the spacecraft, butnot against a night sky as viewed from the ground.Meteors

Gemini IV astronauts were first to observe _teors in orbit; andthey mentioned seeing the meteors precisely where they should have seenthem, namely below their ownaltitude. Meteors on the average - andregardless of their brightness - appear at altitudes from 40 to 60 milesup in the earth's atmosphere. Meteor statistics show that their fre-quency greatly dependson the season_and that peak activity starts withthe Perseid Showeraround August ii. These meteor sightings suggest oneuseful observational experiment for future flights, namely the collectionof samplemeteoric counts for statistical purposes.

Twilight BandsOnMercury 8 orbit during twilight, an astronaut madeobservation,for the first time_ of a very remarkable scene. The scene is shown infigure i-6_ which is a black-and-white reproduction of a color painting.The painting was madefrom the astronaut's description. Moving up fromthe earth's horizon_ first were observed orange bands; next above that

camea dark blue band_ then a lighter blue band, a dark blue band, andfinally, at the top, a very high whitish layer. The transition of thiswhitish region into black sky resembled the "bottom of a rain cloud."This twilight scene was photographed from Gemini IV in color, througha 16-mmsequence camera. It showsvividly the blue banding described infigure i-7. Analysis o5 this twilight scene is not yet finished. Thestructure in the foreground (lower left corner) is similar to that


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recently reported (ref. i0) by a Russian astronaut who photographed it(im black-and-white) _m June 17, 1963, from Vostok-6. Both the twilightaureole_ and analysis_ indicated two aerosol layers at 11.5 _ i kmand19.5 i km, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The implications of these Gemini IV observations and measurementscontain suggestions for future flights_ namely

(i) Statistical counts of meteors

(2) Photography of auroras

(3) Photography of airglow structures

(4) Probing of atmosphere by twilight measurements

(5) Photometry of the day sky

(6) Coordination of the results -- with data from unmannedsatellites.

(7) Further development of optical weather research.

In addition_ observations to date are adding more data to thisscene from space as shown in table i-I. Table i-II also lists phenomenaand their luminance for each source. This table provides also a con-venient reference for familiar objects in the visible region. Table i-IIlists ultra-violet phenomena which need further observations made bymeans of image converters (ref. ii). This table may serve as a guidewhen looking ahead to extra-vehicular activity or to the use of appro-priate airlocks or of suitable windows.


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REFERENCES

" 0'Keefe, J. A._ Dunkelman, L., Soules, S. D., Huck, W. F., andLowman, P. D., Jr.: Observations of Space Phenomena in MercuryProject Summary Including Results of the Fourth Manned OrbitalFlight. May 15 and 16, 1963. NASA SP-45. Supt. D,c., U.S.Government Printing Office (Washington, D.C.), 1963, pp. 327-347.

. Vallerie, E. M.: D-9 Experiment, Simple Navigation on Gemini IV.Paper 8 of Manned Space Flight Symposium on Results of Experimentsfor Gemini III and IV Missions.

. Carpenter, M. S., O'Keefe, J. A., and Dunkelman, L.: Visual Obser-vations of Nightglow from Manned Spacecraft. Science, vol. 138,1962, pp. 978-980.

. Gillett, F. C., Huch, W. F., Ney, E. P., and Cooper, G.: Photo-graphic Observations of the Airglow Layer. J. Geophys. Res. vol.69, 1964, pp. 2827-2834.

5. Hennes, J., and Dunkelman, L.: Photographic Observations of Night-glow from Rocket. S_omitted to J. Geophys. Res.

. Koomen, M. J., Gulledge, I. S., Packer, D. M., and Tousey, R.:Night Airglow Observations from Orbiting Spacecraft Compared withMeasurements from Rocket Observations. Science, vol. 140, 1965,pp. 1087-1089.

7. Chamberlain, Joseph. W.: Physics of the Aurora and Airglow. NewYork, Academic Press, 1961.

8. Roach, F. E.: The Light of the Night Sky; Astronomical, Inter-planetary, and Geophysical. Space Sci., vol. 3, 1964, pp. 512-540.

9- Roach, F. E.: Annales de Geophysique 17. Vol. 172, 1961.i0. Rozenberg, G. V., and Nikolaeva-Teleshkova, V.V.: Stratospheric

Aerosole Measured from a Spaceship. Academy of Sciences, USSR,Izvestya, Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics, vol. i, 1965,pP. 386-394.

ii. Dunkelman, L., and Henners_ J.: Ultraviolet Photography and Spectro-scopy Using a Spectrally Selective Image Converter. Supplement tothe Japanese J. Applied Physics, 1965.


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TABLE l-I.- LUMINANCE OF PHENOMENA

Phenomenon

Milky Way, dimmest region, near Perseus

GegenseheinVisible night glow (zenith)Aurora IBC-I

Luminance,-2candles cm

I 10 -8

1.6 x 10-82 10 -8

2 X 10 -8

Milky Way brightest region, near Carina

Zodiacal light (30 elongation)

Visible night glow (edge-on)Great Orion nebula M42!Full Moon

Fluorescent lamp 4500 white

4 10 -8

1.2 10 -7

6 10 -7

5.6 x 1o-64 x i0 -I

4 x i0 "I


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TABLE I-II.- RADIANCE OF PHENOMENA

Phenomenon

Middle UV night glow (nadir), 2600A

Orion nebulosity (mean), 1225-1350A

Orion nebulosity (most intense part),1225-1350A

Middle UV nightglow (edge-on), 2600A

Hydrogen lyman-alpha glow (mean), 1216A

UV Aurora, Wallops Is., Nov. 22, 1960(zenith), 1700-1800A

UV Aurora, Wallops Is., Nov. 22, 1960(zenith), 1300-1800A

Sunlit earth albedo (nadir), 2600A

Radiance,-1 -2ergs sec cm ster -I

2 X 10 -5 per IOOA

6 X 10 -5 per IOOA

4 10 -4 per 100A

5 X 10 -4 per IOOA

3 x l0-3

10 -2

i0 -I

5 i0-I per IOOA


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( a ) Photographs from Mercury-Atlas 9 orbits.Figure 1 - 3 . - Airglow layer.

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( b ) Photograph of nightglow taken above Texasfrom Aerobee rocke t, November 30J 1964.

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Figure 1-3. - Continued.


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2. EXPERIMENT S-5, SYNOPTIC TERRAIN PHOTOGRAPHY DURING GEMINI IV

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Paul D. L0wman, Jr., Ph.D.NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

The S-5, Synoptic Terrain Photography, experiment was successfullyconducted during the Gemini IV mission. The purpose of this report isto summarize briefly the iresults of the experiment and to discuss someof the possible uses for'the pictures taken during the mission. A NASATechnical Note describing the pictures more fully is in preparation.

