UNIT 1: OCEAN BASICS

Properties of Sea Water One of the most important aspects of water is its ability to dissolve materials

- Results in salinity- Allows for nutrients to exist and support growth of photosynthesizing organisms –

phytoplankton- Dissolves N, P, Fe, C, etc.- Maintains dissolved oxygen which supports the metabolisms of oceanic life- Dissolved ions support chemosynthetic food webs

Contains dissolves salts – e.g. NaCl Average seawater has ~35g/kg, 35%, or 35 ppt Denser than freshwater Freezes at lower temperatures than sea water (~-2°C) Water is less dense when frozen Temperature and salinity define water masses, how they move, and their ecological effects Levels of Salinity in Bodies of Water

- Freshwater: 0-0.5ppt NaCl- Brackish water: 0.5-30ppt- Saline Water:30-50ppt- Ocean Proper

o Average: 34.7ppto Mediterranean Sea: 38ppto Red Sea: 40ppt

- Brine Pools: 50+ppt

The Surface of the Ocean Ocean is not uniform in temperature, salinity, currents, etc.

- Varies greatly with latitudeo Warmer, more saline near the tropicso Colder, less saline in polar regions

Surface currents are driven by persistent winds Deep currents are driven by temperature and salinity gradients – thermohaline circulation Surface temperatures are not uniform – they can be impacted by landmasses (continents) and

currents Surface currents exist in continuous loops

General Ocean Surface Currents Warm, narrow western boundary currents (Gulf Stream) Cool, broad eastern boundary currents (California) Central gyres in North/South Pacific, North/South Atlantic, Indian oceans formed by the North

and Southern currents Gyres are partially formed because of the landmasses

Antarctic circumpolar currents exist due to lack of landmasses interfering with the gyres

The Oceans in 3-D Profile of temperature and salinity in the Arctic (Temp. red, Salinity, blue):

- These changes present both challenges and opportunities for animals diving at depth Cold, less-saline water floating on the surface of the warmer, saltier water at depth

- Sinking (cooling) water from the North Atlantic displaces deep water, horizontally, pushing it south and moving it throughout the world’s ocean

- Because the southern hemisphere is uninterrupted by landmasses, water flows between the world’s oceans, bringing deep water from the Atlantic into the Pacific and Indian oceans, closing the flow of the cycle

Rapid change in temperature = thermocline Rapid change in salinity = halocline

Pressures at Depth Assuming that the density of sea water to be 1025kg/m3 (varying slightly depending on

conditions), pressure increases at ~1atm/10m of depth Pressure is a huge challenge for air-breathing marine organisms and deep-dwelling organisms

Light at Depth Seawater scatters the cooler, short-waves light and absorbs warmer colors Only small amounts of light penetration below 200m Absence of light is a challenge for marine organisms that live in the deep ocean

Sea Ice and Icebergs Ice is less dense than its liquid form Sea ice floats, creating a substrate for life Structures the marine ecosystems by stabilizing the water Undergoes incredible seasonal changes, affecting the ecosystems

UNIT 2: OCEAN DIMENSIONS

The World’s Oceans 5 connected oceans

- Arctic Ocean- Southern Ocean- Atlantic Ocean- Pacific Ocean- Indian Ocean

Divisions of the Oceans

Hawksbill Turtle – inhabits the epipelagic zone and visits the neritic zone for foraging Sperm Whale – inhabits the epipelagic zone, but dives down to the Abyssalpelagic Deep-Sea Tube Worms – inhabit the Abyssal benthos

Vertical Scale in the Ocean Deepest depth: 10,994m/6.83mi Most of the ocean reaches the Abyssal plane at around 5,000m Mountain ranges rising from 3,000m+ from the bottom (such as the Mid-Ocean Ridges) exist

UNIT 3: ORIGINS OF MARINE MEGAFAUNA

UNIT 5: SEABIRD DIVERSITY

Seabird Diversity and Biogeography Not all birds near water are considered seabirds Seabirds are distinguished as species that live on or near the ocean and use the resources of the

marine environment Seabird Orders

- Sphenisciformes – Penguins- Procellariiformes – Albatrosses, petrels, storm-petrels, fulmars, shearwaters; ‘Tubenoses’- Pelecaniformes – Pelicans, frigatebirds, gannets, boobies, cormorants- Charadriforms – Skuas, jaegers, gulls, terns, skimmers, auks

