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1 Medical Semiology Review Guidelines for 1° semester Exam (Based on Professor’s material, McLeods’s, Extended matching questions (EMQs) in Clinical Medicine and personal extras) Alessandro Motta, Medicine Class in English, 3 rd Year, UVVG Cardiology: diseases, cardiopathies, valvulopathies Respiratory: diseases and syndromes How to approach a cardiac patient? In order to understand this introductive chapter we have to take care about identify a normal situation and a pathological one and correlate signs and changes at the physical examination with a possible cardiovascular disease. The steps are: performing a correct anamnesis and a proper examination of the patient. Why the anamnesis could help us in our investigation? There are many pathologies that could affects the heart specifically in pediatrics field (e.g. atrial or ventricular septal defects, the “cor pulmunale” in young males or the mitral valve defect in females) and others complications may spread in adult age because of infections or rheumatic fever occurred in childhood. Other factors that influence the anamnesis are geographical data, family story, physiological data, and of course personal history and social status. At a general examination three main symptoms can be founded in cardiac patient: Pain Dyspnea Palpitation The typical pain in heart problems is called angina pectoris, and is the main manifestation of coronary disease, so the lack of oxygen in the main responsible. The typical angina comes with substernal pain and discomfort, a sense of constriction to the mediastinum, and a rate of duration and depth usually common to many patients; it starts with efforts. It also irradiates to the left shoulder until the arm and even in the dorsal side. Rest or assumption of nitroglycerine relieves it. The atypical angina meets just two of the abovementioned signs and the noncardiac pain could meet just one of them. Other types of cardiac pain are the following: Prinzimental angina, is a variation of this type, and is made by coronary spasms; it usually comes at same hours in night/day Nonischemic pain, derived by pericarditis, aortic causes or hypertension I suggest you also this site: http://www.fastbleep.com/medicalnotes/ really cool and feature a large selection of notes in cardiology for medical students

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Medical  Semiology  Review  Guidelines  for  1°  semester  Exam  

(Based  on  Professor’s  material,  McLeods’s,  Extended  matching  questions  (EMQs)  in  Clinical  Medicine  and  personal  extras)  

Alessandro  Motta,  Medicine  Class  in  English,  3rd  Year,  UVVG    Cardiology:  diseases,  cardiopathies,  valvulopathies  Respiratory:  diseases  and  syndromes    How  to  approach  a  cardiac  patient?    In  order  to  understand  this  introductive  chapter  we  have  to  take  care  about  identify  a  normal  situation  and  a  pathological  one  and  correlate  signs  and  changes  at  the  physical  examination  with  a  possible  cardiovascular  disease.  The  steps  are:  performing  a  correct  anamnesis  and  a  proper  examination  of  the  patient.    Why  the  anamnesis  could  help  us  in  our  investigation?  There  are  many  pathologies  that  could  affects  the  heart  specifically  in  pediatrics  field  (e.g.  atrial  or  ventricular  septal  defects,  the  “cor  pulmunale”  in  young  males  or  the  mitral  valve  defect  in  females)  and  others  complications  may  spread  in  adult  age  because  of  infections  or  rheumatic  fever  occurred  in  childhood.      Other  factors  that  influence  the  anamnesis  are  geographical  data,  family  story,  physiological  data,  and  of  course  personal  history  and  social  status.      At  a  general  examination  three  main  symptoms  can  be  founded  in  cardiac  patient:  

• Pain  • Dyspnea  • Palpitation  

The  typical  pain  in  heart  problems  is  called  angina  pectoris,  and  is  the  main  manifestation  of  coronary  disease,  so  the  lack  of  oxygen  in  the  main  responsible.  The  typical  angina  comes  with  substernal  pain  and  discomfort,  a  sense  of  constriction  to  the  mediastinum,  and  a  rate  of  duration  and  depth  usually  common  to  many  patients;  it  starts  with  efforts.  It  also  irradiates  to  the  left  shoulder  until  the  arm  and  even  in  the  dorsal  side.  Rest  or  assumption  of  nitroglycerine  relieves  it.  The  atypical  angina  meets  just  two  of  the  abovementioned  signs  and  the  non-­‐cardiac  pain  could  meet  just  one  of  them.    Other  types  of  cardiac  pain  are  the  following:  

• Prinzimental  angina,  is  a  variation  of  this  type,  and  is  made  by  coronary  spasms;  it  usually  comes  at  same  hours  in  night/day  

•  Non-­‐ischemic  pain,  derived  by  pericarditis,  aortic  causes  or  hypertension        I  suggest  you  also  this  site:  http://www.fastbleep.com/medical-­‐notes/  really  cool  and  feature  a  large  selection  

of  notes  in  cardiology  for  medical  students  

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The  second  sign  is  the  dyspnea:  we  all  know  this  means  the  difficulty  in  respiration.  In  this  specific  case  is  triggered  by  pulmonary  stasis  or  low  cardiac  output.  It  comes  with  Cheyne-­‐Stock  respiration:  