The five magazines of 70-mmEktachrome film exposed during theGemini IV mission included approximately i00 pictures usable for terrainstudies. Most are of excellent quality with respect to exposure, reso-lution, and orientation. It was requested that priority be given tophotography of East Africa, the Arabian peninsula, Mexico, and the south-western -United States_ pictures of all these areas were obtained. Space-craft fuel and power restrictions prevented the flight crew from alwaysorienting the spacecraft vertically, as preferred for photography. How-ever, _ continuous series of pictures with near-vertical orientation wastaken. This series covered the flight path on the 32nd revolution fromthe Pacific coast of Mexico to central Texas.

The locations and times of all 70-mm Hasselblad pictures are listedin "Gemini IV 70-mm Photography: PTL Production Control Library, 8/27/65,"issued by the Manned Spacecraft Center. A detailed description of allthe terrain photographs would be beyond the scope of this report_ instead,representative pictures are presented and briefly discussed, j

Figure 2-1, ithe first of the series taken over Mexico and the UnitedStates during the 32nd revolution__/shows an area about 75 miles on a sidein Baja California; Bahia de Todos Santos, on the Pacific coast of Mexico,is visible at the lower left.

A large amount of geologic detail is visible in the picture. Thecontact between Quaternary alluvium (light colored material at upper andcenter right) and bedrock is easily drawn. A number of different igneousrock types can be distinguished on the basis of color, although theycould not be identified on the basis of this picture alone. Perhapsthe most striking geologic feature shown is the long linear valley


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at lower left, parallel to the edge of the spacecraft window. Thisvalley, immediately identified as a fault even on a preliminary exami-nation of the picture, in fact follows the Agua Blanca fault zone, oneof the major tectonic features of Baja California. A number of linearvalleys, either parallel to the Agua Blanca fault zone or intersectingit, are apparent, and they presumably represent subsidiary faults.

The potential value of hyperaltitude photography for regionaltectonic studies is illustrated strikingly by the fact that this fault,so obvious from space, was not discovered until 1956 (ref. i), and then,interestingly enough, from aerial reconnaissance. The most recent priorauthoritative publication on the geology of Baja California (ref. 2,1948) gives no hint of the existence of the fault, nor does it show morethan one rock type. Oddly enough, figure 2-1 shows no evidence of whatwas mapped (ref. 2) as a probable major fault (the San Pedro Martirfault) bounding the east side of the Sierra de Juarez.

It is likely that figure 2-i itself will be of value in studyingthe tectonic structure of Baja California, since it is possible to de-lineate other faults outside the area mapped and reported in ref-erence i.

Figure 2-2 was the third photograph taken in the 32nd revolutionseries. It shows the mouth of the Colorado River entering the Gulf ofCalifornia; the distance shown is about 70 miles across at the bottomof the picture.

Considerable geologic detail is shown, such as the various rocktypes near the eastern shore of the gulf and the fault just east ofthe Colorado River (the southward-trending linear feature outlined inwhite). Sand dunes in the desert (right) are also visible.

Of particular interest, however_ is the amount of detail in theGulf of California. The sinuous patterns off the river mouth resemblethose near the Ganges River, which werephotographed on the Mercury-Atlas 9 flight and identified as turbidity currents (ref. 3). However,the Naval Oceanographic Office (ref. 4) has demonstrated that thispattern is actually the bottom topography of the Gulf of Californiawhich is only a few feet deep at this point. Although reference 4finds figure 2-2 unsuitable for actual depth mapping_ it points outthat the synoptic view of sediment distribution provided by the space-craft altitude is of great interest to oceanographers.

Fifth in the 32nd revolution series, figure 2-3 shows part of theGulf of California (left), the Pinacate volcanic field (center), andpart of Yuma County, Arizona (upper right). The photograph is of geo-logic value in several respects. In addition to the submarine topography


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in the Gulf of California previously mentioned, manymajor structuraland lithologic features are obvious.Themost striking of these features is, of course, the Pinacatevolcanic field. The Pinacate field has been known for hundreds ofyears; however, it is not delineated on the latest (1960) geologicmapof Mexico, which has a scale about equal to that of the Gemini IVphotograph. Figure 2-3 could also be used to revise the alluvium-bedrock contacts on the geologic map. Of greater interest, however, isthat manybedrock lithologic units can also be differentiated and, withthe aid of available geologic maps, identified. In YumaCounty, forexample, the contacts betweenMesozoic granite (light) and Mesozoicschists and gneisses can be traced and, in manyplaces, extrapolatedacross the Mexican border. The apparent similarity and continuity of

granites in the various northwest-trending ranges tend to support theinference (ref. 5) that the entire area is underlaid by one or morebatholiths.Froma preliminary study, it appears that most of the geologicdetail shownby the 1:375,000 geologic mapof YumaCounty can be seen

an t._ part of the county _ ...... n by figure 2- 3 f_._+_ _ _ _of about 1:2,000,000). Furthermore, some new information may be derivedfrom the Gemini pictures; for example, just north of the Pinacate volcanicfield, the bedrock appears to be cut by a series of north-trending f_ac-tures, outlined by drainage, which are not shown on the Yuma County map.

Figure 2-4, taken a few minutes later than figure 2- 3 in the 32ndrevolution, shows portions of southern New Mexico, Chihuahua, and Sonora(Mexico).

Two potential geologic applications of space photography are wellillustrated by figure 2-4. The first application, a refinement ofexisting geologic maps, is typified by the Sierra Carizarilla - thecluster of dark circular hills near the center of the photograph. Themountains are easily identified as volcanoes (for comparison, seefig. 2-_) belonging to a single field. They are probably of relativelyyoung age, judging from their fresh-appearing topography. On the geo-logic map of Mexico (1960), however, only a few isolated outcrops ofvolcanic rock are shown, and they are dated as pre-Quaternary (that is,over one million years old).

Another potential use of space photography is suggested by thefact that figure 2-4 covers, at one time, an area in which two majorectonic provinces merge. The linear mountains, at the left, are thecoatinuat_on of the Sierra Madre Oriental, characterized by foldssimilar to those in the Appalachians. The mountains at the lower right,however, are chiefly block-faulted mountains, typical of the Basin and


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Range Province, and are placed in the Basin and Range class by reference 5.It can be seen that these two types of mountain structure merge withoutmarked change of direction, a relation which could only be realized byextensive field mapping in two countries.

Figure 2-5 was taken during the 25th revolution, looking northwestover the Tibesti Mountains in the Republic of Chad, North Africa. Ithas been chosen to illustrate the geologic applications of space photog-raphy in remote areas.

Despite the unfavorable angle, considerable topographic and geologicdetail is visible. The most conspicuous feature is the crater of thevolcano Emi Koussi, the highest point in the Sahara. Of equal geologicsignificance, however, is the concentric lineation pattern in the fore-ground. This pattern is believed to represent a regional set of frac-tures, which are emphasized in places by sand deposition. Althoughthese fractures were partially shown on the latest Army Map Service (AMS)map of the area, their existence is not mentioned in any of the relevantgeologic publications and apparently is not known to geologists.

