Abstract

This paper gives an account of 57 medicinal plants whichwere identified after interviewing Rwandese traditionalhealers in refugee camps in Ngara District, Kagera region,Tanzania. The plants were used by the healers to performtheir traditional medical practice in the camps.

Keywords: Kinyarwanda, Kirundi, Ngara, medicinal plants,refugee camps, Rwandese traditional healers.

Introduction

During the period from late 1994 to the end of 1996, severalthousand refugees from Rwanda and Burundi sought“refuge” in Tanzania due to civil unrest in their countries.They crossed over to Tanzania in districts near the bordersbetween Tanzania and Rwanda. Ngara, a district in theKagera region in the northwestern part of Tanzania, housedsome of the 500,000 refugees who were settled in five camps.Ngara is situated at an altitude of 1800 m above sea level. Theclimate is generally cool, becoming chilly and foggy whenthere is rain and wind. The dry season, when there is no rain,extends from June to October. There is usually very heavyrain and lightning during the rainy season. The hills supporta forest of trees and shrubs including Albizia sp. Durazz,Protea sp. R. Br. and Brachystegia sp. Benth. However, by1995, many thick forests were completely destroyed due torefugee influx.

As is very common in Africa, the use of herbs and animalparts, and consultation with traditional healers on all typesof medical and even social problems is attempted beforegoing to a hospital to deal with modern medical practice.This practice was also observed in the refugee camps.

Various non-governmental organisations (NGOs) whichworked in these camps to assist the refugees in differentaspects, and those concerned with health services, knewabout the “good” and “bad” effects of these practices. It wastherefore decided to carry out a survey involving traditionalhealers in refugee camps to find out, among other things, theextent of their knowledge about herbs and other naturalingredients in their practice and identify the medicinal plantsused in their practice. This paper lists 57 plants which wereused by the Rwandese traditional healers to treat various dis-eases in the refugee camps.

Materials and Methods

Information was gathered by interviewing the healers indi-vidually and filling out a questionnaire. The healers wererequested to give a sample of the herbs they used in theirpractice. The interview was conducted in English which was translated to Kinyarwanda (the language of Rwanda) and Kirundi (the language of Burundi) as appropriate. Thehealers’ answers were similarly translated and recorded inEnglish. The collected plants were identified by one of us(DCR). The voucher specimens are deposited in the her-barium of the Department of Pharmacognosy, MuhimbiliUniversity College of Health Sciences. A literature surveywas done for these plants and information was available forsome of them. In the present paper, information on plants isgiven in the following manner: The plant’s family, botanicalname of plant, its vernacular name (Kinyarwanda), part usedand how it is prepared. Following this, the information avail-able from the literature survey is recorded. Where a differ-ent related species is used elsewhere, rather than the speciesrecorded, this information is so mentioned. The plants are

Accepted July 24, 2000

*Address for Correspondence: Dr. Dorothy C. Ramathal, Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, MUCHS, P.O. Box 65013,Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania

Medicinal Plants Used by Rwandese Traditional Healers in

Refugee Camps in Tanzania

Dorothy C. Ramathal1,2* and Olipa D. Ngassapa2

1P.O. Box 159, Ngara, Tanzania; 2Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Muhimbili University College ofHealth Sciences, P.O. Box 65013, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania

Pharmaceutical Biology 1388-0209/01/3902-132$16.002001, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 132–137 © Swets & Zeitlinger

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Plants used by Rwandese Refugees 133

arranged alphabetically within their families, which are alsoarranged alphabetically.