   Other  types  of  dy.  are  the  executional  (linked  to  the  effort)  and  the  “at  rest”  one  that  is  related  with  orthopnea  (e.g.  how  many  pillows  you  need?).  Episodes  of  paroxysmal  dyspnea  may  occur:  in  nighttime,  with  frightening  awakes  of  patients,  with  cardiac  asthma  or  with  acute  pulmonary  edema  (emergency  case).    Palpitations  are  a  set  of  unpleasant  sensations  in  which  aware  patients  of  an  irregular,  hard  or  rapid  heartbeat.  May  be  triggered  by  hyperactivity  of  CNS  or  by  abnormal  cardiac  states.  These  could  be  enhanced  by  physical  condition  (coffee,  smoking,  effort  and  stress)  or  by  any  cardiopathy.    How  to  perform  a  general  physical  exam?  In  this  phase  do  not  look  directly  at  cardiac  status  by  try  to  correlate  some  situations  with  it.  Look  at  mental  status,  specific  syndromes,  physical  attitudes,  face  and  skin/mucosa,  joints  and  so  on.  Any  changes  in  one  of  these  factors  could  suggest  you  a  specific  condition.  E.g.  a  baby  that  prefer  to  rest  in  squatting  position  is  probably  doing  that  because  his  body  need  to  distribute  the  blood  to  the  brain,  so  it  would  suggest  a  congenital  cardiopathy.    How  to  perform  a  physical  exam  for  cardiac  diseases?  The  inspection  is  performed  in  the  precordial  area,  the  epigastrium  and  the  cervical  region  (ant.).    

   

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Hence  at  palpation  we  should  check  for  apex  impulse  (mitral  area),  thrill,  pericardial  rub  and  others.    The  apex  impulse  corresponds  to  a  ventricular  systole,  so  we  have  to  pay  attention  for  displacement  in  the  area  (a  dilatation  could  present  a  bigger  area)  the  amplitude/force  that  could  rise  in  hypertrophies  and  volume  overload.      The  thrill  sounds  like  a  murmur  (cat’s  purring)  and  could  be  heard  as  diastolic  or  systolic.      The  pericardial  Rub  is  described  as  scratching  or  friction  with  leather  and  is  audible  in  pericarditis.  Other  enhanced  sounds  are  given  by  valve  closure.    In  the  auscultation  of  the  heart  we  have  to  look  back  at  the  picture  in  the  previous  page  and  give  a  nice  rehearse  to  the  heart  sounds  meanings.  This  wonderful  picture  synthesizes  murmurs  and  some  pathological  meanings.          Always  try  to  keep  in  mind  a  simple  rule  to  auscultation:    

1. Sound  is  “LUB”  and  corresponds  to  the  beginning  of  systole,  when  mitral  and  tricuspid  valve  close  

2. Sound  is  “DUB”  and  means  the  end  of  systole  with  the  start  of  a  new  diastole.  Comes  with  closure  of  aortic  and  pulmonary  valves.  

3. Sound  is  normal  in  childhood,  pathological  in  adults:  left  ventricle  problems  

4. Sound  formation  is  due  atrial  hypertrophy  

I  won’t  insist  in  hs.  to  avoid  confusions…  

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Now  that  we’ll  start  with  diseases  I  have  to  be  transparent  with  you,  professor’s  presentations  are  perfect  for  his  lessons  in  course  room  where  him  eviscerate  the  argument  taking  inspirations  by  those  writings  but  I  personally  find  a  mess  to  ground  my  knowledge  about  syndromes  and  pathologies  on  those  slides…  So  I  will  take  them  in  account  by  I’d  rather  write  case-­‐by-­‐case  definitions  and  clinical  aspects,  or  you  and  probably  I  too  won’t  remember  these  notions  for  a  long…  As  Mr.  Pop  wrote  in  a  ppt:  “I  hope  you  won’t  memorize  all  these  names,  just  get  an  Idea”…    Here  the  list  of  diseases,  I  included  what  was  most  important  in  presentations  and  ECG  findings:  

ü Valvular  heart  diseases:  § Regurgitation/stenosis  § Mitral/Aortic  

ü Ischemic  Cardiopathies:  CAD,  coronary  artery  disease  ü Endocarditis  ü Arrhythmias  and  conduction  troubles  ü Aortic  Dissection  ü Venous  Diseases  ü Cardiac  Failure  