- Anseriforms – Sea duckso Orders are under revision with new genetic data

Biogeographic Ubiquity Found essentially anywhere in the ocean, but do require a platform for nesting

Penguins Distributed in the Southern Hemisphere

- Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic habitats 17-19 sp ‘Flightless’ swimmers Solid bones – not pneumatic Fur-like feathers

Albatrosses, Petrels, Storm-petrels, Fulmars, Shearwaters Most abundant in high latitudes Tubular nostrils used for olfaction – “Tubenoses” 21 sp. Albatross 51 sp. Petrels 7 sp. Fulmars 21 sp. Shearwaters

Steller’s Curse George Wilhelm Steller: 1709-1746 Born and educated in Germany Went to Russia and joined Vitus Bering expedition from Kamchatka to North America in 1741 Landed on uninhabited Bering Island where he spend the Artic winter Died alone in the middle of Siberia at Tyumen River; his grave was robbed and eventually

washed away by the river Discovered many species that also suffer

- Steller’s Eider: Vulnerable-Threatened- Steller’s Sea Eagle: Vulnerable- Steller’s Sea Lion: Near Threatened, Western stock, Endangered- Steller’s Sea Cow: Extinct

Steller’s Albatross- Most abundant albatross in North Pacific during the 19th century- Hunted for feathers until it was thought to be extinct in 1940- Rediscovered on small islands off Japan- Populations are recovering- Now called the Short-Tailed Albatross- Midway Atoll

o Recovery program uses decoys and acoustic cues to lure the species to the area In 2009, a pair bonding occurred; in 2010-2011a nest was built, egg laid and

chick hatched; chick survived the 2011 tsunami in the Pacific; Steller’s curse broken!

Pelicans, Frigatebirds, Gannets, Boobies, Cormorants Most common in tropical and temperate zones

Totipalmate feet – four toes connected by webs 3 Tropicbirds 5 Frigatebirds 7 Pelicans 3 Gannets 7 Boobies 36 Cormorants

Skuas, Gulls, Terns, Skimmers, Auks Widespread, but most species live in the Northern Hemisphere United by characteristics of the skull, vertebral column, and syrinx (vocal organ of birds) 7 Skuas and Jaegers ~50 Gulls 45 Terns 3 Skimmers 23 Auks

The Great Auk Last flightless seabird of the Northern Hemisphere Hunted to extinction for food, feathers, and as specimens for museums/private collections Never described scientifically while living Fed on fishes and crustaceans, but little is known about their foraging behavior

Sea Ducks Grouped into the Tribe Mergini 17 species in the Northern Hemisphere Tend to breed on tundra/boreal zones and winter in marine coastal waters

UNIT 6: BASICS OF SEABIRD BIOLOGY

Seabird Basics Feathers and scales Wings Pneumatic bones No teeth; beaks Reproduce via eggs

Seabird Life History Basics Life History – the history of changes undergone by an organisms from inception or conception to

death Long Life (20-60 years) Deferred maturity (breeding delay up to 10 years) Small clutches (1-2 eggs) Extended chick rearing (up to 6 months) Slow population growth

Flight Vary in efficiency and performance

- Albatrosses – dynamic soaring- Puffin – powered flight- Penguin – only under water

Enables widespread travel for foraging, reproduction, and predator avoidance Basic Physics

- Seabirds are constrained by the physics of flight- Wing load is the ratio of weight to wing area; seabirds tend to be light and have large wings- Aspect ratio is the ratio of wing span to its mean breadth

o High aspect ratios = excellent lift, low maneuverability – soaring flighto Low aspect ratios = reduced lift, light maneuverability – powered flight

Colonial Living Gregarious living is common in seabirds Colonies form on almost any habitat

- Cliffs, hillsides, beaches Colonies occur around the world, from the poles to the equators Pros:

- Helps when nesting habitat is limited- Provides defense against some predators- Facilitates social activities

o Finding and choosing mates- Advantageous when considered over the lifespan of individual birds