Another structure, also shown on the AMS map but geologically un-known, is the circular feature in the center of the picture (abouteight crater diameters to the right of the Emi Koussi crater). Thisstructure appears to resemble many of the "fossil" impact craters thatCanadian geologists have discovered in the Canadian shield through thestudy of aerial photography. Although there is no a priori reason forsuspecting an impact origin for the Tibesti structure, especially inview of its nearness to a volcanic area 3 its discovery demonstrates thepotential value of space photography in searching for ancient impactstructures.


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REFERENCES

. Allen, C. R.; Silver, L. T.; and Stehli, F. G.: Agua BlancaFault-A Major Transverse Structure of Northern Baja California,Mexico, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., vol 71, Apr. 1960, pp. 457-482.

2. Peal, C. H.: Reconnaissance of the Geology and Oil Possibilitiesof Baja California, Mexico, Geol. Soc. America Memoir 31, 1948.

3. Lowman, P. D.: A Review of Photography of the Earth from SoundingRockets and Satellites, NASA Technical Note D-1868, 1964.

. Gettys, R. F.: Evaluation of Color Photos Exposed from the Gemini(GT-4) Flight over the Gulf of California. Unpublished manuscript,Technical Production Department, U. S. Naval Oceanographic Office,Washington, D. C., June 1965.

R_1_y, A. .T.: _t_11ntllr_7 Geology of North America. 2d ed.Harpers, New York, 1962.


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Figure 2-1.- Baja Cali forn ia, taken on t h e 32nd revolution of Gemini IV .


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Figure 2-2. - Mouth of t h e Colorado Riv er a t th e Gulf of C al if or ni a,taken on the 32nd revolution of Gemini IV .


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Figure 2-4.- Southe rn New Mexico and Chihuahua and Sonora, Mexico,taken on the 32nd revolut ion of Gemini IV .


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Figure 2-5.- Ti be st i Mountains, Republic of Chad i n North Africa, t akenon the 25th revolut ion of Gemini IV .


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3- EXPERIMENT-6, SYNOPTICWEATHERHOTOGRAPHYDURINGG_NINI IV

29

!

O"

By Kenneth M. NaglerUnited States Weather Bureau, ESSA

and Stanley D. SoulesMeteorological Satellite Laboratory, NESC, ESSA

SUMMARY

Although many interesting photographs had been previously obtainedon the Mercury missions and on the Gemini Ill mission, the Gemini IVmission was the first of several Gemini missions on which weather pho-tography was specifically scheduled.

With its longer (four-day) mission, and with more film and specificefforts directed toward the photography of weather, the Gemini IV crewobtained a large number of meteorologically interesting pictures.

DESCRIPTION

The S-6 experiment is essentially a data-gathering effort, withthe general purpose of providing a set of pictures which would covera broad range of meteorological phenomena; the more specific purposewas to obtain views of a number of cloud systems that would be of par-ticular interest for various investigators.

In both manned and unmanned Mercury missions and in the Gemini IIImission, a number of good pictures of cloud systems were obtained. Inaddition, specific experiments were performed for Mr. Soules by theastronauts on the Mercury missions. Those experiments examined some ofthe spectral-reflectance characteristics of clouds, of land, and ofwater areas of the earth surface when viewed from outside the atmosphere.

With a number of photographs from space, and with the results ofspecific weather photography experiments already available, and alsosince there is daily meteorological satellite coverage of the greater


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3opart o_' the_world, one might ask whywe want more pictures of earthcloud systems.

Obviously, TIROSsatellites are contributing greatly to routines.r'veillance of earth weather. They are in fact, a primary source ofinformation on which are based forecasts for muchof the support ofmannedspaceflight operations. TIROSpictures, however, are televisedfrom an altitude of 400 miles or more. Somepictures are imperfectlyunderstood becausethe smaller features cannot be resolved. Therefore,for a numberof selected meteorologically interesting cloud systems, itis desirable to have detailed color views obtained from actual photo-graphs taken at lower altitudes and from mannedspacecraft. Suchpic-tures can verify and amplify information obtained from the weathersatellites. In addition, somepictures are by themselves significantwhether or not they can be associated with simultaneous meteorologicalsatellite coverage.

Earth cloud systems vary greatly from time to time and from placeto place. The result is a great variety of weather systems which mightbe understood better were photographs of them available.Another need which can be satisfied through use of the mannedsatellites is the depiction of cloud systems at fairly short time inter-vals. For example, pictures could be obtained on successive revolutionsof a Gemini spacecraft, so as to showthe changes in, and the movementsof, clouds at about 90-minute intervals at certain points over the groundtrack of the spacecraft.As a result of the interest shownwithin the Weather Bureau andelsewhere, a weather photography experiment was proposed to the NationalAeronautics and SpaceAdministration for the Gemini program. This pro-posal was accepted for the Gemini IV, V, VI, and VII missions and also,tentatively, for one or two of the later Gemini missions, with theauthors of the proposals as co-experimenters.The experiments resulting were planned to use the sameHasselbladcamera, (Model 500C) used in the S-5 Synoptic Terrain Photography ex-periment. Also the same70-mmEktachromeMSfilm was to be used. Atotal of five film magazines, each with film sufficient for 55 expo-sures, was carried on the spacecraft and was to be used on the S-5 and

S-6 experiments and for general photography. To reduce the intensityof the blue light scattering back from the atmosphere, a haze filterwas fitted to the standard 80-mmf2.8 lens.Well in advance of the flight, a numberof meteorologists (primarilyfrom the National Weather Satellite Center) were queried as to the typesof cloud systemthey would like to see and as to what particular earth


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31geographical areas were of interest. Several months before the f_ight,the aims of the experiment were discussed in detail with the flightcrew. Approximately a dozen specific types of cloud were suggested aspossibilities for interesting viewing on their mission. These typesincluded cellular patterns, vortices in the lee of subtropical islands,thunderstorms, sunglint, shadowsof cirrus clouds on lower cloud layers,intertropical convergenceareas, and tropical storms.

Themanned-satellite mission plan W_sarranged so that the pilotscould devote part of their time to thisicloud photography_over the pre-selected areas. On the day preceding launch the pilots_hile at CapeKennedywere briefed on several interesting features likely to be seenon their mission. This information was later revised and given to themagain just shortly before they entered the spacecraft. During the mis-sion, areas of interest were selected from time to time from weatheranalyses and from TIROSpictures. Wheneveroperationally feasible, thisinformation was communicatedto the crew from the MannedSpacecraftCenter at Houston, Texas, well in time for them to locate and to photo-graph the clouds in question, provided this did not interfere with theirother duties. So long as fuel wasavailable for changing the attitudeof the spacecraft for this purpose, the pilots were able to search forthe desired locations. 0therwis% they could take pictures only ofthose sceneswhich happenedto comeinto vie_.