 Valvulopathies:    The  regurgitation  is  a  failure  of  valve  closure,  which  leads  to  back  flow  of  blood.  The  stenosis  is  the  narrowing  of  valves  when  it  is  open.    In  mitral  regurgitation  a  part  of  blood  flows  back  from  left  ventricle  to  the  respective  atria,  diminishing  the  output  in  the  aorta.  The  acute  form  bring  with  it  a  pulmonary  edema,  the  chronic  form  triggers  an  enlargement  of  right  side,  especially  right  atrium,  with  raised  pressure  in  lungs  in  a  long  period  of  time.  Causes  of  this  disease  may  involve  all  the  components  of  the  valve  (valve  prolapse,  chordae  tendinee,  dysfunction  in  papillary  muscles).  The  valve  itself  gives  the  primary  form,  while  the  secondary  one  is  given  by  dilation  of  left  ventricle.      ECG  findings:  mitral  P  wave,  hypertrophy  of  LV  and  RV,  supraventricular  arrhythmias.    Mitral  stenosis  is  more  common  in  women,  the  valve  cause  an  impediment  to  the  blood  normal  flow,  creating  a  pressure  gradient  and  increasing  pressure  of  left  atrium  (triggers  embolism  and  pulmonary  capillary  increased  pressure).    The  usual  etiology  is  the  rheumatic  fever;  it  could  be  also  congenital  and  degenerative.  Clinical  signs  are  jugular  distension,  ascites,  edema  and  mitral  facies  (redness  of  cheeks).    In  this  pathology  is  audible  a  murmur  before  the  first  sound,  presystolic  accentuation.      ECG  findings:  mitral  P  wave,  hypertrophy  of  LV  and  RV,  supraventricular  arrhythmias,  atrial  fibrillation.    Aortic  regurgitation  means  the  diastolic  blood  flow  from  the  aorta  into  the  left  ventricle.  It  has  a  chronic  and  an  acute  form,  leads  to  left  ventricular  hypertrophy  and  heart  failure.  In  acute  phases  as  a  result  of  pressure  we’ll  notice  pulmonary  edema,  usually  is  severe  and  leads  to  failure  and  cardiogenic  shock.  The  murmur  will  result  as  a  prolonged  S2.      ECG  findings:  tall  R  waves  in  V5,  V6  and  tall  T  waves  too.    Aortic  Stenosis  could  be  either  congenital,  degenerative  or  due  to  rheumatic  fever.  The  pressure  in  the  left  ventricle  triggers  a  hypertrophy  of  this  last.  The  contractility  diminishes,  and  so  decreases  the  output  leading  to  cardiac  failure.  The  classic  triad  of  clinical  signs  is:  angina,  syncope  in  exercise,  dyspnea.  “Pulsus  parvus  et  tardus”:  murmur  with  a  crescendo-­‐decrescendo  systolic  ejection,  just  after  the  first  sound.    ECG  findings:  Left  Ventricle  Hypertrophy        

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Coronary  Artery  Disease  (CAD)  triggers  ischemic  cardiopathies,  this  basically  means  an  unbalance  between  oxygen  need  and  intake.  Main  causes  are  atherosclerosis  and  embolism,  and  usually  is  a  progressive  disease  that  begins  in  childhood  and  manifest  in  adulthood,  men  are  more  affected  and  geographical  area  (nutritional  factors)  is  highly  important.    Classification  of  CAD:  

• Without  pain:  arrhythmias,  sudden  death  

• With  pain:  stable  or  unstable  angina  and  acute  myocardial  infarction  

• Chronic,  with  a  stable  angina  manifested  in  effort  • Acute  syndromes,  with  unstable  pain  and  acute  myocardial  infarction  

Acute  Myocardial  Infarction    =  ST  segment  elevation  =  Acute  Coronary  Syndrome  (STEMI)    ***STEMI:  s-­‐t  elevation  in  myocardial  infarction  ECG  findings:  check  the  picture  on  the  right;  the  T  is  hyper  acute,  pathological  Q  wave  indicates  necrosis  (case  E  on  picture)    How  to  understand  where  is  the  infarct?  

• Anterior:  V2-­‐V4  (less  from  V1to  V6)  • Lateral:  V5-­‐V6,  I,  aVL  • Inferior:  II,  III,  aVF  

 *For  completeness  there  is  also  a  change  in  enzymes  creatine  kinase,  troponin  and  lactate  dehydrogenase,  some  days  after  the  onset.  I  won’t  be  more  precise!      The  Endocarditis  is  an  infection  of  the  endocardial  surface,  including  valves.  There  are  intracardiac  effects  such  as  valvular  insufficiency,  congestive  heart  failure  or  myocardial  abscesses,  and  there  are  also  systemic  signs  (sterile/non  sterile  emboli  and  immunological  changes).  This  picture  synthesize  all  clinical  findings:  

 

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Just  the  last  reminder:  a  past  bacteremia  triggered  by  either  surgical  procedures,  dental  operations  and  other  medical  procedures  could  give  in  time  a  more  dangerous  endocarditis,  mainly  because  those  forms  of  bacteria  in  time  could  deposit  in  endocardium  and  vegetate.      ECG  findings?  Are  depending  on  which  area  of  the  endocardium  or  valves  is  affected,  there  is  not  a  general  rule.    Arrhythmias  and  conduction  troubles  are  generated  by  abnormalities  in  generation  and/or  conduction  of  electrical  impulses  in  the  normal  network  of  the  heart.  At  this  point  is  important  underline  how  changes  can  affect  both  Rate  and  Rhythm.  Briefly  now  and  case  by  case  later:    

• Atrial  Fibrillation  =  upper  heart  chambers  contract  irregularly  

• Bradycardia  =  slow  heart  rate  

• Conduction  Disorders  =  heart  does  not  beat  normally  

• Premature  contraction  =  early  heart  beat  • Tachycardia  =  very  fast  heart  rate  • Ventricular  Fibrillation  =  disorganized  contraction  of  the  lower  chambers  of  the  heart  

 How  conduction  can  be  altered?    