Plants and their uses

Acanthaceae

1. Hygrophila spiciformis Lindau – Gangabukari. A decoc-tion of crushed fresh leaves is used to treat gonorrhoea. Aleaf decoction is used for the treatment of hepatic diseases(Kokwaro, 1993), while the leaf ash of H. asteracantha Neesis used as a diuretic, as it contains potassium salts (Watt &Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

2. Thurnbergia alata Boj. ex Sims – Gisanyurwa. A decoction of fresh or dried leaves is used for its oxytocicaction. Leaves are used in Tanzania in combination with those of Cucurbita pepo L. for menorrhalgia (Chhabraet al., 1987). The leaves and fruits of Thurnbergia Retz.species are used for oxytocic action, and the leaf juice is usedfor the relief of pain after childbirth (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Amaranthaceae

3. Cyathula cylindrica Moq. – Igifashi. Fresh leaves areused after crushing, boiling in water and straining for gonorrhoea. A root bark decoction is used as an emetic andpurgative, and for the treatment of malaria and leprosy(Kokwaro, 1993). The stem, fruit and seeds of C. spathuli-folia Lopr. are used in the form of ointment for leprosy cure(Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Anacardiaceae

4. Rhus vulgaris Meikle – Umuragara. Fresh leaves areburned and the ash is used for oxytocic action, and exter-nally, the ash is applied for the treatment of scabies. The plantis used to stop diarrhoea, for wounds, gonorrhoea, infertilityand to ease delivery (Kokwaro, 1993).

Bignoniaceae

5. Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum. – Umusave. Freshor dried herb decoction is used for kidney disease.

Capparidaceae

6. Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) Briq. – Isogi. A decoctionof fresh leaves is used for chest infections. The dried leaf androot are used to ease childbirth (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk,1962).

Compositae

7. Blumea brevipes (Oliver & Hiern) Willd. – Igitabitabi.Fresh leaves are crushed and used to treat skin diseases and

burns. Blumea lacera DC. is said to be a valuable remedy forringworm of eyelids (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

8. Conyza aegyptiaca (L.) Ait. – Wambuba. Fresh herb iscrushed and boiled in water, and the resulting decoction isused for treating intestinal worm infestations. Other ConyzaLess. species are used by the Zulus as cough remedy and forfever (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). A methylene chlo-ride leaf extract of C. pyrrhopappa A. Rich. was shown tohave a weak in vitro antimalarial activity (Weenen et al.,1990).

9. Crassocephalum multicorymbosum (Klatt) S. Moore –Umutagara. Fresh leaves are crushed in water and used foroxytocic action.

10. Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore – Umusununu. Fresh leaves are ground, placed in cold waterand the resulting liquid is used for constipation and abortion.The leaves are used by the Haya of Tanzania to treat gonor-rhoea (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Leaves and rootsare used for the treatment of sores in infants, with those ofConyza pyrrhopappa A. Rich. ssp. oblongifolia (O. Hoffm.)Willd. and Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach. (Hedberg et al.,1983a). Its roots, with those of Trimeria grandifolia(Hochst.) Warb. are used for the treatment of sores in themouth (Hedberg et al., 1983a).

11. Dicoma anomala Sond. – Umwanzuranya. Fresh herb iscrushed and its decoction is used to treat intestinal worminfestations and chest infections. Roots are used for a similarpurpose and for various stomach complaints (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Kokwaro, 1993).

12. Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. – Igishikashike. Freshleaves are boiled in water and used to treat liver disease,intestinal worms and diarrhoea. The ash of burnt leaves isused for abortion (Kokwaro, 1993).

13. Helichrysum odoratissimum Less. – Isinunu. Fresh leaves are ground, placed in hot water and the infusion is taken for the treatment of postpartum bleeding. The leaf is used as a wound dressing and the rootfor coughs and colds (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962;Kokwaro, 1993).

14. Senecio mannii Hook. f. – Umutagara. Fresh leaves afterboiling in water are used for poisoning. Many Senecio L.species are toxic (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

15. Vernonia amygdalina Del. – Umubilizi. Fresh leaves areground, cooked in water with salt and the resulting liquid isused to treat malaria and diarrhoea. However, the leaves didnot exhibit any in vitro antimalarial activity up to 499 mg/ml(Weenen et al., 1990). Its leaves are eaten by sick wild chim-panzees (Ohigashi et al., 1991) and a number of steroid gyco-sides (vernoniosides) have been isolated (Ohigashi et al.,1991; Jisaka et al., 1992). Vernonia hildebrandtii Vatke isalso reported to be a remedy for diarrhoea (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

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16. Vernonia fontinalis Willd. – Umubimbafuro. Freshleaves are boiled in water and used to treat constipation.

