McCauley Mary (Molly Pitcher)

American Revolution Reference Library 2000

Born October 13 1750 in Trenton New Jersey United StatesDied January 22 1832 in Carlisle Pennsylvania United StatesNationality AmericanOccupation PatriotBorn October 13 1754

Trenton New Jersey

Died January 22 1832

Carlisle Pennsylvania

Domestic servant camp follower

Mary McCauley ran a household and tended to children the typical duties of a woman of the late

eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries But when her country needed her she showed independence of

thought and action Nicknamed Molly Pitcher Mary McCauley demonstrated courage under fire and

helped save American lives at a critical Revolutionary War battle

The woman believed to be the Molly Pitcher of Revolutionary War fame was born Mary Ludwig on October

131754 Her parents were dairy farmers who lived on a small farm outside of Trenton New Jersey In some

documents the name Ludwig is spelled Ludwick Many people in Colonial times were illiterate and so

could not correct others who misspelled their names Mary herself could not read or write and signed

documents as an adult with a simple X

Mary Ludwigs father was John George Ludwig (Some historians believe the familys actual last name was

Hass or Has a name that was dropped when John arrived in America) John Ludwig immigrated to America

in about 1730 from an area in southwest Germany that was home to many people who practiced a

Protestant religion This fact is interesting first because many German American groups have claimed Mary

Ludwig (Molly Pitcher) as a German heroine Second like the Pilgrims in the New England colonies many

Protestants also immigrated to America because of religious persecution in Europe

Moves to Pennsylvania

Mary Ludwigs life was fairly uneventful until 1769 when at the age of fifteen she moved to Carlisle

Pennsylvania to become a servant to the family of Dr William Irvine Ludwigs father apparently arranged

for his daughter to have this job even though it meant she would move far away (about 125 miles) from her

parents home As a domestic servant Mary cleaned house washed clothes and cared for the Irvine

children

Life as a soldiers wife

In July 1769 Mary Ludwig married William Hays who had been born in Ireland immigrated to America and

worked as a barber in Carlisle William enlisted as a gunner in the Pennsylvania State Regiment of Artillery

in May 1777 This date is significant because the Revolutionary War had been underway for about a year

and the American need for soldiers had grown

Artillery is a term that includes weapons such as cannons that throw projectiles (bombs) across the field of

battle As an artillery man William served the cannons He prepared cartridges (cloth packets full of gun

powder) hauled and stacked cannon balls loaded the guns aimed and fired them and swabbed them out

to wash away any lingering traces of gunpowder before reloading It was heavy hot smoky dangerous

work especially in the heat of battle

As a soldiers wife who accompanied her husband from battlefield to battlefield Mary Hays had many duties

She had to take care of her own and her husbands belongings and be ready to pack them at a moments

notice when the army was on the move Hays also had to keep her family and clothing clean while on the

move and find food wherever the army stopped When her husband or an unmarried soldier became ill

Hays nursed them in addition to her other duties

The Battle of Monmouth

Historical records report that William Hays and his regiment served with distinction at the Battle of

Monmouth New Jersey in June 1778 It was the last major battle fought in the North during the

Revolutionary War When Hayss regiment was ordered from Pennsylvania to New Jersey Mary Hays

followed the army to stay with her husband The move also allowed her to be near her family

The stage for the battle was set when the British army evacuated Philadelphia on June 18 1778 and

marched eastward across New Jersey to the Atlantic coast Their goal was to load their army and baggage

onto British ships and sail north to New York City a city still in the hands of the British

American General George Washington (1732ndash1799 see entry ) received news of the movements of the

British army however and attacked on June 28 Washington claimed a victory since the Americans forced

the British from the field of battle The British disagreed pointing out that they escaped during the night

after the battle and saved most of their men and belongings The Americans lost an estimated 500 men

while the British lost about 1000 men killed or wounded

Molly Hayss courage at the Battle of Monmouth

Mary Hays was a young woman of twenty-four at the time her husband William served as a gunner at

Monmouth The battle actually took place in the small town of Freehold in northeastern New Jersey and is

more accurately called the Battle of Monmouth County Courthouse

thought and action Nicknamed Molly Pitcher Mary McCauley demonstrated courage under fire and

helped save American lives at a critical Revolutionary War battle

The woman believed to be the Molly Pitcher of Revolutionary War fame was born Mary Ludwig on October