• Sympathetic  stimulation  increases  it  • Vagal  stimulation  decreases  it  • Ischemia  and  hypoxia  decrease  it  • Drugs  (adrenergic  =  increase,  Cholinergic  =  decrease)  

 The  Atrial  Flutter  is  a  condition  of  normal  ventricular  rhythm  but  in  coexistence  with  rapid  atrial  contractions  (200-­‐350bpm).  It  could  be  triggered  by  right-­‐sided  heart  dilation,  mitral  valve  disease,  ischemic  heart  disease,  pulmonary  embolism,  thoracic  surgery,  hypoxia,  and  electrolyte  disturbances.  Give  as  consequences  thromboembolism  and  cardiac  failure.  

 The  Atrial  Fibrillation  is  different  from  the  abovementioned;  in  this  condition  the  atria  depolarize  rapidly  and  irregularly,  usually  resulting  in  an  atrial  rate  more  than  350/min.  Various  stages  from  the  less  to  the  most  dangerous:  paroxysmal,  permanent,  persistent  (irreversible).    Ventricular  arrhythmia  is  a  condition  of  multiple  and  disorganized  ectopic  beats,  in  this  ECG  you  can  see  various  QRS  complexes  spreading  between  two  ordinary  one,  from  one  single  ectopic  each  1  normal  beat  until  one  ectopic  each  4,  or  even  two  or  three  ectopic  in  sequence.  P  waves  are  usually  hidden  by  those  extra  QRSs.    

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   In  this  picture  you  can  appreciate  probably  the  most  severe  form  of  arrhythmia:  the  ventricular  fibrillation,  cause  of  no  mechanical  response  and  of  cardiac  arrest.      The  “Torsade  de  Pointes”  is  a  curious  condition  in  which  the  ventricular  arrhythmia  triggers  a  twisting  of  the  axis  around  the  isoelectric  line,  with  wide  QRS  complexes  with  strange  morphology.  Is  given  by  hypokalemia  or  hypomagnesaemia,  sum  antidepressant  drugs.  

 The  Sino-­‐atrial  block  is  a  lack  of  signal  from  SA  node  to  the  atrium  that  cannot  depolarize.  Have  several  levels:  

• Type  I:  P-­‐P  interval  shortens  until  one  P  wave  is  dropped  • Type  II:  a  pause  in  the  sinus  rhythm  is  equal  to  a  multiple  of  the  PR  interval  (e.g.  1:2,  1:3)  

 The  Atrio-­‐ventricular  block  is  a  consequence  of  ischemia,  degeneration  of  His-­‐Purkinje  system,  infections,  immunological  compliances,  surgery  or  congenital  disorders  and  has  different  degrees:  

• AV  1:  prolonged  PR  (more  than  O.2)  • AV  2:  are  named  Mobitz  1  and  2,  in  the  

first  there  is  a  progressive  PR  enlargement  until  drops  a  QRS,  in  the  second  the  PR  distance  is  constant  but  the  QRS  drops  in  an  unexpected  way,  and  usually  in  mathematical  ratios    (e.g.  2:1,  3:1)  

• AV  3  (complete):  no  relation  between  atria  and  ventricles  usually  accompanied  by  junctional  rhythm.    

 Bundle  Branch  blocks:  When  a  bundle  branch  or  fascicle  becomes  injured  (due  to  underlying  heart  disease,  myocardial  infarction,  or  cardiac  surgery),  it  may  cease  to  conduct  electrical  impulses  appropriately.  This  results  in  altered  pathways  for  ventricular  depolarization.  In  this  picture  you  can  understand  a  characteristic  of  the  ECG  findings  in  these  pathologies.  The  QRS  complex  is  wide  and  two  complexes  may  be  visible  in  one  phase  only.  There  are  some  typical  changes  that  help  you  to  discriminate  a  RBBB  from  a  LBBB:    In  Right  Block:  M  shape  QRS  in  V1/V2,  W  shape  QRS  in  V5/V6/I,  (MARROW)  In  Left  Block:  W  shape  QRS  in  V1/V2,  M  shape  QRS  in  V5/V6  (WILLIAM)    Hemiblocks:  The  left  bundle  branch  splits  into  2  fascicles:  the  anterior  and  posterior  fascicles.  When  conduction  through  one  of  the  fascicles  is  blocked  it  is  called  an  anterior  or  posterior  hemiblock,  respectively.  Left  anterior  hemiblock  is  more  common  and  causes  left  axis  deviation  on  the  ECG.  Left  posterior  hemiblock  causes  right  axis  deviation  on  the  ECG.          