RESULTSIn all_ the pilots took a total of nearly 200 70-mmcolor pictures.Of these, about half displayed cloud formations or contained informationof other meteorological interest. A selection from these 200 views isshownhere, to illustrate the types of picture obtained.Figure 3-i_ a view of southern Florida, shows cumulus cloudinessover the land areas typical for during the day. The absence of cumulusclouds over most of the adjacent oceanarea and over Lake 0keechobeeisquite apparent.In figure 3-2_ Acklin's Island and Crooked Island in the Bahamas

are shownnearly enclosing a shallow lagoon. To the left of the picture,the reflection of the sun from the sea surface is interrupted by thetiny dark shadowsof clouds, which themselves cannot be seen againstthe brightly reflecting waters. Long-period swells are discernible nearthe edges of the sunglint area.In figure 3-3 is a widespread area of cloudiness typical of dis-turbed tropical areas. This view was taken near latitude 16 N and

longitude 178 E.


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Figure 3-4 showsseversl vortices in the lee of someof the CanaryIslands. Pictures from TIROShad often shownvortices in the lee ofmountainous subtropical islands, but the fine cumulus lines which nowdelineate the eddy motion found in this view were quite too fine to bedetected from TIROS.

Figure 3-5 showsconvective cellular clouds over the Central NorthernPacific. Suchcellular patterns had been observed in weather'satellitepictures over manyareas of earth. They result from weakly organizedconvection currents in the absence of any significant vertical windshear. Of particular interest in this picture are the vortices appear-ing along the boundaries of the cells. Such vortices had not been ap-parent in TIROSviews.Figure 3-6 was actually taken as part of a Terrain Photographyexperiment; but it is of interest also to the meteorologist. This viewis from over central Texas. It depicts the area to the North and Westof SanAngelo. It showstwo large dark areas which are due not to dif-ferences in the geographical or land usage, but a heavy rainfall on theprevious day. In lighter areas, little or no rain had fallen duringthat period.With the manydifferent types of weather systems here of intezest,and with the day-to-day and the seasonal changes in weather, there re-main manymeteorological features which we hope to have photographedduring future missions. The crew of Gemini IV was not able to obtainviews of the samearea on successive passes. However, these views wereobtained on Gemini V, and we hope it will be repeated during futureflights.In summarizing the results from these pictures, we do not expectto see somenewbreakthroughs in meteorology, abruptly bringing abouta more accurate forecasting of certain weather phenomena. But we doexpect these pictures to contribute to a better understanding of mete-orological satellite pictures. These pictures have also stimulated agreat deal of interest in cloud views on the scale obtainable from aGemini altitude. Manymeteorologists wish to study these pictures inconnection with various atmospheric processes with which they are con-cerned. Also, other groups are interested in applying these pictures

as teaching aids.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nagler, K. M.; and Soules, S. D.: Cloud Photography from the Gemini IVSpaceflight. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.Sept. 1965.

Hope, John R.: Path of Heavy Rainfall Photographed from Space. U.S.Weather Bureau Report (to be published).


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Figure 3-1.- V i e w looking southwestward acro ss southern F lor id aw i t h Grand Bahama Is la nd i n th e l e f t foreground and Cuba i n t h el e f t background.


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Figure 3 - 2 . - Ackl in ' s I s land and Crooked Is la nd i n t h e Bahamas wit ht h e sun r e f l e c t i n g a t t h e l e f t f rom th e a d j a c e n t sea sur face .


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Figure 3-3.- A disturbed area over the tropical North Pacific Ocean.


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Figure 3-4.- Curving cloud l i n e s l o c a t i n g e dd ie s i n t h eatmosphere near the Canary Islands,


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Figure 3-5.- Ce llu lar c loud pat te rn s over the Cent ra l North Pa ci f i c Oceanphotographed by Astr onau ts McDivitt and White dur ing t he GeminiIVspace f l igh t .


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Figure 3-6.- Terrain shading i n Ce ntr al Texas, caused by h e a v y r a i n f a l lt h e prev ious day. The highway prominent i n th e upper l e f t corner con-nects Odessa and Midland. The s t ream i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e p i c tu r e i sthe North Concho River along San Angelo.


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4. _Z!ERIMENT-3_ INFLIGHTEXERCISERONGEMINIIVBy LawrenceF. Dietlein, M.D.NASAMannedSpacecraft Center

41 Z

!

SUMMARY

The response of the cardiovascular system to a quantified workloadis an index of the general physical condition of an individual. Uti-lizing mild exercise as a provocative stimulus, no significant decrementin the physical condition of either of the two astronauts could be de-tected during the Gemini IV mission. The rate of return of pulse rateto preexercise levels, following inflight exercise perzods, was essen-tially the same as that observed during preflight baseline studies.

OBJE C TIVE

The objective of experiment M-3 was!the day-to-day evaluation of thegeneral physical condition of the flight crew with increasing time underspace-flight conditions. The basis of this evaluation was the responseof the cardiovascular system (pulse rate) to a calibrated workload.

EQUIPMENT

The exercise device, shown in figure 4-i_ consisted of a pair ofrubber bungee cords attached to a nylon handle at one end and to a nylonfoot strap at the other. A stainless steel stop-cable limited thestretch length of the rubber bungee cords and fixed the isotonic work-load of each pull. The flight bioinstrumentation system, figure 4-2,was utilized to obtain pulse rate_ blood pressure, and respiration rate.These data were recorded on the biomedical tape recorder and simulta-neously telemetered to the ground monitoring stations.


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PROCEDURE

Exercise periods lasted for 30 seconds during which time the astro-naut pulled the handle of the exerciser one pull per second. The deviceused in the Gemini IV mission required 63 pounds of force to stretch therubber cords maximally through an excursion of 10.5 inches. Seventeenexercise periods for the pilot and four for the command pilot were orig-inally scheduled in the mission plan.

RESULTS

During the early phase of the mission_ the command pilot requestedand received permission to perform additional exercises and completedthe mission with a total of seven exercise periods. The pilot completedten exercise periods. At approximately 32 hours elapsed time_ all Type 2Medical Data Passes (blood pressure-temperature-no exercise) were up-graded to Type i (blood pressure-exercise-blood pressure) and bothastronauts were giveh permission to perform unscheduled exercises.

During the 67th hour ground elapsed time_ the pilot reported thatthe latex cover on the exerciser had torn. This failure had no effecton the operation of the equipment or on the experimental results_ andthe crew continued to use the device in a satisfactory manner for theremainder of the mission.

Pulse rates were determined by counting 15-second intervals for 2minutes before and after exercise_ and for the first and last 15-secondperiods during exercise. Figure 4-3 shows the values for blood pressureand mean pulse rate of the pilot during preflight baseline controlstudies at 14.7 psia and 5.5 psia before the mission_ and during themission at 5.4 psia. Each plot represents the mean of several trials.This graph reveals that the preflight and inflight curves at one-thirdof an atmosphere are nearly superimposable and that the rate of returnof the pulse rate to pre-exercise levels is essentially identical inthe three modes for which data were available. Blood pressure changeswere minimal.

Figure 4-4 shows similar data for the command pilot.


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DISCUSSION

Comparatively speaking, the Gemin_ IV crew exhibited a more rapidrate of return of their pulse rates to preexercise levels than did theastronaut on the Mercury-Atlas 9 mission. The pulse rates of the crewon the Gemini IV mission returned to pre-exercise levels within 45 to60 seconds after cessation of exercise. Figure 4-5 shows that Mercury-Atlas pilot's mean post-exercise heart rate during flight was stillsomewhat elevated (106 as opposed to a pre-exercise value of 89) forapproximately 2 minutes after exercising. However_ it must be remem-bered that the environmental control system of the Gemini spacecraftis superior to that which was available in Mercury, and therefore thedata are not strictly comparable.

Evaluation of these data, then, indicates no significant differencebetween pulse-rate responses to exercise during the mission and thoseobtained before the mission for both crew members. Thus_ using therate of return of pt_se rate to preexercise levels as an index of physicalcondition, there was no evidence of "deconditioning" st any time duringthe Gemini IV mission.

ability to perform physical work during their 4-day mission, the crewcommented that they felt no strong desire to perform heavy or stren-uous exercise. They indicatedj however_ that periodic exercise duringextended space flights is highly desirable.

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of the data obtained during this mission, the followingconclusions appear warranted:

(i) The response of the cardiovascular system to a calibratedworkload is relatively constant for a given individual during spaceflight_ at least for missions lasting up to 4 days.

(2) The crew are able to perform mild to moderate amounts ofwork under the conditions of space flight and this ability continuesessentially unchanged for missions of up to 4 days in duration.

(3) Using a variant of the "Harvard Step Test" as an index ofthe physical fitness of the crew_ there appears to be no decrementin the physical condition of the crew during a 4-day mission.


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Figure 4-1.- Photograph of i n f l i g h t e x e r c i s e r u s e d f o r e xp er im en t M-3on the Gemini IV mission.

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Figure 4-2.- The f l i g h t bioinstrumentation systemused on the Gemini I V mission.


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49B

5- EXPERIMENT M-4, INFLIGHT PHONOCARDIOGRAM

Lawrence F. Dietlein, M.D.NASA Manned Spacecraft Center

_ SUMMARY-

Simultaneous electrocardiographic and phonocardiographic data wereobtained _ both Gemini IV crewmembers. Analysis of these data re-vealed: no proSongation of the t_e interval between the onset of elec-trical systole (Q wave) and the onset of mechanical systole (first heartsound); no prolongation of systole (interval between Q wave and secondheart sound); and a marked diurnal rh_icity in the pulse rate of theco--and pilot based on the 24-hour Cape Kennedy time cycle.

OBJECTIVEJ

The objective of Experiment M-4 was to measure and correlate thevarious phases of the electrical and mechanical activity of the cardiaccycle in order to provide more insight into the functional cardiacstatus of flight crew members during prolonged space flight.

EQUIPMENT

The experimental equipment system consisted of three distinct parts:a phonocardiographic transducer, an electrocardiographic signal condition-er (preamplifier and amplifier), and the onboard biomedical tape recorder.

The signal conditioner was identical with that used for electro-cardiographic measurements. Both the transducer and signal conditionerwere worn within the Gemini pressure suit. The sensor was appliedparasternally in the left fourth intercostal space of each flight crewmember.

The phonocardiographic transducer used on Gemini IV was a 7-grampiezoelectric microphone i inch in diameter and 0.200 inch in thickness


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5O

(fig. 5-1). The transducer was secured to the astronaut's chest wallby meansof a small disc of "Stomaseal" doublebacked adhesive. AlO-inch length of flexible, O.lO-inch diameter shielded cable deliveredthe phonocardiographic signal to the Gemini (electrocardiographic) sig-nal conditioner (fig. 5-2) which was housed in a pocket of the under-garment. The phonocardiographic signal was conducted from the signalconditioner output to the suit bioplug, and then to the biomedical re-corder (fig. 5-3).

The transducer or sensor responds to the translational vibrationsimparted to the chest wall during each contraction of the heart. Phono-cardiographic signals were recorded simultaneously with electrocardio-graphic signals derived from the M-X (manubrium-xiphoid) lead. Analogdata from the biomedical tape recorder were then played back in realtime, digitized, and analyzed by computer techniques.PROCEDURE

Experiment M-4 was accomplished on Gemini IV by meansof the in-strumentation system previously described. In essence, the systemtransduces and presents the phonocardiographic signal to the Geminibiomedical recorder for postflight reduction and analysis. The sternal(M-X) electrocardiographic signal is recorded simultaneously on thebiomedical recorder. The procedure is entirely passive and requiresno active participation on the part of the astronaut.RESULTS

Examination of the lowest plot of figure 5-4a indicates that theinterval betweenthe Q waveand the first heart soundwas relativelyconstant; that is, it did not increase as the time in flight increased.The samewas true in the case of the pilot (fig. 5-4b, lowest plot).The duration_of systole (fig. 5-4a, middle plot), which is the in-terval between the Qwaveand the second heart sound, also remainedconstant during the 4-day mission.Heart rates (figs. 5-4a and 5-4b, top plots) obtained maximumvalues at liftoff, reentry, and the pilot's extravehicular activity.The Qwaveto first sound and Qwave to second sound (duration ofsystole) for the pilot (fig. 5-4b, lowest and middle plots) remainedessentially constant for the duration of the mission. The heart-rate


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plot for the commandpilot showeda definite circadisn rhythmicitybased on the CapeKennedy24-hour day-night cycle. The commandpilotexhibited low heart rate during periods coinciding with midnight, Capetime.The Qwave to first sound intervals for both commandpilot andpilot were shortened during flight relative to preflight baseline values.This is interpreted as an adrenergic response of the cardiovascularsystem to mild stress.Figure 5-5a showsthe plots of the duration of systole (lowercurve) and the systolic ratio (upper curve) for the commandpilot.Figure 5-5b represents similar values for the pilot. The systolicratio is simply the observed systolic duration over the predicted valuefor systole. The regression equation proposed in references i and 2

was used to predict the values of the duration of systole.In general, an increase in heart rate results in a shortening ofsystole (with a proportional shortening of both isotonic and isometricphases) and diastole. However, a shortening of the duration of mechan-ical systole in excess of that predicted for the increase in rateoccurs under the influence of adrenergic agents (sympathetic discharge)or digitalis. In addition to a positive inotropic effect, it is likelythat these agents speed up the metabolic reactions of the myocardiumduring systole. Cholinergic agents produce the opposite effect, re-sulting in an increase in the ratio of observed to predicted systole.A ratio lower than 1.0 suggests the influence of adrenergic factors.Examination of figures 5-5a and 5-5b reveals that both crew membersexhibited systolic ratio values between0.9 and 1.0, indicating a mildadrenergic influence throughout the mission.

CONCLUSIONSThe commandpilot exhibited a circadian rhythmicity of pulse rate,based on CapeKennedytime reference.Phonoelectrocardiographic data on both crewmenreveal no signifi-

cant decrease in duration of systole (Q waveto second heart soundinterval) or in the Qwave to first heart sound interval.The systolic ratios of both crewmemberssuggest a mild adrenergicresponse throughout most of the four-day mission.


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52REFERENCES

i

.

Hegglin, R. and Holzmann, M.: Die klinische Bedentung der Verlan-gerten QT - Distanz im Elektrokardiogramm. Ztschr. F. klin. Med.132: i, 1937.

Hegglin, R.: Die Klinik der Energetisch-dynamischen Herzinsuffiz-ienz. Bibliotheca Cardiologica, Sup. Cardiologia, Basel, 1947.


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Figure 5 - 3 , - Gemini biomedical recorder .


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1_3 213 - )b- 4'0 -'_0 --_'O .... _ eLI _t'g--_dELAPSED TIME FROMSTART OFMISSION [HOURS)

(a) Data from command pilot, Gemini IV.

Figure 5-4.- Lowest plot indicates values for interval between Q waveand first heart sound from liftoff to splash. Middle plot indicatesduration of systole (Q wave to second heart sound). Top plot indi-cates heart rate (R to R interval expressed in milliseconds).


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(b) Data from pilot, Gemini ZV.Figure 5-4.- Concluded.


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(a) Data from command pilot, Gemini IV.Figure 5-5.- Lower plot indicates duration of systole (Q wave to second

heart sound). Upper plot indicates systolic ratio (the ratio of theobserved value for the duration of systole to the predicted value ofthe systolic interval).


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Figure 5-5.- Concluded.


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61

6. EXPERIMENT M-6, BONE DEMINERA_LIZATION ON GEMINI IV

By Pauline B. Mack, Ph.D.Nelda Childers Stark Laboratory for Human Research

George P. VoseTexas Woman's University

Fred B. Vogt, M.D.Texas Institude for Rehabilitation .and Research

Paul A. LaChance, Ph.D.Manned Spacecraft Center

SU_WARY /_ll0_ -........

A bone demineralization study based on radiographic bone densitom-etry was conducted on the crew of the fo_-day Gemini IV mission, Thestudy was conducted by investigators from the Texas Woman's University(TWU). Radiographs were made of the lateral view of the foot and of theposterior-anterior view of the hand of the crew. The radiographs weremade: (a) nine days and three days before lift-off, respectively, atCape Kennedy; (b) on the morning of lift-off also at the Cape; (c) imme-diately after recovery on the Carrier Wasp_ and (d) at the Manned Space-craft Center 16 days and again 50 days following recovery. Members ofthe research team were stationed during the flight not only on theCarrier Wasp in the Atlantic, but also in the Hawaiian Islands in_pre_pa- /ration for a possible descent in either ocean. __-'_

It is the practice of TWU laboratories to calibrate the X_raymachine before each exposure by means of an R-meter, in order to stand-ardize the exposure conditions of the radiographs. The calibration ofeach film is effected by the use of an aluminum alloy wedge radiographedsimultaneously on the same film as the bone undergoing evaluation. Con-ditions of exposure, involving milliamperage, kilovoltage, and time havebeen selected so as to minimize the protein image and to maximize thatof the mineral elements in bone.

Losses in X-ray absorbance (in terms of X-ray equivalent aluminumalloy mass) in different sites in the os calcis, ranging from 6.20 to13.42 percent, have been found in the crew of Gemini IV, with losses in


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62finger phalanx 5-2 falling within a comparable range. X-rays madeofthe crew at two periods postflight have shownprogressive increases inX-ray absorbance in these anatomical sites_ which reached or approachedpreflight levels. It should be emphasized that changes of 6.20 to13.42 percent in X-ray absorbance do not imply that changes in elementalcalcium of this magnitude occurred.

For comparative purposes, the losses in X-ray absorbance as exhib-ited radiographically are comparedin this report to losses in healthyyoung menin the Texas Woman'sUniversity bed rest studies. They hadundergone bed rest immobilization for the samelength of time and hadconsumeda similar daily level of calcium. In all cases the losses inthe crew exceededthose in the bed rest subjects_ indicating that re-striction of body movementdid not represent the sole factor involved.Other possible responsible factors are discussed_ with the conclusionthat further studies are neededon a larger numberof subjects to iso-late someof the variables_ including weightlessness_ which probably areoperative.

An important finding of the study is the fact that the X-ray absorp-tion losses in bone_which have been found_ are recoverable within com-paratively short periods of time.METHODS

BoneDensitometer AssemblyThe equipment assembly used to evaluate sections of bone from theexposed radiographs is a special analog computer consisting of a seriesof subassemblies_ all designed to operate together as a completely in-tegrated system. The basic units of the overall assembly have been de-scribed in references i and 2.The history of the development of the scanning technique for meas-uring bone massfrom X-rays has been reported in references 2_ 3, and 4.

X-ray FilmThe film used in this investigation was Type AA Industrial X-rayfilm.


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Radiographic Exposure Technique

The three X-ray machines used in the study were calibrated by meansof similar equipment_ in order to standardize the exposure conditions ofthe films. Settings for milliamperes_ kilovolts, and time were set togive an exposure level of 0.167 _ 0.001 roentgen.

The calibration of each film was effected by the use of an aluminumalloy wedge radiographed simultaneously on the same film as the boneundergoing evaluation. Two wedges functioned in this study. They hadbeen constructed so as to give as nearly identical scans as possible whenthe films were standardized and traced by means of the special computerused in the bone mass measurements.

Bone Mass Evaluations

Central os calcis section.- Because of the natural provision ofanterior and posterior landmarks on the central os calcis, a trace thewidth of the scanning beam (1.3 millimeters), known in the laboratory of

,Tthe experimenters as the "conventional scan, was made on the successivefilms of this longitudinal series. Each radiograph was made with extremecare so that the image of the os calcis on each f_im could be superim-posed exactly over that of the initial film. With a small steel needle,the initial film was punctured at each end of the bone; this defined thelimits of the central or conventional trace. The two needle pricks couldbe identified by means of the magnification unit in the densitometer,which makes possible exact positioning of the film preparatory to scann-ing. The same treatment was given to the image of the calibration wedgeon the same film.

Before tracing the same segments in each successive film, each filmwas superimposed over the initial film with the steel-needle pricks madein exactly the same positions.

The anatomical location of the scan by which the central os calcissection was evaluated is shown in figure 6-i.

Multiple parallel os calcis evaluations.- Without removing the filmfrom its position in the densitometer after making a conventional scan,parallel scans 1.0 mmapart were made# beginning with a scan i.O mm abovethe conventional position, and continuing to the bottom of the os calcis.For the os calcis bone of the command pilot, 37 scans were needed tocover this area of the os calcis. For the pilot, 40 parallel scans wereneeded. (See figures 6-2 and 6-3.)

Individual bone X-ray absorption values were recorded from the datasecured from the multiple scans. These values are reported in four groups


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covering approximately one-fourth of the total area scanned. Thesevalues are also reported as an overall value.

Sections of phalanx 5-2.- The second phalanx of the fifth digitlikewise was scanned by parallel cross-sectional traces. (See fig-ure 6-4.) The first proximal scan was marked by needle pricks whichwere followed for each film in each series.