17. Vernonia miombicola Willd. – Idoma. A decoction offresh leaves is used for chest infections. Vernonia Schreb.species are used for the treatment of pneumonia (Kokwaro,1993).

Cucurbitaceae

18. Lagenaria sphaerica (Sond.) Naud. – Umutanga. Adecoction of fresh leaves is used to treat gonorrhoea andscabies.

19. Mormodica foetida Schum. & Sond. – Umwinuiwa/Umwishwa. Fresh leaf juice is used to treat constipation. InEast Africa the roots are used for the same purpose(Kokwaro, 1993). Leaves are used as an abortifacient and toexpel roundworms and, in Paraguay, the plant is used as apurgative (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

20. Zehneria minutiflora (Cogn.) C. Jeffrey – Umushishiro.A decoction of fresh or dried leaves is used to treat gonorrhoea.

Euphorbiaceae

21. Acalypha villicaulis A. Rich. – Umugonampiri. Fresh ordried herb is crushed, boiled and the decoction is used to treatliver diseases. A root decoction is used for painful mictura-tion in children (Kokwaro, 1993).

22. Clutia abyssinica Spach. – Umutarishonga. Dried roots are peeled and ground and used to treat chancre. Roots are used to treat influenza and for habitual abortion (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The dried root,together with other plants, is used for the treatment of dizzi-ness. It is also used as an ascarifuge, for habitual miscarriage,convulsions, enlarged spleen and influenza (Hedberg et al.,1983a).

23. Euphorbia tirucali L. – Umuyenzi. Fresh leaf juice isextracted after grinding in a little water and used to treat cough. Latex of the plant is antiseptic in action, whilethe root is used as an emetic, and as a remedy for snakebite(Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). A juice from roasted young branches is used for sore throat and stomach complaints (Kokwaro, 1993). A related species, E.schimperiana Scheele, is used for coughs and colds(Kokwaro, 1993).

Gramineae

24. Pennisetum purpureum Schum. – Urubingo. Herb isdried, ground into a powder with several other herbs andapplied for snake-bite and burns. The leaf is diuretic (Watt& Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Guttiferae

25. Harungana madagascariensis Poir. – Umushayishayi.Fresh roots are peeled and ground to treat gonorrhoea. Theleaf is used for haemorrhages, diarrhoea, gonorhoea, sorethroat, fevers and worm infestations (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The leaf juice is used for the treatment ofamenorrhoea (Haerdi, 1964).

Labiatae

26. Coleus kilimandschari Gurke – Igicunshu. A decoctionof fresh leaves is used to treat foaming of the mouth. The leafis also used for stomach pains, heartburn and as an abortifa-cient (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The leaf infusion isused by expectant mothers to lighten labour (Watt, 1967).

27. Leonotis nepetifolia R. Br. – Igicumucumu. Fresh herbis boiled in water, strained and the decoction is used as anantiemetic. The Haya use the plant as a remedy for tape-worms. Other uses of the plant include treatment of rheuma-tism, dysmenorrhoea, syphilitic ulcers, skin diseases, as anantiasthmatic, as a urinary remedy and for treating typhoidfever (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

28. Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R. Br. – Akanyamafundo.Fresh leaves are crushed with some water and the resultingliquid is taken for the treatment of gonorrhea. The plant isused to stop vomiting (Kokwaro, 1993).

29. Ocimum urticifolium Roth. – Umwenya, Fresh herb iscrushed and boiled in water and the decoction is used to stopbleeding after abortion.

30. Plectranthus barbatus Andr. – Agacuncu/Igicunshu.Fresh leaves are ground, placed in water and the cold infusion is used to treat malaria. The leaves of the wholegenus are used as mosquito repellent and for coughs (Watt& Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Leaves are also used for stom-achache, constipation and for measles in children (Kokwaro,1993).

31. Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd – Umuravumba.Fresh leaf juice after grinding with water is used to treatcoughs.

Liliaceae

32. Asparagus sp. – Urushabishabi. A decoction of freshleaves is used to treat syphilis. Asparagos falcatus L. is usedas an antihelminthic and antisyphilitic elsewhere (Watt &Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Root infusion of A. africanus Lam.is a remedy for gonorrhea and other venereal diseases(Kokwaro, 1993).