131754 Her parents were dairy farmers who lived on a small farm outside of Trenton New Jersey In some

documents the name Ludwig is spelled Ludwick Many people in Colonial times were illiterate and so

could not correct others who misspelled their names Mary herself could not read or write and signed

documents as an adult with a simple X

Mary Ludwigs father was John George Ludwig (Some historians believe the familys actual last name was

Hass or Has a name that was dropped when John arrived in America) John Ludwig immigrated to America

in about 1730 from an area in southwest Germany that was home to many people who practiced a

Protestant religion This fact is interesting first because many German American groups have claimed Mary

Ludwig (Molly Pitcher) as a German heroine Second like the Pilgrims in the New England colonies many

Protestants also immigrated to America because of religious persecution in Europe

Moves to Pennsylvania

Mary Ludwigs life was fairly uneventful until 1769 when at the age of fifteen she moved to Carlisle

Pennsylvania to become a servant to the family of Dr William Irvine Ludwigs father apparently arranged

for his daughter to have this job even though it meant she would move far away (about 125 miles) from her

parents home As a domestic servant Mary cleaned house washed clothes and cared for the Irvine

children

Life as a soldiers wife

In July 1769 Mary Ludwig married William Hays who had been born in Ireland immigrated to America and

worked as a barber in Carlisle William enlisted as a gunner in the Pennsylvania State Regiment of Artillery

in May 1777 This date is significant because the Revolutionary War had been underway for about a year

and the American need for soldiers had grown

Artillery is a term that includes weapons such as cannons that throw projectiles (bombs) across the field of

battle As an artillery man William served the cannons He prepared cartridges (cloth packets full of gun

powder) hauled and stacked cannon balls loaded the guns aimed and fired them and swabbed them out

to wash away any lingering traces of gunpowder before reloading It was heavy hot smoky dangerous

work especially in the heat of battle

As a soldiers wife who accompanied her husband from battlefield to battlefield Mary Hays had many duties

She had to take care of her own and her husbands belongings and be ready to pack them at a moments

notice when the army was on the move Hays also had to keep her family and clothing clean while on the

move and find food wherever the army stopped When her husband or an unmarried soldier became ill

Hays nursed them in addition to her other duties

The Battle of Monmouth

Historical records report that William Hays and his regiment served with distinction at the Battle of

Monmouth New Jersey in June 1778 It was the last major battle fought in the North during the

Revolutionary War When Hayss regiment was ordered from Pennsylvania to New Jersey Mary Hays

followed the army to stay with her husband The move also allowed her to be near her family

The stage for the battle was set when the British army evacuated Philadelphia on June 18 1778 and

marched eastward across New Jersey to the Atlantic coast Their goal was to load their army and baggage

onto British ships and sail north to New York City a city still in the hands of the British

American General George Washington (1732ndash1799 see entry ) received news of the movements of the

British army however and attacked on June 28 Washington claimed a victory since the Americans forced

the British from the field of battle The British disagreed pointing out that they escaped during the night

after the battle and saved most of their men and belongings The Americans lost an estimated 500 men

while the British lost about 1000 men killed or wounded

Molly Hayss courage at the Battle of Monmouth

Mary Hays was a young woman of twenty-four at the time her husband William served as a gunner at

Monmouth The battle actually took place in the small town of Freehold in northeastern New Jersey and is

more accurately called the Battle of Monmouth County Courthouse

to wash away any lingering traces of gunpowder before reloading It was heavy hot smoky dangerous

work especially in the heat of battle

As a soldiers wife who accompanied her husband from battlefield to battlefield Mary Hays had many duties

She had to take care of her own and her husbands belongings and be ready to pack them at a moments

notice when the army was on the move Hays also had to keep her family and clothing clean while on the

move and find food wherever the army stopped When her husband or an unmarried soldier became ill

Hays nursed them in addition to her other duties

The Battle of Monmouth

Historical records report that William Hays and his regiment served with distinction at the Battle of

Monmouth New Jersey in June 1778 It was the last major battle fought in the North during the

Revolutionary War When Hayss regiment was ordered from Pennsylvania to New Jersey Mary Hays

followed the army to stay with her husband The move also allowed her to be near her family