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Bifascicular  Block:  This  is  a  combination  of  right  bundle  branch  block  and  either  left  anterior  or  left  posterior  hemiblock.  The  ECG  will  show  RBBB  with  either  left  (anterior  hemiblock)  or  right  (posterior  hemiblock)  axis  deviation.      Trifascicular  Block:  This  is  when  bifascicular  block  is  associated  with  1st  degree  heart  block.      Aortic  Dissection  is  a  pathological  condition  in  which  a  false  lumen  is  created  into  a  tear  of  the  intimal  layer  of  the  aorta,  this  decrease  the  pressure  to  the  upper  vessels.  Just  for  completeness  I’m  adding  a  picture  showing  the  DeBakey’s  and  Stanford  classification  here  on  right  side  of  the  page.  Is  linked  by  acute  pain,  usually  decreased  blood  pressure  with  differences  arm  to  arm  and  dyspnea.      About  venous  disease  there  is  not  so  much  to  talk  and  eviscerate  so  try  just  to  keep  in  mid  the  pathogenesis  of  thromboembolism,  that  is  contained  in  the  Virchow’s  triad  as  follows:    

     

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The  Cardiac  Failure  first  of  all  is  a  syndrome,  and  not  a  disease;  so  we  should  focus  on  discover  the  underlying  cause.  Arise  from  any  condition  that  compromises  the  contractility  of  the  heart,  so  the  systolic  or  diastolic  phases  and  the  cardiac  output  too.  This  scheme  is  really  a  good  way  to  synthesize  the  entire  process:  

 There  are  many  ways  to  classify  heart  failure  depending  on  the  parameters  involved,  but  the  2  most  common  ones  used  are  left/right  heart  failure  and  systolic/diastolic  heart  failure:  

• Left  heart  failure  –  common  causes  are  ischemic  heart  disease,  valvular  heart  disease,  and  hypertension.  Affects  the  blood  flow  systemically  to  the  brain  and  the  rest  of  the  body.  

• Right  ventricular  heart  failure  –  common  causes  are  chronic  left  heart  failure  resulting  in  back  pressure  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  pulmonary  hypertension,  chronic  lung  disease,  and  infarction  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart  and  adult  congenital  heart  disease.  Affects  blood  flow  to  the  lungs.      

• Systolic  heart  failure  –  Insufficient  contraction  of  the  heart  i.e.  reduced  ejection  fraction.  • Diastolic  heart  failure  –  Insufficient  relaxation  of  the  heart  muscles  during  diastole  and  

hence  decreased  cardiac  output.    Patient  has  signs  and  symptoms  of  heart  failure  but  ejection  fraction  is  normal  i.e.  >45-­‐50%.  Common  in  elderly  hypertensive  patients.    

It  is  important  to  remember  that  commonly  patients  have  overlapping  symptoms,  as  chronic  left  heart  failure  for  instance,  will  eventually  lead  to  right  heart  failure.  And  there  are  several  symptoms  that  could  help  us  in  diagnose  the  genesis  of  the  failure:    Left  heart  failure:  Tachypnea,  orthopnea  (shortness  of  breath  on  lying  flat),  paroxysmal  nocturnal  dyspnea  i.e.  PND  (attacks  of  severe  sudden  shortness  of  breath  that  usually  wakes  the  patient  up  at  night),  bi-­‐basal  crepitation,  laterally  displaced  apex  beat,  gallop  rhythm,  murmurs,  cyanosis.        Right  heart  failure:  Peripheral  pitting  edema,  hepatomegaly,  increased  JVP,  parasternal  heave,  ascites.            

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There  are  also  characteristic  features  on  a  chest  xray  (ABCDE)  that  is  often  asked  about  in  finals:  • Alveolar  oedema  (in  a  ‘bat’s  wing’s  distribution)  • Kerley  B  lines  (short  white  lines  that  run  perpendicular  to  the  pleura  and  is  a  sign  of  

interstitial  oedema)  • Cardiomegaly  • Upper  lobe  Diversion  (prominent  upper  lobe  vessels)  

Effusion  (pleural)    

   I  will  not  insist  more  about  ECG  and  interpretation,  if  you  need  to  rehearse  it  just  pick  up  the  physiopathology  review  I  made,  it’s  all  in  there  step  by  step.    And  I’m  happy  to  tell  you  that  this  is  all  we  have  to  know  about  Cardiac  System  for  this  semester!  Now  we  should  start  the  respiratory  system,  which  is  much  more  easier  in  my  opinion,  why?  Maybe  because  I’ve  faced  it  many  times  and  because  for  any  given  pathology  I  do  not  have  to  think  about  ECG,  hence  I’m  always  happy  to  see  a  nice  X-­‐ray  (my  field  of  future  studies).  Let’s  Start!    In  the  next  page  of  course  ^_^    By  the  way  I  forgot  to  mention  what  semiology  is,  some  key  words  and  also  basic  principles  of  a  good  physical  examination  and  how  to  elaborate  a  good  clinic  eye…  well  I’ll  try  to  write  something  at  the  and  of  the  work  just  as  a  reminder  for  you  my  dears.        

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How  to  approach  a  respiratory  patient?    Doesn’t  mean  of  course  how  to  approach  any  person  able  to  breath,  just  a  patient  that  could  have  respiratory  problems.    Main  symptoms  we  would  face  in  this  chapter  are  dyspnea,  cough,  chest  pain  and  wheeze  (whistling  sound  in  chest).      The  Dyspnea  is  the  difficulty  in  breathing  acts,  it  is  important  to  understand  its  onset,  duration,  aggravation  or  relieving  factors  and  associated  symptoms.  It  could  have  respiratory  causes  which  in  generally  means  situations  in  the  airways  or  pulmonary  causes  such  as  parenchyma,  circulation  and  pleural  (every  aspect  of  the  lung).  Keep  in  mind  that  this  symptom  could  be  triggered  by  several  non-­‐respiratory  causes  such  as  chest  wall  injuries,  neuromuscular,  cardiac  or  psychiatric.      Cough  is  either  an  involuntary  reflex  or  a  voluntary  act.    Initiated  by  stimulation  of  sensory  receptors  from  the  pharynx  to  the  alveoli;  a  rapid  increase  in  intra-­‐thoracic  pressure  caused  by  contraction  of  respiratory  muscles  against  a  closed  glottis,  the  glottis  opens  with  an  explosive  release  of  air  into  the  upper  airway.  The  function  of  cough  is  to  remove  secretions  or  particles  from  the  respiratory  airways.  Causes  of  the  cough:  

• Larynx,  trachea,  large  airways:  Infection,  tumours,  aspiration,  gastro-­‐esophageal  reflux,  foreign  body,  irritant  dusts  

• Small  airways:  Asthma,  COPD,  bronchiectasis,  bronchiolitis,  irritant  dusts  • Alveoli:  drugs  (angiotensin-­‐converting  enzyme  inhibitors),  infection,  left  ventricular  

failure,  irritant  dusts  A  cough  can  be  non-­‐productive  (dry)  or  productive  (when  sputum  is  coughed  up).      Hemoptysis  is  the  expectoration  (coughing  up)  of  blood  or  of  bloodstained  sputum  from  the  bronchi,  larynx,  trachea,  or  lungs  (e.g.,  in  tuberculosis  or  other  respiratory  infections  or  cardiovascular  pathologies).  Main  causes  are:    

• Tumour:  Lung  cancer,  bronchial  metastasis  • Infection:  Bronchiectasis,  Tuberculosis,  Lung  abscess,  Cystic  fibrosis  • Vascular:  Pulmonary  infarction,  Arteriovenous  malformation,  Vasculitis  (Wegener's  

granulomatosis,  Goodpasture's  syndrome)  • Trauma:  Inhaled  foreign  body,  Chest  trauma    • Iatrogenic:  bronchoscopic  biopsy,  transthoracic  lung  biopsy  • Cardiac:  Mitral  valve  disease,  Acute  left  ventricular  failure  • Hematological:  Blood  dyscrasias,  Anticoagulation  

 Chest  pain  is  originated  by  pleura  or  chest  wall  in  a  respiratory  patient,  but  it  does  not  originate  from  lungs  themselves.  Causes:    1.  Non-­‐central  

• Pleural:  Infection,  malignancy,  pneumothorax,  pulmonary  infarction,  connective  tissue  diseases  (rheumatoid  arthritis,  systemic  lupus  erythematosus)    

• Chest  wall:  malignancy,  persistent  cough,  muscle  sprains/tears-­‐  Coxsackie  B  infection,  Tietze's  syndrome  (costochondritis),  rib  fracture,  intercostal  nerves  compression,  herpes  zoster  (intercostal  nerves)    

2.  Central  • Tracheal:  Infection,  irritant  dusts  • Cardiac:  Massive  pulmonary  thromboembolism,  Acute  myocardial  infarction/ischemia  • Esophageal:  esophagitis    • Great  vessels:  Aortic  dissection  • Mediastinal:  Lung    cancer,    Thymoma,  Lymphadenopathy,  Mediastinitis  

   

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At  a  thorax  objective  exam  these  should  be  your  points  of  interests:    

• Conformation:  AP  and  transversal  diameters  • The  normal  chest  is  bilaterally  symmetrical  and  elliptical  in  cross-­‐section  • scars  of  previous  heart  or  lung  surgery;  swellings,  marks  and  spots  on  the  skin.  • 'barrel  shaped‘  thorax:  Increased  anteroposterior  diameter  compared  with  the  lateral  

diameter  • Due  to  hyperinflation  –  pulmonary  emphysema,  severe  COPD    • the  degree  of  chest  deformity  does  not  correlate  with  the  severity  of  airways  

obstruction.    • Kyphosis  and  scoliosis=  an  exaggerated  anterior  curvature  of  the  spine  and  scoliosis  is  

lateral  curvature.    • Pectus  carinatum  (pigeon  chest)  =  a  localized  prominence  of  the  sternum  and  adjacent  

costal  cartilages  often  accompanied  by  indrawing  of  the  ribs  to  form  symmetrical  horizontal  grooves  ('Harrison's  sulci')  above  the  costal  margin    

• Pectus  excavatum  (funnel  chest)  =  localized  depression  of  the  lower  end  of  the  sternum  or  depression  of  the  whole  length  of  the  sternum.  

