Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

F l г T I 1 I r i n En I Т 1 П N L / 1 1 1 XJ I ч

In SI Units

Serope Kalpakjian Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois

Steven R. Schmid University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana

SI conversion by Chi-Wah Kok Hong Kong University of Science and Technology

PEARSON

Prentice Hall

Singapore London New York Toronto Sydney Tokyo Madrid Mexico City Munich Paris Capetown Hong Kong Montreal

CONTENTS

Preface xvii About the Authors ... xxi

Introduction 1

1.1 What Is Manufacturing? 1 1.2 Product Design and Concurrent Engineering 7 1.3 Design for Manufacture, Assembly, Disassembly, and Service 1.4 Environmentally Conscious Design, Sustainable

Manufacturing, and Product Life Cycle 12 1.5 Selecting Materials 13 1.6 Selecting Manufacturing Processes 15 1.7 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing 19 1.8 Lean Production and Agile Manufacturing 22 1.9 Quality Assurance and Total Quality Management 22 1.10 Manufacturing Costs and Global Competitiveness 24 1.11 General Trends in Manufacturing 25

Summary 26 References 26 Bibliography 28

Fundamentals of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials 29 2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 Tension 30 2.3 Compression 45 2.4 Torsion 48 2.5 Bending 50 2.6 Hardness 51 2.7 Fatigue 56 2.8 Creep 58 2.9 Impact 59 2.10 Residual Stresses 59 2.11 Triaxial Stresses and Yield Criteria 62 2.12 Work of Deformation 70

Summary 74 Summary of Equations 76 Bibliography 77 Questions 77 Problems 79

2

viii CONTENTS

J Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals 83 3.1 Introduction 83 3.2 The Crystal Structure of Metals 84 3.3 Deformation and Strength of Single Crystals 85 3.4 Grains and Grain Boundaries 91 3.5 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 94 3.6 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 95 3.7 Cold, Warm, and Hot Working 98 3.8 Failure and Fracture 98 3.9 Physical Properties 105 3.10 General Properties and Applications of Ferrous Alloys 110 3.11 General Properties and Applications of Nonferrous

Metals and Alloys 115 Summary 126 Summary of Equations 127 Bibliography 127 Questions 128 Problems 129

Surfaces, Tribology, Dimensional Characteristics, Inspection, and Product Quality Assurance 131 4.1 Introduction 131 4.2 Surface Structure and Properties 132 4.3 Surface Texture and Roughness 134 4.4 Tribology: Friction, Wear, and Lubrication 138 4.5 Surface Treatments, Coatings, and Cleaning 154 4.6 Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation 164 4.7 Dimensional Tolerances 170 4.8 Testing and Inspection 172 4.9 Quality Assurance 175

Summary 183 Summary of Equations 183 Bibliography 184 Questions 185 Problems 186

Metal-Casting Processes and Equipment; Heat Treatment 188 5.1 Introduction 188 5.2 Solidification of Metals 189 5.3 Cast Structures 195

CONTENTS ix

5.4 Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer 199 5.5 Melting Practice and Furnaces 207 5.6 Casting Alloys 208 5.7 Ingot Casting and Continuous Casting 214 5.8 Expendable-Mold, Permanent-Pattern Casting Processes 217 5.9 Expendable-Mold, Expendable-Pattern Casting Processes 223 5.10 Permanent-Mold Casting Processes 227 5.11 Heat Treatment 236 5.12 Design Considerations 245 5.13 Economics of Casting 254

Case Study: Lost-Foam Casting of Engine Blocks 255 Summary 256 Summary of Equations 257 Bibliography 257 Questions 258 Problems 260 Design 262

Bulk Deformation Processes 265 6.1 Introduction 265 6.2 Forging 266 6.3 Rolling 288 6.4 Extrusion 307 6.5 Rod, Wire, and Tube Drawing 320 6.6 Swaging 329 6.7 Die Manufacturing Methods 331 6.8 Die Failures 332 6.9 Economics of Bulk Forming 333

Case Study: Suspension Components for the Lotus Elise Automobile 334

Summary 336 Summary of Equations 336 Bibliography 338 Questions 338 Problems 340 Design 344

Sheet-Metal Forming Processes 346 7.1 Introduction 346 7.2 Sheet-Metal Characteristics 347 7.3 Shearing 351 7.4 Bending of Sheet and Plate 360 7.5 Miscellaneous Forming Processes 372 7.6 Deep Drawing 387 7.7 Formability of Sheet Metals and Modeling 397 7.8 Equipment for Sheet-Metal Forming 403

7.9 Design Considerations 404 7.10 Economics of Sheet-Metal Forming 406

Case Study: Cymbal Manufacture 407 Summary 409 Summary of Equations 410 Bibliography 411 Questions 411 Problems 413 Design 415

Ö Material-Removal Processes: Cutting 416 8.1 Introduction 416 8.2 Mechanics of Chip Formation 418 8.3 Tool Wear and Failure 440 8.4 Surface Finish and Surface Integrity 447 8.5 Machinability 450 8.6 Cutting-Tool Materials 453 8.7 Cutting Fluids 464 8.8 High-Speed Machining 466 8.9 Machining Processes and Machine Tools for Producing

Round Shapes 467 8.10 Machining Processes and Machine Tools for Producing

Various Shapes 482 8.11 Machining and Turning Centers 495 8.12 Vibration and Chatter 501 8.13 Machine-Tool Structures 503 8.14 Design Considerations 504 8.15 Economics of Machining 507

Case Study: Ping Golf Putters 510 Summary 512 Summary of Equations 513 Bibliography 514 Questions 515 Problems 518 Design 521

Material-Removal Processes: Abrasive, Chemical, Electrical, and High-Energy Beams 523 9.1 Introduction 523 9.2 Abrasives 524 9.3 Bonded Abrasives 526 9.4 Mechanics of Grinding 530 9.5 Grinding Wheel Wear 536 9.6 Grinding Operations and Machines 540

CONTENTS XI

9.7 Finishing Operations 547 9.8 Deburring 551 9.9 Ultrasonic Machining 552 9.10 Chemical Machining 554 9.11 Electrochemical Machining 558 9.12 Electrochemical Grinding 560 9.13 Electrical-Discharge Machining 561 9.14 High-Energy-Beam Machining 566 9.15 Water-Jet, Abrasive Water-Jet, and Abrasive-Jet

Machining 568 9.16 Design Considerations 570 9.17 Process Economics 573

Case Study: Manufacture of Stents 574 Summary 576 Summary of Equations 577 Bibliography 578 Questions 579 Problems 580 Design 582

Properties and Processing of Polymers and Reinforced Plastics; Rapid Prototyping and Rapid Tooling 584 10.1 Introduction 584 10.2 The Structure of Polymers 587 10.3 Thermoplastics: Behavior and Properties 594 10.4 Thermosets: Behavior and Properties 601 10.5 Thermoplastics: General Characteristics

and Applications 601 10.6 Thermosets: General Characteristics

and Applications 604 10.7 High-Temperature Polymers, Electrically Conducting

Polymers, and Biodegradable Plastics 605 10.8 Elastomers (Rubbers): General Characteristics

and Applications 607 10.9 Reinforced Plastics 608 10.10 Processing of Plastics 619 10.11 Processing of Polymer-Matrix-Reinforced Plastics 637 10.12 Rapid Prototyping and Rapid Tooling 643 10.13 Design Considerations 656 10.14 Economics of Processing Plastics 657

Case Study: Invisalign Orthodontic Aligners 658 Summary 660 Summary of Equations 661 Bibliography 662 Questions 663 Problems 666 Design 667

XII CONTENTS

I I Properties and Processing of Metal Powders, Ceramics, Glasses, and Superconductors 669 11.1 Introduction 669 11.2 Powder Metallurgy 670 11.3 Compaction of Metal Powders 676 11.4 Sintering 685 11.5 Secondary and Finishing Operations 691 11.6 Design Considerations for Powder Metallurgy 692 11.7 Economics of Powder Metallurgy 695 11.8 Ceramics: Structure, Properties, and Applications 697 11.9 Shaping Ceramics 706 11.10 Glasses: Structure, Properties, and Applications 712 11.11 Forming and Shaping Glass 714 11.12 Design Considerations for Ceramic and Glass Products 71 i 11.13 Graphite and Diamond 719 11.14 Processing Metal-Matrix and Ceramic-Matrix