The stage for the battle was set when the British army evacuated Philadelphia on June 18 1778 and

marched eastward across New Jersey to the Atlantic coast Their goal was to load their army and baggage

onto British ships and sail north to New York City a city still in the hands of the British

American General George Washington (1732ndash1799 see entry ) received news of the movements of the

British army however and attacked on June 28 Washington claimed a victory since the Americans forced

the British from the field of battle The British disagreed pointing out that they escaped during the night

after the battle and saved most of their men and belongings The Americans lost an estimated 500 men

while the British lost about 1000 men killed or wounded

Molly Hayss courage at the Battle of Monmouth

Mary Hays was a young woman of twenty-four at the time her husband William served as a gunner at

Monmouth The battle actually took place in the small town of Freehold in northeastern New Jersey and is

more accurately called the Battle of Monmouth County Courthouse

The day of the battle was extremely hot and humid Mary Hays helped her husbands regiment by carrying

pitcher after pitcher of cool water from the Monmouth Courthouse well and serving the water to the thirsty

soldiers They began to call her Molly Pitcher She also offered first aid to the soldiers who fell in battle

And when her husband was overcome with the heat she replaced him helping his gun crew keep up their

firing pattern General Washington himself is said to have stopped after the battle to thank and congratulate

Molly Pitcher on her brave service to his soldiers

Receives army pension

After the war Mary and her barber husband settled down in Carlisle William died in 1788 leaving behind

Mary and a young son John aged five A year later in 1789 Mary Hays married John McCauley Many

records indicate that this second marriage was not a happy one for Mary McCauley She continued to work

as a domestic servant A tax record from around this time stated that the McCauleys owned a house a half-

lot two cows and a half-dozen teaspoons John McCauley died about 1813 and Mary McCauley did not

marry again

Mary McCauley continued to work as a domestic servant for the rest of her life Various people described

her as a short heavy-set woman who had an abrupt manner She often wore the style of clothing that was

popular in her youth a white dress covered by a striped skirt that was split in the middle and gathered to

each side along with a white cap with a broad frilled edging She was a talkative woman who loved children

and was a tender careful nurse to the sick Mary McCauley did have a rough side however As the wife of a

soldier she had learned to swear and usually spoke her mind with some bluntness

Among the households where Mary McCauley was employed was the Miles home in Carlisle Mary tended

Mrs Miles who was ill for a year before she died in 1822 In addition to nursing Mrs Miles Mary cared for

the familys two young sons One son Wesley Miles published his recollections of Molly Pitcher in the May

18 1876 edition of The Carlisle Herald the town newspaper

Years after the war ended state governments began to grant money to soldiers and their widows many of

whom had fallen on hard times In 1822 the Commonwealth of Penn sylvania passed a bill that immediately

granted Mary McCauley forty dollars and the promise of forty dollars per month for the remainder of her life

At first this pension was applied for because Mary McCauley was the widow of a soldier However the final

wording of the bill makes it clear that McCauley received the pension in recognition of her own services The

act read For the relief of Molly McKolly for her services during the revolutionary war

US census records show that McCauley spent the last years of her life living in the Carlisle home of her

son John L Hays and his wife Elizabeth The Hayses had seven children providing Mary with many

opportunities to be with the children she loved

Buried with full military honors

Mary McCauley is buried in the Old Graveyard in Carlisle Her gravesite is marked by a stone that reads

Mollie McCauley Renowned in History as Molly Pitcher the heroine of Monmouth Died Jan 1832 Aged 79

Years Erected by the Citizens of Cumberland County July 4th 1876

On June 28 1905 the Patriotic Order of Sons of America unveiled an additional monument a cannon

planted over her grave In Monmouth New Jersey a battle monument shows Molly Pitcher with a cannon

and a pail of water

Legend grows

Eyewitness accounts of the Battle of Monmouth were given by some of the soldiers who fought there by

their wives who heard the stories from their soldier husbands and by the friends and family of Mary