Control of scan widths.- For both the os calcis and the phalanxscans, the measured width of each individual bone segment was used todefine the length of the scan for that specific segment for each filmin the series for each crew member.

INTERPRETATION OF TERM "X-RAY ABSORBANCE" BY BONE

The term "X-ray absorbance" by bone as used in this report refersto the mass not only of calcium present in bone but also of phosphorusand of the other components of bone; and it includes whatever inter-stitial and extra-bone protein in the under- and over-lying tissue whichmay be reflected in the radiograph. Conditions of exposure, involvingmilliamperage, kilovoltage, and time, have been selected so as to mini-mize the protein image and to maximize that of the mineral elements inbones. This is possible because of the higher atomic numbers (relatedto the structure of the atoms) of calcium and phosphorus in comparisonwith the other elements involved in bone.

RESULTS

X-ray Absorption Changes in the Central 0s Calcis Section

The X-ray absorption values (in terms of calibration wedge equiv-alency) obtained from the central os calcis section (the so-called"conventional" segment of this bone) throughout the Gemini IV studyare shown in figure 6-5 and table 6-I. Based on an average of pre-flight wedge equivalency values, the command pilot showed a change of-9.53 percent in this section of the bone, with a -7.80 percent changewhen the immediate postflight value was compared with the immediatepreflight bone mass level. The corresponding values for the pilot were-6.20 and -10.27 percent.


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CHANGES IN MULTIPLE SECTIONS OF THE 0S CALCIS

As noted, 37 one-millimeter scans were made on each of the oscalcis films of the command pilot, all parallel to the "conventional"or central os calcis section. The first scan was made one millimeterabove the conventional scan_ with 35 successive scans below the scanof this central os calcis site.

On the os calcis series for the pilot, a total of 40 scans weremade in each case because of the larger bone. The first scan was madeone millimeter above the scan of the conventional section_ with 38 par-allel scans below this section. (See figures 6-2 and 6-3. )

In the series of multiple as calcis scans for both crew members_the values immediately after flight were lower than those before flight 3and there were no exceptions. An example is given in table 6-11, inwhich the integrator counts from the densitometer assembly are given forthe 40 parallel segments of the os calcis of the pilot immediately beforeand immediately after the four-day orbital flight.

COMPARISON OF FOUR GROUPS OF OS CALCISPARALLEL SECTIONS

In order to compare different areas of the os calcis for changes inbone mass equivalency during flight, the multiple scans were divided intofour groups each, and the sums of the values for each group were compared.An example of the findings is shown in figure 6-6, in wmich the wedge massequivalency values for the pilot are given for the four os calcissections. The first quarter represents the proximal section and the fourthrepresents the distal section of the combined scans. The graph is basedon a comparison of the immediate preflight radiograph with that of theimmediate postflight X-ray.

The four plots begin with the mean wedge mass equivalency valuesfor the preflight films (zero time on the graph), followed by the valuesobtained from the individual postflight radiographs in succession. Thechanges in the four os calcis sections of the pilot_ from the aver-ages of the preflight values to the values obtained from the radiographswhich were taken immediately after the orbital flight, were as follows:

(i) Proximal Section (segments i millimeter above the conventionscan through segment 8 below), -7.88 percent;


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(2)

(3)

Second Section (segments 9 through 18 below the conventionalscan), -7.69 percent;

Third Section (segments 19 through 27 below conventionscan), -7.05 percent; and

(4) Distal Section (segments 28 to bottom of bone), -2.52 percent.

COMPARISON OF OVERALL SERIES OF SEGMENTS

Figure 6-7 shows plots of a summation of wedge m_ss equivalencyvalues for the respective multiple segments of the os caleis of thecrew. The plot for the command pilot is based on the 37 segments shownin the X- ray positive in figure 6-2 and that for the pilot on the40 segments indicated in figure 6-3. The value shown at zero time inboth plots represents that of the first of the three preflight films,with the remaining series of radiographs following in order. When thevalue for the immediate preflight radiograph is compared with the imme-diatepostflight value, the command pilot exhibited a total loss in theos calcia of 6.82 and the pilot of -9.25 percent.

BONE MASS CHANGES IN FINGER PHALANX 5-2

It is remarkable that the phalanx of the fifth digit, which wasevaluated for bone mass in cross-sectional segments in this study, ex-perienced some losses in X-ray absorption in as short a time as fourdays. In the Texas Woman's University bed rest series, no changes ofnoteworthy magnitude in bone absorption by phalanx 5-2 site has beenfound, except during the last one-half of 30-day bed rest periods.

As in the case of the os calcis, multiple scans were made acrossFinger phalanx 5-2 for the wedge mass equivalency values obtained fromevaluations of the films taken during this study. The scans were madeacross the posterio-anterior view of the finger as shown in figure 6-4.

For assistance in the interpretation of the data obtained from thisbone, the Scans were combined into five groups from the proximal to thedistal end of this phalanx. Figure 6-8 consists of a plot of the wedgemass equivalency findings from one of the five groups of scans of thephalanx of the command pilot. The change in wedge ass equivalencyof this section of the bone for this subject was -10.74 percent calcu-lated from the values obtained from the radiograph taken immediatelybefore lift-off to that obtained immediately after the crew reached theCarrier Wasp.


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DISCUSSION

In the first venture into the field of measuring changes in skeletalmass during space flight, an entirely new environment for healthy men isbeing explored. In extensive bed rest studies at the Texas Woman's Uni-versity_ the level of dietary calcium consumed during and previous to bedrest immobilization has been found to affect calcium loss from the bodyas well as changes in bone mass. These dietary relationships have beenreported in references 5 and 6.

Exercise also has been demonstrated as effective in reducing bonemass losses_ and the study was reported in reference 7. The possibilityof stress as a factor in bone mass loss has been discussed in refer-ence 7.

In this Gemini IV study, bone mass losses were experienced by thecrew_ and these losses were greater in the central os calcis sectionthan was shown by TWU bed rest subjects during the same time, on a sim-ilar level of daily dietary calcium. In finger phalanx 9-2, distinctlosses in bone mass were shown by the crew in comparison with only minorln_s _n the bed west subjects, _r_+, _n t,h_ r_p nf _rnlnn_ _a_of bed rest immobilization_ as has been noted. For example, the lossesin bone mass of the central os calcis section for the crew during thefour-day flight, in comparison with those of TWUbed rest subjects onsimilar dietary calcium levels for the same length of time, are shownin table 6-111.


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The reduction in bone mass in the TWU bed rest immobilizationstudies have been accompanied by urinary and fecal losses oZ' calcium,phosphorus, and nitrogen, which have been higher during bed rest thanduring ambulation. The loss in bone mass as stated earlier in this re-port, does not represent solely a loss in calcium, but is based on lossesof all of the mineral components of bone, including small amounts ofprotein.