Malvaceae

33. Hibiscus fuscus Garcke – Umutozo. A decoction of freshleaves is used as an antiemetic. Root is used as a sexual

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stimulant and cough remedy (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk,1962), and a root decoction is used as an antidote to poison-ing (Kokwaro, 1993).

Mimosaceae

34. Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. – Umunyinya.Fresh leaf juice (without boiling) is used to treat mastitis.

35. Albizia adianthifolia W.F. Wight. – Umusange/Umusanza. Fresh leaves are ground and cooked in water withsalt and used to treat diarrhoea. A. gummifera C.A. Sm. isused for diarrhoea (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

36. Entada abyssinica Steud. ex A. Rich. – Umunyinya. Adecoction of fresh stem bark is used for diarrhoea and poi-soning. The root is used for rheumatism, the leaf for feverand the bark for abdominal troubles (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The dried root is used for the treatment ofepilepsy (Mathias, 1982).

Moraceae

37. Ficus thonningii Blume – Umuvumu. A decoction offresh roots is used for poisoning. The root is used to stimu-late lactation (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Kokwaro,1993).

Myrsinaceae

38. Maesa lanceolata Forsk. – Umuhanga. Fresh leaves aremixed with fruit and egg and used for chest infections. Thedried bark is used for the treatment of insanity and epilepsy,sometimes with other plants. The dried root is a remedy forvarious worm infestations (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962;Mathias, 1982). Fruits are used as purgatives, anti-helminthicand for sore throat (Kokwaro, 1993).

Onagraceae

39. Ludwigia abyssinica A. Rich. – Umuzingangore. Freshleaves are ground and boiled in water and drunk to preventabortion. The leaf juice is used in cases of threatened abor-tion (Haerdi, 1964).

Papilionaceae

40. Crotalaria aculeata De Wild. – Umuhandazovu. Driedleaf ash is mixed with oil or butter and applied to skin forthe treatment of scabies. Various Crotalaria L. species areused for wounds (Kokwaro, 1993), but are also toxic to livestock (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

41. Crotalaria sp. – Akayogera. Fresh leaves and herb areground in water, filtered and the resulting liquid is taken forpain after delivery. Leaves of C. goorensis Guill. & Perr. aretaken by pregnant women to ease childbirth (Kokwaro,1993).

42. Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. – Umuko. Dried leafash is mixed with oil or butter and applied externally to treatscabies. The seed has curare-like action due to its alkaloids(Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk. 1962). The roasted and powderedbark is applied to burns and other body swelling (Kokwaro,1993).

43. Indigofera arrecta A. Rich. – Umusororo. Dried herb isground into powder and applied for snake bite. Root of theplant is used to treat colic, griping, and skin itching (Watt &Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

44. Indigofera asparagoides Taub. – Kizibana. A decoctionof crushed fresh herb is used to treat diarrhoea.

Phytolaccaceae

45. Phytolacca dodecandra L’Herit – Umuhoko. Freshleaves are ground and applied to a tumour. The plant is alsoused as a purgative, taenifuge and for venereal diseases, butroots have been reported to be very toxic (Kokwaro, 1993).

Polygonaceae

46. Oxygonum sinuatum Dammer – Uruhandazovu. Driedleaf ash is mixed with butter and applied on the foot for thetreatment of bacterial skin infections. Leaf juice is used as acough remedy in Tanzania. Roasted leaf is used for bronchialcatarrh (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The leaf is alsoused for conjunctivitis and the root for gonorrhoea(Kokwaro, 1993).

47. Rumex usambarensis Dammer – Umufumbegeshi. Freshleaves are crushed, boiled and applied to treat mastitis andabortion. Leaves are used to treat liver and stomach condi-tions. Rumex nervosus Vahl. is used for constipation, andabdominal pains during pregnancy (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Primulaceae

48. Lysimachia ruhmeriana Vatke – Umuyobora. Freshleaves are crushed and boiled in water and the liquid is usedfor expulsion of placenta.

Ranunculaceae

49. Clematis hirsuta Guill et Perr. – Umunkamba. Driedroots are peeled, ground and boiled in water to treat syphilis,gonorrhoea and genital ulcers. The root is used for sexualdisorders and fever, while both the leaf and root are used forheadache (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijik, 1962).

Rubiaceae

50. Coffea arabica L. – Ikawa. Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is drunk for expulsion of placenta. Coffee has

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been reported to contain phenylpropanoids (Okuda et al.,1986).

51. Mitragyna rubrostipulata Havil. – Umuziwaziwa/Umuzibaziba. Fresh or dried herb is boiled in water and theliquid is drunk to treat kidney diseases. The bark, leaf, woodand fruit of the plant contain alkaloids. The bark is used totreat dysentery, fever and round worm infection (Watt &Breyer-Brankwijk, 1962)

52. Rubia cordifolia L. – Umukarara. Fresh roots arecrushed, boiled and strained, and the liquid is used to treatgonorrhoea and syphilis. Fresh leaf juice, sometimes withErythrina sacleuxii Hua, is used for the treatment of leprosy(Nwude & Ebong, 1980). Leaf and roots are used forpleurisy, inflammatory conditions of chest and for oxytocicactivity (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Sapindaceae

53. Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. – Umunyiragisaka. Freshleaves are ground, put in water and the liquid is drunk forkidney diseases. The root is used to increase lactation, to treatirregular menses, indigestion and peptic ulcers (Hedberg etal., 1983b). Leaf is used to treat stomach disorders, skinrashes, fever, sore throat and haemorrhoids (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Solanaceae

54. Physalis peruviana L. – Agatutu. Fresh leaves areground, put in cold water and drunk to treat constipation.Leaf extract is used as an enema in abdominal upset; heatedleaf is used as an anti-inflammatory; leaf and root are usedas diuretic (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

55. Solanum incanum L. – Umukuku. Dried herb is ground and the powder is applied on a snake-bite wound.Young leaves and fruits are chewed and rubbed into recentsnake-bites, fresh cuts or wounds (Kokwaro, 1993). Root isused to treat pleurisy, pneumonia, chest troubles and ring-worm. Root is used for abdominal pains, liver troubles, gonorrhea and syphilis (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).The entire plant is used for ringworm, syphilis and gonor-rhea and exhibited antifungal and antiyeast activity (Sawhneyet al., 1978).

Urticaceae

56. Urtica dioica L. – Igisura. Fresh roots are ground,cooked in banana beer and drunk to treat gonorrhoea.

Verbenaceae

57. Clerodendrum myricoides R. Br. – Umukuzanyana.Dried leaves are boiled in water and drunk to treat liverdisease. Bark is used for snake bite. Root and bark are used

for East Coast fever in cattle, root is used for dysentery, diarrhea, impotence, sterility, spleen enlargement and cough(Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

Discussion

Tanzania and Rwanda are divided by borders, however, topo-graphically and climatically the border districts of the twocountries bear many similarities. The refugees themselvesadmitted to crossing over to Tanzania while in Rwanda tocollect medicinal plants they needed for their practice, andthen returning to their homes.

The refugee traditional healers provided informationabout plants used in all kinds of diseases, including insanity,epilepsy, burns, sprains, chest infections, poisoning, snakebites, diarrhea, constipation, malaria, mastitis, skin infec-tions (scabies, athlete’s foot, boils), worm infestations, liverand kidney infections and gynecological conditions such asabortions, expulsion of placenta after childbirth, pain afterdelivery and miscarriages.

From the account of plants given above, it can be seen thatsome plants used by the Rwandese traditional healers havesimilar uses as reported in the literature, while others havedifferent and varied uses. This is a common observation intraditional medicinal plants surveys. Further work couldinclude collecting large amounts of each plant and carryingout chemical and pharmacological investigations.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the CARE (Tanzania) AIDSProject for providing the funds and means to visit the campsand interview the healers and for making available all thefacilities needed to prepare the survey report. DCR served asa consultant with the above project for two weeks. CAREalso provided the plant specimens included in this survey tothe authors after completion of the survey report.

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