McCauley It is difficult to prove which stories are true because of the large gap in time between the battle

and when the stories began to be published

Nevertheless the stories do paint an exciting picture One tale describes how Mary Hays carried an injured

soldier on her back away from the battlefield while under heavy fire from British cannons Another tale tells

how Mary Hays was servicing her husbands cannon As she reached over for a cartridge a British

cannonball passed between her legs leaving her uninjured but carrying away part of her skirt Some believe

that General Washington made Mary the only woman officer in the Continental army

In 1876 at the one-hundred-year anniversary of the founding of the United States many people became

very interested in the Revolutionary War They loved to retell stories of bravery from the war and were fond

of tracing their ancestors activities during the war At this time the story of Molly Pitcher was retold and

added to

Molly Pitchers story is retold

The story of Molly Pitcher is celebrated in numerous childrens books and she has an entry in most US

encyclopedias She is also the subject of at least three plays Edward Martin Walsh produced Molly Pitcher

the Monmouth Girl a four-act play in 1900 in Detroit Michigan In 1928 Molly Pitchers story was retold in

La Capitaine which was published in Short Plays from American History and Literature by Olive M Price

La Capitaine is French for the captain In 1971 Marjory Hall published Molly Meets the General Two

Patriots of the American Revolution

Mary McCauleys bravery at the Battle of Monmouth is also the subject of paintings and at least one poem

entitled Molly Pitcher The Battle of Monmouthmdash28 June 1778 The poem tells how General Washingtons

army survived the brutal winter at Valley Forge Pennsylvania and then marched to the Jersey Shore to

fight the British in the heat of summer The poem describes Molly Pitcher her nursing of the wounded her

pitchers of cooling water and her firing of her husbands cannon after he fell ill from the heat

For More Information

Malone Dumas Dictionary of American Biography Vol 6 New York Charles Scribners Sons 1933 pp

574-675

Purcell L Edward Who Was Who in the American Revolution New York Facts on File 1993 p 219

Rome Ellen Molly Pitcher An Ohio Schoolgirls Essay Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine

Vol 109 1975 pp 903-05

Smith Samuel Stelle A Molly Pitcher Chronology Monmouth Beach NJ Philip Freneau Press 1972

Stevenson Augusta Molly Pitcher Young Patriot New York Aladdin Paperbacks 1986

Web Sites

Lopez Lilli Molly Pitcher The Battle of Monmouth 28 June 1778 [Online] Available

httpwwwmidmainecom~lopezpage96html (accessed on March 9 1999)

US Field Artillery Association The Story of Molly Pitcher [Online] Available httpsill-

wwwarmymilpaopamollyhtml (accessed on February 19 1999)

The Other Molly Pitcher

The name Molly Pitcher is sometimes applied to other Revolutionary War heroines One such heroine

was Margaret Cochran Corbin see entry or Captain Molly a woman who fought in the Battle of Fort

Washington New York in 1776 Molly was a common nickname given to girls named Mary or Margaret

The Pitcher name was given because of the water they carried to soldiers on the battlefield

her as a short heavy-set woman who had an abrupt manner She often wore the style of clothing that was

popular in her youth a white dress covered by a striped skirt that was split in the middle and gathered to

each side along with a white cap with a broad frilled edging She was a talkative woman who loved children

and was a tender careful nurse to the sick Mary McCauley did have a rough side however As the wife of a

soldier she had learned to swear and usually spoke her mind with some bluntness

Among the households where Mary McCauley was employed was the Miles home in Carlisle Mary tended

Mrs Miles who was ill for a year before she died in 1822 In addition to nursing Mrs Miles Mary cared for

the familys two young sons One son Wesley Miles published his recollections of Molly Pitcher in the May

18 1876 edition of The Carlisle Herald the town newspaper

Years after the war ended state governments began to grant money to soldiers and their widows many of

whom had fallen on hard times In 1822 the Commonwealth of Penn sylvania passed a bill that immediately

granted Mary McCauley forty dollars and the promise of forty dollars per month for the remainder of her life

At first this pension was applied for because Mary McCauley was the widow of a soldier However the final

wording of the bill makes it clear that McCauley received the pension in recognition of her own services The

act read For the relief of Molly McKolly for her services during the revolutionary war

US census records show that McCauley spent the last years of her life living in the Carlisle home of her

son John L Hays and his wife Elizabeth The Hayses had seven children providing Mary with many

opportunities to be with the children she loved

Buried with full military honors

Mary McCauley is buried in the Old Graveyard in Carlisle Her gravesite is marked by a stone that reads

Mollie McCauley Renowned in History as Molly Pitcher the heroine of Monmouth Died Jan 1832 Aged 79