Because spacecraft parameters change, it is not possible to come todefinite conclusions concerning all of the variables which have enteredinto the findings of this study. More data on a larger number of sub-jects are needed for a more thorough interpretation of the results ofthis first experiment in skeletal change in healthy men in space. Oneresult has been demonstrated, however, and that is the fact that, ofevery anatomical site investigated, bone values showed a negative changein four days_ and the change was greater than losses shown by healthymen in bed rest studies during the same period of time and on the samedietary level of calcium. Further evidence that bone loss had occurredduring spaceflight was demonstrated by increases in bone mass levels whenthe astronauts returned to their regular activities on the surface of theearth.


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REFERENCES

lo Mack, Pauline Berry; Vose, George P; and Nelson, James Donald:New Developments in Equipment for the Roentgenographic Measure-ment of Bone Density, American Journal of Roentgenology, RadiumTherapy, and Nuclear Medicine, vol. 82, p. 647, 1934.

o Mack, Pauline Berry: Radiographic Bone Densitometry. Conferenceunder sponsorship of the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-tration and the National Institutes of Health, Washington, D.C.,March 25-27, 1965.

Mack, Pauline Berry_ O'Brien, Anne T.; Smith, Janice M.; andBauman, Author W.: A method for Estimating the Degree of Mineral-ization of Bones from Tracing of Roentgenograms, Science, vol. 89,p. 467, 1939.

o Mack, Pauline Berry; Brown, Walter N.; and Trapp, Hughes Daniel:The Quantitative Evaluation of Bone Density, American Journal ofRoentgenology and Radium Therapy, vol. 61, p. 808, 1949.

m Mack, Pauline Berry; Klapper, Elsa A.; Pyke, Ralph E.; Alford,Betty B.; and Gauldin, Ruth: Fourth Semiannual Report to theNational Aeronautics and Space Administration, Mar. 31, 1965.

6. Ibid, Fifth Semiannual Report to the National Aeronautics andSpace Administration, Sept. 30, 1965.

o Vogt, F. B.; Mack, P. B.; Beasley_ W. G.; Spencer, W. A.; Cardus, D.;valooL_la, C. : _l_ Efcu_ of Bed'est uL_ Vaious raram_rs of

_lysiological Functions, Part XII. The Effect of Bedrest on BoneMass and Calcium Balance, Texas Institute of Rehabilitation andResearch, Report to the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-tration, Apr. 1965.


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TABLE6-1EVALUATIONFCENTRALOSCALCISPOSTERiO-ANTERIOR

"CONVENTIONAL"EGMENT(a) Commandilot

X-ray absorption values in termsRadiographs of calibration wedgeequivalency,gMeanof values from preflightfilm 2. 397Film taken immediately beforelift-off 2. 353Film taken i_mediately after endof flight 2.169Film taken 16 days after end offlight 2. 216Film taken 50 days after end offlight 2. 274

(b) PilotMeanof values from preflightfilms 2. 642Film taken immediately beforelift-off 2. 762Film takep_Lmmediately after endof flight 2.479Film taken 16 days after end offlight.Film taken 50 days after end offlight.

2.4192.593


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TABLE (-II

COMPARISON OF CALIBRATION WEDGE _,_SS EQUIVALENCY VAL[_S BASED ON INTEGRATOR

READINGS FROM 40 PARALLEL SEGmeNTS OF T|_ OS CALCIS FROM RADIOGRAPHS MADE

ON ASTRONAUT WHITE II_DIATELY BEFORE AND I_9_EDIATELY AFTER THE FOL_-DAY

ORBITAL FLIGHT

Position of scan

i mm aboveConventional trace

I mmbelow2 mmbelow

mmbelow4 mmbelow

mmbelowo imi below7 _be].cw8 mmbelow

mmbelowi0 rm_belowii nml below12 mmbelowi> mmbelow14mmbelowI_ mmbelow16 mmbelow17mmbelow18 mmbelow19 mmbelowPO _m be7 ow21 mmbelow22 mmbelow2> mmbelow24 _mmbelow29 mmbelow26 sm below27 mmbelow28 mmbelow29 _ below>0 mmbelow_i mmbelow>2 mmbelow>> _mmbelow>4 _below_ mmbelow>6 mmbelow37 mmbelow

A.

Integrator counts from the densitometercomputer

Film taken inm_edi-atelv oref[i _-g

19; 16219,>4614_404m},792m>,28613,198i>,1>9121984

12 _69212_ D4212_ 104ii; 673ii; i_6i0_ 791I0_ 407I0,266?, 9619, 7_49, p629,0>28,}988,1687,9977,784%?947,>>67,1>87,0466,8016_ 6676, 98_6,po8674426,2716,1}_P, 78__5_ 51. "I_,92}

B. Film taken immedi-ately postf] ight

13,679I>;77012_92012,908ii_921lZ,753ii_2411, p58i1_530i1_>68I1_414lO,>16i0_28210;0949;8719.3569,1188,7848_4288,4488,1687,8467,9_97,478%>916,9806,96}6,8816,8>46,6126,9996_9286,>886,2866,1>06,1069,964P,>>_4_9204,422

Percent chano-9.04-10.27-10.?>-12.27-zo.98

-8.99-l>.12-11.92-9.36-8.52-lO.27

-11.18-li.82ri3.42-11.6)-9.>6-9. _2-9.8o-8.4p-8.08-io.)_-8._-7.16-4.26-6.16-%05-2. o8

-2.08-7"P7

-10.8238 mmbelow -iO. 18

TOTAL 385,774 350,084 -9.2_


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TABLE 6-111

COMPARISON OF WEDGE MASS EQUIVALENCY LOSSES IN CENTRAL

OS CAlaIS OF GEMINI IV CREW AND OF TWU BED REST SUBJECTSON Si_ELAR DAILY INTAKES OF DIETARY CALCiD_

SubjectsNumberofdays

Average calciumconsumed per day,

mg

Central os calcis wedge massequivalency chan_e (percent)Based on meanof preflight

valuesBased on lastvalue before

launch

Command pilot 4 679 -9.53 -7.$0

Pilot 4 739 -6,20 -10.27

TWU bed rest Based on valuebefore bed rest

Subject i 4 675 X -2.67

Subject 2 4 659 X -h.25

Subject 3 4 636 X -3.39

Subject 4 4 6_6 X -3.59


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Figure 6-1.- ositive of os c d c i s X-ray on the Gemini IV command p i l o tindicating location of conventional tracing.


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Figure 6-2 . - P o s i t i v e of os c a l c i s t r a c i ng pa ths on t h e G emini IVcommand p i l o t , i n d i c a t i ng p a r a l l e l pa ths .


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*1

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Figure 6-5. Posi-kive of os c al ci s X-ray on th e Gemini I V p i l o t ,i n d i c a t i n g p a r a l l e l t r a c i n g p a th s .


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Figure 6-4.- P o s i t i v e o f X-ray of l e f t hand, i n d i c a t i n gparallel t r a c i n g paths on l e f t d i g i t .


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Documents

Manned Space Flight Experiments Symposium Gemini Missions III and IV