Cons:- Competition near a colony can be high- Parasites can spread in colors- Effects of invasive species can be dramatic- Vulnerable to stochastic events: rapid/unpredictable environmental changes

UNIT 7: PENGUIN DIVERSITY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY

Penguin Diversity Basics 17-19 extant species >25 extinct forms Entirely flightless Exclusive to southern hemisphere Colonial

Variations in Form Generally black and white counter-shaded Color variations in neck/head patches, beaks, crests, and eyes Variations in beak shape and size

Penguin Groups At the Genus level:

- Aptenodytes – Great Penguins- Pygoscelis – Brush-tailed Penguins- Eudyptula – Little Penguins

- Spheniscus – Banded Penguins- Megadyptes – Yellow-eyed Penguins- Eudyptes – Crested Penguins

Crested Penguins- Flashy yellow or orange crests- Red of reddish-brown eyes- Reddish beaks- Breed on islands around Antarctic continent- Includes:

o Macaroni Penguino Fjordland Penguino Snares Penguino Erect-Crested Penguino Southern Rockhopper Penguino Northern Rockhopper Penguino Royal Penguin (disputed)

Banded Penguins- “Tropical

Penguins- Small- White bands on face, black beak- Black bands on chest- Nest in burrows- Distributed at the very southern part of South America- Includes:

o Magellanic Penguino Humboldt Penguino Galapagos Penguino African Penguin

Brush-Tailed Penguins- “Stiff-tailed” Penguins- Long, sweeping tails- White ring around the eyes- 2nd largest penguins- Antarctic and sub-Antarctic range- Includes:

o Adelie Penguin Black face and beak, narrow white eye-ring

o Chinstrap Penguin White face, black beak, black chinstrap

o Gentoo Penguin Black face, orange beak, white “headphones”

Little Penguins- “Fairy” Penguin- Smallest of all penguins- Bluish color- Found only in Australia and New Zealand

- Nest in burrows- Extremely vocal- Nocturnal

Yellow-Eyed Penguin- Distributed only in New Zealand- ‘Hoiho’ by the New Zealand Maori- Pale yellow head and paler yellow iris with black feather shafts- Nest in coastal vegetation on New Zealand and smaller surrounding islands- Solitary breeders, not colonial- Considered Endangered

Great Penguins- Largest penguins- Up to 1m, 90lbs- Orange “sunset” plumage on neck/head- Antarctic and Sub-Antarctic distributions- Includes:

o King Penguin – Sub-Antarctic o Emperor Penguin – Antarctic

UNIT 8: PENGUIN BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY

Why are Penguins Waterproof? Short, overlapping, densely packed feathers Outer part of the feather is maintained through preening uropygial oil Inner down section traps and insulating layer of air

Penguin Locomotion – Sea Underwater flight

- Foraging, predator avoidance; Gentoo penguin is the fastest Porpoising

- Traveling by jumping through the water, like porpoises Surface swimming

- Near-shore social and access

Penguin Locomotion – Land Legs are far back on the body Assume and upright stance and waddle Will also toboggan on their belly, using feet to push and wings to steer

Penguin Colonies Most penguins live in colonies Helps nesting when habitat is limited Provides defense against some predators Helps in finding and choosing mates Advantageous when considered over the lifespan of individual birds

Penguin Breeding

Tend to be monogamous per seasons, sometimes serially Breed yearly Shared parental care Many species will lay two eggs Some species engage in feeding chases to reduce sibling harassment and competition Emperor Penguin Breeding Cycle

- April: March of the Penguins- May: Mating- June-July: Males incubate eggs, females return to sea to feed- August: egg hatches and females return- Sept-Nov.: Male/female alternate feeding trips- Dec.: Chicks fledge

Penguin Diet Feed on small fishes and invertebrates Pursuit foragers, eating single prey items Mouth lined with papillae that help keep prey moving down to the stomach

Penguins as Prey Penguins are prey items for other marine predators Penguins are often killed and eaten by Skuas Important prey for leopard seals

UNIT 9: SEA TURTLE ANATOMY, DIVERSITY, AND BIOGEOGRAPHY

Sea Turtles Marine Reptiles Lungs to breathe air Lay eggs Epidermal scales Shell Poikilotherms No teeth 7 Species