Years Erected by the Citizens of Cumberland County July 4th 1876

On June 28 1905 the Patriotic Order of Sons of America unveiled an additional monument a cannon

planted over her grave In Monmouth New Jersey a battle monument shows Molly Pitcher with a cannon

and a pail of water

Legend grows

Eyewitness accounts of the Battle of Monmouth were given by some of the soldiers who fought there by

their wives who heard the stories from their soldier husbands and by the friends and family of Mary

McCauley It is difficult to prove which stories are true because of the large gap in time between the battle

and when the stories began to be published

Nevertheless the stories do paint an exciting picture One tale describes how Mary Hays carried an injured

soldier on her back away from the battlefield while under heavy fire from British cannons Another tale tells

how Mary Hays was servicing her husbands cannon As she reached over for a cartridge a British

cannonball passed between her legs leaving her uninjured but carrying away part of her skirt Some believe

that General Washington made Mary the only woman officer in the Continental army

In 1876 at the one-hundred-year anniversary of the founding of the United States many people became

very interested in the Revolutionary War They loved to retell stories of bravery from the war and were fond

of tracing their ancestors activities during the war At this time the story of Molly Pitcher was retold and

added to

Molly Pitchers story is retold

The story of Molly Pitcher is celebrated in numerous childrens books and she has an entry in most US

encyclopedias She is also the subject of at least three plays Edward Martin Walsh produced Molly Pitcher

the Monmouth Girl a four-act play in 1900 in Detroit Michigan In 1928 Molly Pitchers story was retold in

La Capitaine which was published in Short Plays from American History and Literature by Olive M Price

La Capitaine is French for the captain In 1971 Marjory Hall published Molly Meets the General Two

Patriots of the American Revolution

Mary McCauleys bravery at the Battle of Monmouth is also the subject of paintings and at least one poem

entitled Molly Pitcher The Battle of Monmouthmdash28 June 1778 The poem tells how General Washingtons

army survived the brutal winter at Valley Forge Pennsylvania and then marched to the Jersey Shore to

fight the British in the heat of summer The poem describes Molly Pitcher her nursing of the wounded her

pitchers of cooling water and her firing of her husbands cannon after he fell ill from the heat

For More Information

Malone Dumas Dictionary of American Biography Vol 6 New York Charles Scribners Sons 1933 pp

574-675

Purcell L Edward Who Was Who in the American Revolution New York Facts on File 1993 p 219

Rome Ellen Molly Pitcher An Ohio Schoolgirls Essay Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine

Vol 109 1975 pp 903-05

Smith Samuel Stelle A Molly Pitcher Chronology Monmouth Beach NJ Philip Freneau Press 1972

Stevenson Augusta Molly Pitcher Young Patriot New York Aladdin Paperbacks 1986

Web Sites

Lopez Lilli Molly Pitcher The Battle of Monmouth 28 June 1778 [Online] Available

httpwwwmidmainecom~lopezpage96html (accessed on March 9 1999)

US Field Artillery Association The Story of Molly Pitcher [Online] Available httpsill-

wwwarmymilpaopamollyhtml (accessed on February 19 1999)

The Other Molly Pitcher

The name Molly Pitcher is sometimes applied to other Revolutionary War heroines One such heroine

was Margaret Cochran Corbin see entry or Captain Molly a woman who fought in the Battle of Fort

Washington New York in 1776 Molly was a common nickname given to girls named Mary or Margaret

The Pitcher name was given because of the water they carried to soldiers on the battlefield

Eyewitness accounts of the Battle of Monmouth were given by some of the soldiers who fought there by

their wives who heard the stories from their soldier husbands and by the friends and family of Mary

McCauley It is difficult to prove which stories are true because of the large gap in time between the battle

and when the stories began to be published

Nevertheless the stories do paint an exciting picture One tale describes how Mary Hays carried an injured

soldier on her back away from the battlefield while under heavy fire from British cannons Another tale tells

how Mary Hays was servicing her husbands cannon As she reached over for a cartridge a British

cannonball passed between her legs leaving her uninjured but carrying away part of her skirt Some believe

that General Washington made Mary the only woman officer in the Continental army

In 1876 at the one-hundred-year anniversary of the founding of the United States many people became

very interested in the Revolutionary War They loved to retell stories of bravery from the war and were fond

of tracing their ancestors activities during the war At this time the story of Molly Pitcher was retold and

added to

Molly Pitchers story is retold

The story of Molly Pitcher is celebrated in numerous childrens books and she has an entry in most US

encyclopedias She is also the subject of at least three plays Edward Martin Walsh produced Molly Pitcher

the Monmouth Girl a four-act play in 1900 in Detroit Michigan In 1928 Molly Pitchers story was retold in