Composites 720 11.15 Processing Superconductors 723

Case Study: Hot Isostatic Pressing of Valve Lifter 724 Summary 725 Summary of Equations 726 Bibliography 727 Questions 727 Problems 729 Design 730

IZ Joining and Fastening Processes 732 12.1 Introduction 732 12.2 Oxyfuel Gas Welding 734 12.3 Arc Welding Processes: Consumable Electrode 736 12.4 Arc Welding Processes: Nonconsumable Electrode 744 12.5 High-Energy-Beam Welding 746 12.6 The Fusion Welded Joint 749 12.7 Cold Welding 760 12.8 Ultrasonic Welding 761 12.9 Friction Welding 762 12.10 Resistance Welding 764 12.11 Explosion Welding 770 12.12 Diffusion Bonding 771 12.13 Brazing and Soldering 772 12.14 Adhesive Bonding 780 12.15 Mechanical Fastening 784 12.16 Joining Nonmetallic Materials 788 12.17 Design Considerations in Joining 790 12.18 Economic Considerations 794

CONTENTS XIII

Case Study: Friction Welding of Monosteel Pistons 795 Summary 796 Summary of Equations 797 Bibliography 797 Questions 798 Problems 801 Design 802

IJ Fabrication of Microelectronic, Micromechanical, and Microelectromechanical Devices; Nanomanufacturing 803

13.1 Introduction 803 13.2 Clean Rooms 807 13.3 Semiconductors and Silicon 808 13.4 Crystal Growing and Wafer Preparation 809 13.5 Films and Film Deposition 812 13.6 Oxidation 813 13.7 Lithography 815 13.8 Etching 822 13.9 Diffusion and Ion Implantation 832 13.10 Metallization and Testing 833 13.11 Wire Bonding and Packaging 835 13.12 Yield and Reliability of Chips 839 13.13 Printed Circuit Boards 839 13.14 Micromachining of MEMS Devices 841 13.15 LIGA and Related Microfabrication Processes 851 13.16 Solid Freeform Fabrication of Devices 857 13.17 Mesoscale Manufacturing 858 13.18 Nanoscale Manufacturing 859

Case Study: Digital Micromirror Device 860 Summary 863 Bibliography 864 Questions 865 Problems 866 Design 867

14 Automation of Manufacturing Processes and Operations 869 14.1 Introduction 869 14.2 Automation 870 14.3 Numerical Control 877 14.4 Programming for Numerical Control 883 14.5 Adaptive Control 884

XIV CONTENTS

14.6 Material Handling and Movement 887 14.7 Industrial Robots 890 14.8 Sensor Technology 895 14.9 Flexible Fixturmg 899 14.10 Assembly, Disassembly, and Service 901 14.11 Design Considerations 904 14.12 Economic Considerations 907

Case Study: Robotic Deburring of Plastic Toboggans 908 Summary 909 Bibliography 910 Questions 910 Problems 912 Design 912

I J Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Systems 914 15.1 Introduction 914 15.2 Manufacturing Systems 915 15.3 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing 916 15.4 Computer-Aided Design and Engineering 918 15.5 Computer-Aided Manufacturing 923 15.6 Computer-Aided Process Planning 924 15.7 Computer Simulation of Manufacturing Processes

and Systems 927 15.8 Group Technology 929 15.9 Cellular Manufacturing 935 15.10 Flexible Manufacturing Systems 937 15.11 Holonic Manufacturing 940 15.12 Just-in-Time Production 941 15.13 Lean Manufacturing 943 15.14 Communications Networks in Manufacturing 943 15.15 Artificial Intelligence 946

Summary 949 Bibliography 950 Questions 951 Problems 952 Design 952

CONTENTS XV

IО Product Design and Manufacturing in a Global Competitive Environment 954 16.1 Introduction 954 16.2 Product Design and Robust Design 955 16.3 Product Quality and Quality Management 960 16.4 Life-Cycle Engineering and Sustainable Manufacturing 966 16.5 Selection of Materials for Products 968 16.6 Substitution of Materials in Products 972 16.7 Capabilities of Manufacturing Processes 974 16.8 Selection of Manufacturing Processes 978 16.9 Manufacturing Costs and Cost Reduction 980

Summary 983 Summary of Equations 984 Bibliography 984 Questions 985 Problems 986 Design 986

Answers to Selected Problems 991

Index 993