 Respiratory  rate  is  the  number  of  respirations  per  minute.    

• Tachypnea  is  a  respiratory  rate  >  18/min  (15)    • Causes:  fever,  pneumonia,  pulmonary  edema,  interstitial  lung  disease.    

– A  respiratory  rate  >  30/min  is  the  most  important  prognostic  sign  associated  with  death  in  community-­‐acquired  pneumonia  !!!  

• bradypnea:  crisis  of  asthma,  opioids,  raised  intracranial  pressure,  hypothalamic  lesions,  and  hypercapnia.    

   The  most  important  breathing  patterns:  

• Cheyne-­‐Stokes  breathing,  or  periodic  respiration=  a  period  of  increasing  rate  and  depth  of  breathing  followed  by  diminishing  respiratory  effort  and  rate,  usually  ending  in  a  period  of  apnea  or  hypopnea  and  the  cycle  then  repeats.    

• Hyperventilation  is  a  common  response  to  acute  anxiety  or  emotional  distress  and  is  often  associated  with  respiratory  alkalosis.    

– tetany  and  occasionally  grand  mal  seizure  can  occur.  • Küssmaul  respiration=  Hyperventilation  with  deep,  sighing  respirations  as  a  response  to  

the  reduced  arterial  pH-­‐  metabolic  acidosis  • Biot  resp.(ataxic  respiration)=  irregular  type  of  breathing  

– sign  of  neurologic  damage  – irregular  and  unpredictable  rate,  rhythm,  and  depth  – Usually  slow  rate  

• Stertorous  respiration  =  a  harsh,  rattling,  snoring  sound,  as  a  result  from  the  vibration  of  relaxed  oropharyngeal  structures  during  sleep  or  coma,  causing  partial  airway  obstruction  

 In  Palpation  there  are  three  things  to  remember  in  a  respiratory  examination.          

• Position  of  the  Trachea  -­‐  this  is  uncomfortable  and  should  be  done  gently  • Chest  expansion  -­‐  should  be  done  in  at  least  3  places,  both  front  and  back.      • Apex  Beat  

   Additionally,  some  perform  tactile  vocal  fremitus  (TVF)  in  palpation  by  applying  the  ulnar  border  of  the  right  hand  to  points  on  the  chest  wall  and  asking  the  patient  to  say  '99'  to  create  palpable  resonance.  This  can  be  used  to  effectively  pick  up  pleural  effusions  (reduced  TVF),  or  sometimes  consolidation  (increased  TVF).  (spunez  treizece  si  trei,  va  rog!)    In  Percussion  the  chest  should  be  percussed  front  and  back,  making  sure  to  cover  all  lobes  and  paying  particular  attention  to  the  bases.        

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You  should  use  your  dominant  hand's  middle  finger  to  percuss,  and  should  use  it  to  tap  your  middle  finger  from  the  opposite  hand  2-­‐3  times  -­‐  this  amplifies  the  sound.    When  percussing  the  apical  segments  of  the  lungs,  use  this  technique  in  the  supraclavicular  fossae,  but  percuss  the  clavicle  directly  (i.e.  you  don't  need  your  second  hand).    The  technique  takes  some  practice  -­‐  especially  to  get  the  percussing  motion  to  come  from  the  wrist  -­‐  but  we  all  have  chests  to  practice  on  (!)  and  when  that's  not  appropriate  you  can  tap  tables,  books,  etc.    This  is  a  normal  routine  of  percussion:  

• Start  at  the  apices  -­‐  percuss  one  side,  then  the  contralateral  side  at  the  same  level  -­‐  this  provides  comparison  in  order  to  increase  the  likelihood  of  detecting  pathology.      

• Move  down  through  the  anterior  chest,  percussing  the  intercostal  spaces  of  each  side  alternately.      

• Percuss  in  the  axillae  • Ask  the  patient  to  lean  forward  and  repeat  on  the  back,  ensuring  you  percuss  right  down  

into  the  bases.        Sites  for  Auscultation  are  the  same  as  those  for  percussion.    The  bell  should  be  used  in  the  supraclavicular  fossae  and  the  diaphragm  elsewhere.          On  auscultation  you  are  looking  for:  

• Breath  sounds  -­‐  vesicular  (normal)  or  bronchial  (pathological)  

• Reduced  air  entry  • Added  sounds  

 Added  sounds  include:  

• Wheeze  • Crepitation  • Pleural  rub  

 And  now  some  syndromes  affecting  the  respiratory  tract,  starting  from  Pneumonia,  a  nice  synthetic  picture:    

 

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Pleural  effusion  is  not  a  distinct  disease  but  it  is  an  important  and  common  presentation  of  various  conditions.  Most  frequently  it  is  due  to  cardiac  failure,  pneumonia,  or  malignancy.  It  occurs  when  there  is  an  increase  in  the  volume  of  fluid  in  the  pleural  space  (the  space  between  the  visceral  pleura  and  parietal  pleura  which  line  the  lungs  and  pulmonary  cavity  respectively).  The  normal  volume  of  fluid  in  this  space  is  between  10-­‐20ml.  

 Symptoms  

• Could  be  asymptomatic  unless  the  volume  of  fluid  is  >300ml  • Shortness  of  breath  (may  only  be  on  exertion)  • Cough  (typically  dry)  • Pleuritic  chest  pain  

Signs  • On  observation  the  patient  may  have  a  raised  respiratory  rate  and  show  signs  of  

respiratory  distress  (e.g.  use  of  accessory  muscles,  abdominal  breathing,  tracheal  tug)  • On  palpation  there  will  be  reduced  chest  expansion  on  the  affected  side.  If  the  effusion  

is  large  there  may  be  tracheal  deviation  away  from  the  affected  side  • On  pecussion  there  will  be  stony  dullness  over  the  effusion  • On  auscultation  there  will  be  absent  or  reduced  breath  sounds  over  the  effusion  with  

bronchial  breathing  directly  above  it.    Main  Causes:      Transudates  

• Cardiac  failure  • Hepatic  failure  with  cirrhosis  

Pulmonary  embolism  (10-­‐20%  are  transudates)    Exudates  

• Pneumonia  (parapneumonic  effusion  or  emphysema)  • Malignancy  (about  50%  due  to  lung  or  breast)  • PE  (80-­‐90%  are  exudates)  • Rheumatoid  arthritis  

       Pneumothorax  means  the  presence  of  air  or  gases  in  the  pleural  cavity,  it  could  bear  spontaneously  or  triggered  by  traumas,  lung  diseases,  Marfan  syndrome.

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COPD  (chronic  obstructive  pulmonary  diseases)  is  a  group  of  diseases  that  include  Chronic  Bronchitis  and  Emphysema.  Using  the  term  COPD  can  be  confusing  and  so  it  is  important  to  know  which  pathology  is  occuring,  although  most  patients  have  a  combination  of  both  diseases  and  smoking  is  the  main  cause.    Chronic  Bronchitis  tends  to  be  diagnosed  clinically  and  is  when  the  patient  has  chronic  cough  and  sputum  production  for  3  months  of  a  year  for  2  consecutive  years.  Mucus  glands  and  goblet  cells  increase  in  number  and  contribute  to  the  reduced  airway  size  by  blocking  the  lumen  with  secretions.

Emphysema  is  destruction  of  the  alveolar  walls  creating  large  air  sacs,  decreasing  the  surface  area  for  gaseous  exchange.  Large  airspaces  in  the  lung  may  also  allow  for  gas  trapping;  the  airways  close  prematurely  and  cause  hyperinflation.  It  is  believed  that  chronic  inflammation  is  the  method  behind  the  alveolar  wall  destruction.          Last  but  not  least  as  promised  here  we  are  with  main  concepts  in  medical  semiotic,  it’s  rather  an  introduction  than  the  end  of  a  work  but  not  all  donuts  comes  out  with  a  hole  so…    Semiology  deals  with  symptoms  and  signs  of  diseases,  gives  the  opportunity  to  a  doctor  to  see  and  correlate  a  sign  with  a  specific  physiological  or  pathological  condition.  Symptom:  is  the  subjective  feeling  of  disease  Sign:  the  objective  parameter  of  change  in  the  body    In  the  steps  for  the  final  diagnosis  we  have  to  consider  with  the  maxim  importance  the  history  of  the  patient,  his  family’s  medical  relevant  records,  the  physical  examination  where  the  semiology  takes  a  key  role  and  after  further  analysis  and/or  exams  finally  get  the  final  diagnosis.    What  is  a  syndrome?  Is  the  sum  of  all  clinical  manifestation  common  for  different  diseases,  for  example:  Pain  is  a  symptom,  dyspnea  too;  both  of  them  could  be  signs  for  tuberculosis  or  pleural  syndrome,  which  are  different!    The  principles  of  acting  a  proper  examination  by  a  doctor  (or  a  medical  student  in  our  case)  are:  Medical  communication,  Polite,  empathy,  active  listening,  Do  not  judge!  And  also  a  non-­‐verbal  communication.      Steps  for  accepting  a  patient  in  a  health  department:  

• General  data  • Reason  of  admittance  • Personal  history    • Family  history  • Social  habits  • Current  illness  (if  known)  and  story  of  the  disease  

These  are  part  of  a  process  of  great  importance  at  the  base  of  medicine  named  Anamnesis    

That’s  it  for  this  semester,  this  is  my  last  review  guys,  see  you  after  this  short  vacation  time  and  “may  the  force  be  with  you”,  your  beloved  colleague,  Alessandro  Motta