La Capitaine which was published in Short Plays from American History and Literature by Olive M Price

La Capitaine is French for the captain In 1971 Marjory Hall published Molly Meets the General Two

Patriots of the American Revolution

Mary McCauleys bravery at the Battle of Monmouth is also the subject of paintings and at least one poem

entitled Molly Pitcher The Battle of Monmouthmdash28 June 1778 The poem tells how General Washingtons

army survived the brutal winter at Valley Forge Pennsylvania and then marched to the Jersey Shore to

fight the British in the heat of summer The poem describes Molly Pitcher her nursing of the wounded her

pitchers of cooling water and her firing of her husbands cannon after he fell ill from the heat

For More Information

Malone Dumas Dictionary of American Biography Vol 6 New York Charles Scribners Sons 1933 pp

574-675

Purcell L Edward Who Was Who in the American Revolution New York Facts on File 1993 p 219

Rome Ellen Molly Pitcher An Ohio Schoolgirls Essay Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine

Vol 109 1975 pp 903-05

Smith Samuel Stelle A Molly Pitcher Chronology Monmouth Beach NJ Philip Freneau Press 1972

Stevenson Augusta Molly Pitcher Young Patriot New York Aladdin Paperbacks 1986

Web Sites

Lopez Lilli Molly Pitcher The Battle of Monmouth 28 June 1778 [Online] Available

httpwwwmidmainecom~lopezpage96html (accessed on March 9 1999)

US Field Artillery Association The Story of Molly Pitcher [Online] Available httpsill-

wwwarmymilpaopamollyhtml (accessed on February 19 1999)

The Other Molly Pitcher

The name Molly Pitcher is sometimes applied to other Revolutionary War heroines One such heroine

was Margaret Cochran Corbin see entry or Captain Molly a woman who fought in the Battle of Fort

Washington New York in 1776 Molly was a common nickname given to girls named Mary or Margaret

The Pitcher name was given because of the water they carried to soldiers on the battlefield

574-675

Purcell L Edward Who Was Who in the American Revolution New York Facts on File 1993 p 219

Rome Ellen Molly Pitcher An Ohio Schoolgirls Essay Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine

Vol 109 1975 pp 903-05

Smith Samuel Stelle A Molly Pitcher Chronology Monmouth Beach NJ Philip Freneau Press 1972

Stevenson Augusta Molly Pitcher Young Patriot New York Aladdin Paperbacks 1986

Web Sites

Lopez Lilli Molly Pitcher The Battle of Monmouth 28 June 1778 [Online] Available

httpwwwmidmainecom~lopezpage96html (accessed on March 9 1999)

US Field Artillery Association The Story of Molly Pitcher [Online] Available httpsill-

wwwarmymilpaopamollyhtml (accessed on February 19 1999)

The Other Molly Pitcher

The name Molly Pitcher is sometimes applied to other Revolutionary War heroines One such heroine

was Margaret Cochran Corbin see entry or Captain Molly a woman who fought in the Battle of Fort

Washington New York in 1776 Molly was a common nickname given to girls named Mary or Margaret

The Pitcher name was given because of the water they carried to soldiers on the battlefield

Over the years many historians have tried to verify which parts of the Molly Pitcher story are true They

have consulted official documents from Colonial and Revolutionary War times including property deeds

(certificates of ownership of homes and animals) letters pension applications newspaper articles and

congressional and military records A good historical case can be made that Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley

sometimes called Sergeant Molly is the Molly Pitcher of legend

Full Text COPYRIGHT 2000 UXL COPYRIGHT 2006 Gale

Source CitationMcCauley Mary (Molly Pitcher) American Revolution Reference Library Ed

Barbara Bigelow Stacy A McConnell and Linda Schmittroth Vol 2 BiographiesVol 2 Detroit UXL 2000 321-327 US History In Context Web 15 Oct 2013

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