Media effects

How do the media influence us?

Effects studies

• Early effects scholars

• “Powerful effects” theory

• Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion

• Harold Lasswell, WWII propaganda

• “Bullet” or “hypodermic needle” theory

• Assumes that people are passive, uncritical

Minimalist effects theory

• Paul Lazarsfeld, 1948

• “Two-step flow” model

• Status conferral

• Agenda setting

• Narcotizing dysfunction

• Media lull people into passivity

Cumulative effects theory

• Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann• cumulative effects theory’spiral of silence

model• dominant view can snowball through the

media• dominant view not sufficiently challenged• people fear rejection

Uses and gratifications studies

• challenges to audience passivity

• reevaluation of scholarly assumptions

• “gratifications”--why people use media:

• “surveillance” function--scan environment for danger

• “socialization” function--helps us maintain social relationships

• “parasocial” relationships--artificial

Gratifications, con’t

• diversion function• stimulation• relaxation• release

Consistency theory

• individual selectivity• selective exposure

– we choose our media

• selective perception– Walter Lippmann: “We do not see first and

then define; we define first and then see.”

• selective retention and recall– 1938 War of the Worlds broadcast

Socialization

• Media’s initiating role– by age 18, US children have watched

18,000-20,000 hours of TV– children learn prosocial behavior

• Role models--big influence• Stereotyping--forms images in our mind• Erosion of boundaries that separate

generations--children’s exposure

Media-depictions of violence

• learning about violence

• observational learning

• media violence--– a catharsis?– prods socially positive action?– teaches us the world is a scary place

Media violence as negative

• Aggressive stimulation theory– Albert Bandura’s studies in 1960s– Zamora case– Bundy case– Deer Hunter cases

• Catalytic theory-Schramm, Lyle, Parker– for some children under some conditions

George Gerbner’s “Mean World Syndrome”

• Societally debilitating effects of violence– media world is more dangerous real world– desensitizing theory--more violence is

necessary to make an impact– Gerbner Index since 1970s– 30,000 murders, 40,000 attempted

murders seen on TV by age 18– give up freedom for personal safety

Media agenda-setting

• creates awareness• establishes priorities• perpetuates issues• not “what to think,”

but “what to think about”

Media induced anxiety and apathy

• information “overload” or “pollution”• New York Times--12 million words! More info

in one day than in a 17th century person’s lifetime!

• media induce passivity--”couch potato”• we neglect sports, neighborhood &

community activities• “well informed futility”