- Family Cheloniidaeo Loggerhead Turtleso Green Turtleso Hawksbill Turtleso Olive and Kemp’s Ridley Turtleso Flatback Turtle

- Family Dermochelydiaeo Leatherback Turtle

Basic Anatomy Head with beak

Shell with scutes: top=carapace, bottom=plastron Teardrop shaped Dorso-ventrally flattened Front flippers – propulsion Read flippers – steering Characteristics for Species Identification

- Scales on head- Jaw form- Claws on feet- Number and arrangement of scutes on shell

Leatherback Turtle Dark gray/black with white spots Head with tooth-like notch on either side of the upper jaw, no scales Carapace is tapered, leathery, with 5 ridges Length: 165-190+cm Range extends into the sub-Arctic in each hemisphere, nesting occurs in the tropics and

subtropics

Green Turtle Radiating streaks of brown, buff 4 lateral scutes on the carapace 1 pair elongated prefrontal scales on the head Round face with serrated jaw Length: 120cm Primarily tropical, but juveniles extend into temperature regions; black morph found in the east

Pacific

Loggerhead Turtle Reddish brown/brown color Large head Carapace is longer than wide 5 or most costal scutes, first paid very small More than one 1 of prefrontal scales Length: 90-110+cm Range extends well up into the sub-tropics and temperate regions

Hawksbill Turtle Amber and brown streaks Carapace has 4 lateral scutes Head with a curved beak and distinct overbite 2 pair of prefrontal scales Scutes are oval and overlap Length: 90-110+cm Tropical species, rarely found in temperate zone

Kemp’s Ridley Turtle Green to light olive green

Carapace is round with 5-6 lateral scutes Head is triangular and relatively large 2 pair of prefrontal scales Length: 70cm Very limited ranges – stem from one beach in Mexico

- Most common in the Gulf of Mexico- Juveniles occur up into the temperate zone

Olive Ridley Turtle Gray-brown to olive green Round carapace with 6+ lateral scutes More than one pair of prefrontal scales Length: 70cm Range from temperate and subtropics, not found in the North Atlantic

- Largest nesting populations in the Indian Ocean

Flatback Turtle Olive gray, low-domed with edges up-turned Carapace has 4 lateral scutes Rounded head with 1 pair of prefrontal scales Length: 90cm Limited to coastal waters of Australia

UNIT 10: SEA TURTLE BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY

Sea Turtle Life History Traits Many small offspring with high mortality rates Slow growing Large adult size Late age at maturity Long-lived No parental care Developmental shifts in habitat use

- Generalized life history model of a sea turtle in the North Atlantico Adult turtles in costal zones make short migrations for nesting and foraging

young hatchlings partake in migration using the North Atlantic gyre until maturity return to clutch site for breeding and nesting

Reproduction Natal homing Mate ~30 days prior to nesting Lay eggs in clutches Many offspring No parental care Hatch simultaneously - ‘boil’ Hatchlings head directly to the ocean

Ridley Arribadas An Arribada: a lot of turtles nest over several days in a small area No other species known to exhibit this behavior May reduce predation risk by satiating predators or increase female success through multiple

paternities

Designed to Dive Teardrop form to reduce drag Elongated front flippers for propulsion and maneuvering Dorso-lateral compression, reduced shell profile, allows for position of flippers Power-stroke propulsion

Leatherback Turtle Largest turtle (500kg+) Oldest species of sea turtle (90mya) Most extensive range Deepest divers (1200 m+) Longest Migration

Feeding Green sea turtles eat sea grasses and algae; as adults, these are the only herbivorous sea turtles Hawksbill turtles are adapted for getting food from crevices in coral reefs; eat sponges,

tunicates, shrimps, and squids Loggerheads’ and Ridleys’ jaws are adapted for crushing and grinding crabs, mollusks, shrimps,

jellyfish, and vegetation Leatherbacks eat jellyfish and other soft-bodied invertebrates; mouth and throat lined with

papillae pointed backward to help them swallow Flatbacks eat seaweed, cuttlefish, and sea cucumbers

UNIT 11: